CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Drilling Hydraulics

The hydraulic system plays an important role in the drilling operation, its proper design and
maintenance is required which can accelerate drilling eIIort and overall cost. In most cases
common sense and commercially available computer programs are used to design the system
The concept that a Iluid cannot maintain a rigid shape is a basic, but important characteristic,
which means that Iluids cannot sustain a shear stress (a tangential Iorce applied to the surIace).
Any tangential Iorce will cause the Iluid to deIorm and continuous deIormation is known as
'Ilow.



The hydraulic system serves many purposes in the well. Since it is centered on the mud system,
the purposes oI mud and hydraulics are oIten common to each other. The hydraulics system has
many eIIects on the well. ThereIore, the reasons Ior giving attentions to hydraulics are abundant.
The more common reasons are as Iollows:
Generally, Iluid Ilow can be considered the result oI parallel Iluid layers sliding past one another.
The layers adjacent to the conductor adhere to the surIace and each successive layer slides past
its neighbor with increasing velocity. This orderly Ilow pattern is known as laminar flow. At
higher velocities, these layers lose their order and crash randomly into one another with an
orderly Ilow occurring only adjacent to the conductor. This Ilow pattern is known as 9urbulen9
flow. The hydraulic system is either in the static or dynamic state.




HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE IN LIQUID
Internal pressure is known to increase with depth and the variation oI pressure can be obtained
by considering an elemental Iluid subjected to a downward Iorce as shown in the diagram below:


Three Iorces F
1
, F
2
& F
3
are known to act on the elemental Iluid column
F
1
PA (downward Iorce exerted by the Iluid above )

F
2
A D
dD
dp
p
'
+

'

A + (upward Iorce on the Iluid exerted by the Iluid below)

F
3
F
wv
AAD (weight oI Iluid element is exerting a downward Iorce)
F
1
F
2
F
3
0
0 A +
'
+

'

A + D A F A D
dD
dp
P PA
wv

P F
wv
D C
C O (surIace pressure)
The exception to this is iI the BOP oI the well is closed while the well is trying to Ilow.
F
wv
0.002 xP
( p 0.052 x PD C
Psig Psig 14.7
HYDROSTATIC PRESSSURE IN GAS COLUMNS
Gas can Iind its way into the well bore through diIIerent ways, either Irom Iormation gases or
injection oI gas into the well. The pressure variation oI an elemental gas column is more
complicated than that oI a static liquid because oI the expansion and density changes attributed
with gases as pressure changes. RT
M
m
: ZnRT PJ
When
Z gas deviation Iactor
n moles or gas
The gas deviation Iactor is the measure oI the range oI deviation a gas has to an ideal gas.
:RT
PM
8
:
PM
37 . 80

The above expression only works when the length oI the gas column is not great and the gas
pressure is above 1000 Psia, but in a case where the gas column is not short or highly pressured,
the variation oI gas density with depth within the gas column is taking account oI the equation to
derive.
dD
:T
PM
dp
3 . 80
032 . 0

Integrating with D & D
0
as the lower and upper limit

:T
D D M
P P
1544
5
50


ENERAL HYDRAULICS, FLOW REIME AND REYNOLDS NUMBER
A signiIicant amount oI power is required to overcome the Irictional resistance to Ilow oI drilling
Iluids in the drill string, annulus and through the nozzles in the bit. This Irictional resistance is
expressed in terms oI the amount oI pressure required to circulate the Iluid around the system.
The hydraulic power required and expended is a Iunction oI the pressure loss and Ilow rate oI the
system. The diagram below shows a typical pressure loss in a string



it is desirable to optimize the pressure losses through the nozzles (and thereIore the cleaning oI
the bit Iace) and minimize the sacriIicial losses in the drill string and annulus. The analysis and
optimization oI these pressure losses is generally reIerred to as, optimizing the hydraulic power
oI the system. The design oI an eIIicient hydraulics programme is an important element oI well
planning.
To ensure that the cuttings are removed Irom the annulus the annular velocity must never be
allowed to Iall below a certain minimum value. This minimum annular velocity is dependent on
the properties oI the mud and cuttings Ior any particular well, and is usually between 100 - 200
It/min. The principal Iactors which inIluence the magnitude oI the pressure losses in the system
are:
The geometry oI circulating system (e.g. I.D. oI drill pipe, length oI drill pipe)
The Ilow rate through the system
The Ilow regime in which the Iluid is Ilowing (laminar/turbulent)
The rheological properties oI the circulating Iluid
Whilst the minimum Ilow rate through the system is dictated primarily by the annular velocity
required to clean the drilled cuttings Irom the annulus. The maximum Ilow rate will be limited
by the maximum power output by the mud pumps and the maximum pressures which can be
tolerated by the pumping system.
Flow Regimes:
Generally, Iluid Ilow can be considered the result oI parallel Iluid layers sliding past one another.
The layers adjacent to the conductor adhere to the surIace and each successive layer slides past
its neighbor with increasing velocity.
There are two basic types oI Ilow which are;
1. Laminar.
2. Turbulent
Laminar flow:
This is usually Iound in the annulus during drilling operations. This type oI Ilow is generally
desired in the annulus since it does not lead to hole erosion and does not produce excessive
pressure drops. These pressure drop calculations can be mathematically derived according to
the type oI Ilow behavior.

Turbulen9 Flow:
This is the type oI Ilow regime Iound inside the drill string during drilling operations. Since high
mud velocities are required to achieve turbulent Ilow, this results in high pressure drops. This
type oI Ilow is generally not desired in the annulus due to its tendency to cause excessive hole
erosion and high 'equivalent circulating densities. However, turbulent Ilow can move the mud
like a plug, causing the mud to move at approximately the same rate. This provides Ior better
hole cleaning and is sometimes required on high angle holes. Pressure drop calculations Ior
turbulent Ilow are empirical rather than mathematically derived.

Reynolds Number


Shear ra9e:
The magnitude oI shear between the layers is represented by the shear-ra9e, which is deIined as
the diIIerence in the velocities between the layers, divided by the distance oI separation. It is this
relationship between the shear-stress and shear-rate that deIines the behavior oI the Iluid.
For some Iluids the relationship is linear (i.e., iI the shear-stress is doubled then the shear-rate
will also double, or iI the circulation rate is doubled then the pressure required to pump the Iluid
will double). Fluids such as this are known as 'Newtonian Iluids. Examples oI Newtonian Iluids
are water, glycerin and diesel. The Newtonian Iluid model is deIined by the Iollowing
relationship:
Shear-S9ress Absolu9e Viscosi9y x Shear-Ra9e
The slope oI the Ilow curve in the diagram is given by the absolute viscosity, this is the shear
stress divided by the shear rate. A typical Ilow proIile Ior a Newtonian Iluid in a cylindrical pipe
is a parabola, with a maximum shear-rate at the wall and a minimum (0) at the center.


The transition between turbulence and laminar Ilow depends on the pipe diameter, Iluid density,
viscