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Chapter 16
Introduction to Network Administration
Today’s network administrators must manage complex wide-area networks (WANs) to
support the growing number of software applications that are built around Internet
Protocol (IP) and the web. These WANs place a great demand on network resources and
require high-performance networking technologies. WANs are environments that
incorporate multiple media, multiple protocols, and interconnections to other networks,
such as the Internet. Growth and manageability of these network environments are
achieved by the often-complex interaction of protocols and features.
Despite improvements in equipment performance and media capabilities, WAN design is
becoming more difficult. Carefully designed WANs can reduce problems associated with a
growing networking environment. To design reliable, scalable WANs, network designers
must keep in mind that each WAN has specific design requirements. This chapter provides
an overview of the methodologies used to design WANs.
The first PCs were designed as standalone desktop systems. The operating system (OS)
software allowed one user at a time to access files and system resources. The user had
physical access to the PC. As PC-based computer networks gained popularity in the
workplace, software companies developed specialized network operating systems (NOSs).
Developers designed NOSs to provide file security, user privileges, and resource sharing
among multiple users. The explosive growth of the Internet compelled developers to build
the NOSs of today around Internet-related technologies and services, such as the World
Wide Web.
Within a decade, networking has become of central importance to desktop computing. The
distinction between modern desktop operating systems, now loaded with networking
features and services, and their NOS counterparts has blurred. Now, most popular
operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows 2000 and Linux, are found on high-
powered network servers and on end users’ desktops.
The function of an operating system on a workstation is to control the computer
hardware, program execution environment, and user interface. The OS performs these
functions for a single user or a number of users who share the machine serially rather than
concurrently. An administrator may set up accounts for more than one user, but multiple
users cannot log on to the system at the same time.
In contrast, network operating systems distribute their functions over a number of
networked computers. A NOS depends on the native OS in each computer. It then adds
functions that allow access to shared resources by a number of users concurrently.
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Concept Questions
Demonstrate your knowledge of these concepts by answering the following questions in
the space provided.
1. Describe the concepts of WAN communication and the two types of
switching technologies that are involved.

WANS are considered as a set of data links connecting routers on LANs. User end stations and
server machines on LANs exchange data. The routers, as necessary, pass data between the LANs
across the data links.
WAN communication occurs between geographically separated areas. When a local end station
wants to communicate with a remote end station (that is, an end station located at a different site)
information must be sent over one or more WAN links. Routers within WANs are connection points
of a network. These routers determine the most appropriate path through the network for the
required data streams.
Circuit-switching and packet-switching technologies are two types of WAN services, each of which
has advantages and disadvantages. For example, circuit-switched networks offer users dedicated
bandwidth that cannot be infringed upon by other users. In contrast, packet switching is a method
in which network devices share a single point-to-point link to transport packets from a source to a
destination across a carrier network. Packet-switched networks have traditionally offered more
flexibility and used network bandwidth more efficiently than circuit-switched networks. These
links, interconnecting LANs or connecting them to other networks, will normally provide data
transfer speeds (bandwidth) considerably slower than the 100Mbps that is common on a LAN.

2. What are the three general factors that the WAN design process must
to take into account?

• Environmental variables—Environmental variables include the location of hosts, servers,

terminals, and other end nodes; the projected traffic for the environment; and the projected
costs for delivering different service levels.
• Performance constraints—Performance constraints consist of network reliability, traffic
throughput, and host/client computer speeds (for example, network interface cards and hard
drive access speeds).
• Networking variables—Networking variables include the network topology, line capacities,
and packet traffic. Characterizing network traffic is critical to successful WAN planning,
but few planners perform this key step well, if at all.

3. Network designs tend to follow one of two general design strategies:

mesh or hierarchical. In a mesh structure, the network topology is flat; all
routers perform essentially the same functions, and there is usually no clear
definition of where specific functions are performed. Expansion of the
network tends to proceed in a haphazard, arbitrary manner. In a hierarchical
structure, the network is organized in layers, each of which has one or more
specific functions. What are some of the benefits of using a hierarchical
model?
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• Scalability — Networks that follow the hierarchical model can grow much larger without
sacrificing control or manageability because functionality is localized and potential
problems can be recognized more easily. An example of a very large-scale hierarchical
network design is the Public Switched Telephone Network.

• Ease of implementation — A hierarchical design assigns clear functionality to each layer,

thereby making network implementation easier.

• Ease of troubleshooting — Because the functions of the individual layers are well defined,
the isolation of problems in the network is less complicated. Temporarily segmenting the
network to reduce the scope of a problem also is easier.

• Predictability — The behavior of a network using functional layers is fairly predictable,

which makes capacity planning for growth considerably easier; this design approach also
facilitates modeling of network performance for analytical purposes.

• Protocol support — The mixing of current and future applications and protocols is much
easier on networks that follow the principles of hierarchical design because the underlying
infrastructure is already logically organized.

• Manageability — All the benefits listed here contribute to greater manageability of the
network.

4. Describe the client/server model relationship, and provide an example.

The client/server computing model distributes processing over multiple computers. Distributed
processing enables access to remote systems for the purpose of sharing information and network
resources. In a client/server environment, the client and server share or distribute processing
responsibilities. Most network operating systems are designed around the Client/Server model to
provide network services to users. A computer on a network can be referred to as a host, a
workstation, a client or a server. A computer running TCP/IP, whether it is a workstation or a
server, is considered a host computer.
A simple example of a client/server relationship is an FTP session. FTP, or the File Transfer
Protocol, is a basic industry standard method of transferring a file from one computer to another.
For the client to transfer a file, to or from the server, the server must be running the FTP daemon
or service. In this case, the client requests the file to be transferred. The server provides the
services necessary to receive or send the file.

5. Compare and contrast the functions and roles of a networking

operating system and a regular workstation operating system.

A computer Operating System (OS) is the software foundation on which computer applications and
services run on a workstation. Similarly, a Network Operating System (NOS) enables
communication between multiple devices and the sharing of resources across a network. A NOS is,
generally, an operating system that runs on a network server, such as a UNIX server, Microsoft
Windows NT Server or Win2000 Server.
The function of an Operating System on a workstation is to control the computer hardware,
program execution environment, and user interface. The OS performs these functions for a single
user or a number of users who share the machine serially rather than concurrently. An
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administrator may set up accounts for more than one user, but multiple users cannot log on to the
system at the same time.
In contrast, Network Operating Systems distribute their functions over a number of networked
computers. A NOS depends on the native OS in each individual computer. It then adds functions
that allow access to shared resources by a number of users concurrently.

6. List and describe some of the driving forces behind network management.

Controlling corporate assets - Without effective control of network resources, they will not
provide the payback that the management requires.

Controlling complexity - With massive growth in the number of network components,

users, interfaces, protocols and vendors, loss of control of the network and its resources
threatens management.

Improving service - Users expect the same or improved service as the network grows and
the resources become more distributed.

Balancing various needs - Users must be provided with various applications at a given
level of support, with specific requirements in the areas of performance, availability, and
security.

Reducing downtime - Ensure high availability of resources, by proper

7. List some of the things a management agent might keep track of.

• Number and state of its virtual circuits

• Number of certain kinds of error messages received

• Number of bytes and packets in and out of the device

• Maximum output queue length (for routers and other internetworking devices)

• Broadcast messages sent and received

• Network interfaces going down and coming up

Vocabulary Exercise
Define the following terms as completely as you can. Use the online curriculum or Chapter
16 of the Cisco Networking Academy Program CCNA 3 and 4 Companion Guide for help.

Access layer - The layer at which a LAN or a group of LANs, typically Ethernet or Token Ring,
provides users with frontline access to network services.
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Circuit - A communications path between two or more points.

Circuit switching - A switching system in which a dedicated physical circuit path must exist
between the sender and the receiver for the duration of the “call.” Used heavily in the telephone
company network. Circuit switching can be contrasted with contention and token passing as a
channel-access method, and with message switching and packet switching as a switching technique.

Core layer - The layer that provides fast wide-area connections between geographically remote
sites, tying a number of campus networks together in a corporate or enterprise WAN.

Dedicated link - A communications link that is indefinitely reserved for transmissions rather than
switched as transmission is required.

Distribution layer - The layer in which the distribution of network services occurs to multiple
LANs within a WAN environment. This layer is where the WAN backbone network is found,
typically based on Fast Ethernet.

Enterprise network - A corporation, agency, school, or other organization’s network that ties
together its data, communication, computing, and file servers.

Frame Relay - An industry-standard, switched data link–layer protocol that handles multiple
virtual circuits using HDLC encapsulation between connected devices. Frame Relay is more
efficient than X.25, the protocol for which it is generally considered a replacement.

Leased line - A transmission line reserved by a communications carrier for the private use of a
customer. A leased line is a type of dedicated line.

Link - A network communications channel consisting of a circuit or transmission path and all
related equipment between a sender and a receiver. Most often used to refer to a WAN connection.
Sometimes referred to as a line or a transmission link.

Packet switching - A networking method in which nodes share bandwidth with each other by
sending packets.

T1 - A digital WAN carrier facility that transmits DS-1-formatted data at 1.544 Mbps through the
telephone-switching network, using AMI or B8ZS coding.

T3 - A digital WAN carrier facility that transmits DS-3-formatted data at 44.736 Mbps through
the telephone switching network.

WAN link - A WAN communications channel consisting of a circuit or transmission path and all
related equipment between a sender and a receiver.

SNMP - The simple network-management protocol (SNMP) actually refers to a set of standards
for network management, including a protocol, a database structure specification, and a set of data
objects.

CIMP - The common management information protocol (CMIP) is an OSI network management
protocol that was created and standardized by the IOS for the monitoring and control of
heterogeneous networks.
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network management station (NMS) - Usually a stand-alone workstation, but it may be

implemented over several systems. It includes a collection of software called the network
management application (NMA). The NMA includes a GUI interface to allow authorized network
managers to manage the network. It responds to user commands and issued commands to
management agents throughout the network.

management information base (MIB) – This is used to store the structured information
representing network elements and their attributes.

Statistics group - Maintains utilization and error statistics for the subnetwork/segment being
monitored. (Examples: Bandwidth utilization, broadcast, multicast, CRC/alignment, fragments,
and so on)

History group - Holds periodic statistical samples from the statistics group and stores them for
later retrieval. (Examples: Utilization, error count, and packet count.)

Alarm group - Allows the administrator to set a sampling interval and threshold for any item
recorded by the agent. (Examples: Absolute or relative values and rising or falling thresholds)

Host group - Defines the measurement of various types of traffic to

and from hosts attached to the network. (Examples: Packets sent/received, bytes sent/received,
errors, and broadcast and multicast packets)

Host TopN group - Provides a report of TopN hosts based on host group statistics.
Traffic matrix group - Stores errors and utilization statistics for pairs of communicating nodes of
the network. (Examples: Errors, bytes, and packets)

Filter group - A filter engine that generates a packet stream from frames that match the pattern
specified by the user

Packet capture group - Defines how packets that match filter criteria are buffered internally.

Event group - Allows the logging of events (generated traps) to the manager, together with time
and date. (Example: Generates customized reports based upon the type of alarm)
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CCNA Exam Review Questions

The following questions help you review for the CCNA exam. The answers appear in
Appendix A, “Answers to CCNA Exam Review Questions.”
1. Which of the following are initial concerns in a WAN design? (Choose
all that apply.)

A. Determining whether data outside the company is accessed

B. Determining who is involved in the design from the customer’s standpoint
C. Determining where shared data resides and who uses it
D. All of the above
2. When analyzing network load requirements, you should check the
worst-case traffic load during what time of the day?

A. The busiest time

B. The least-busy time
C. During network backups
D. After regular work hours
3. When designing the WAN, where should application servers be placed?

A. On the enterprise backbone

B. Close to the users
C. Near the point of presence
D. Anyplace the designer chooses
4. Which of the following is not a benefit of a hierarchical design model?

A. Scalability
B. Ease of implementation
C. A flat topology
D. Ease of troubleshooting
5. In most cases, when designing the core layer, what should your main concern
be?

A. Efficient use of bandwidth

B. Workgroup access
C. Server placement
D. Enterprise server placement
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6. Which of the following is/are placed on the network backbone?

A. Server
B. Routers
C. Workstations
D. Application servers
7. Which layer connects users to the LAN?

A. Workgroup
B. Core
C. Access
D. Distribution
8. Which layer connects a LAN to a WAN link?

A. Distribution
B. Workgroup
C. Core
D. Access
9. In a one-layer design, the placement of what device becomes extremely
important?

A. Server
B. Router
C. Workstation
D. Switch
10. In a two-layer design, what devices do you use to segment the LAN
into individual broadcast domains?

A. Switches
B. Routers
C. Hubs
D. Repeaters
11. The campus backbone is typically based on what?

A. FDDI
B. Token Ring
C. Ethernet
D. Fast Ethernet
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12. In a hierarchical design, which of the following is a router function?

A. Broadcast packets
B. Perform bridging
C. Perform switching
D. Data path decision point
13. If a server is accessed by more than one workgroup, where should it
be placed in a hierarchical design?

A. In a workgroup
B. At the distribution layer
C. At the core layer
D. At the access layer
14. The function of the core layer of the network can best be described as
which of the following?

A. To provide access to services

B. To serve as a distribution point
C. To switch packets
D. None of the above
15. What layer provides policy-based connectivity?

A. The access layer

B. The core layer
C. The distribution layer
D. All of the above
16. Which of the following is not a part of the OSI and network models?

A. Organization
B. Information
C. Communication
D. Feasibility
17. The OSI network management model categorizes five areas of
function (sometimes called the FCAPS model). Which of the following
options are part of this model?

A. Organization
B. Fault
C. Information
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D. Security
E. Performance
F. Communication
G. Feasibility
H. Configuration
I. Accounting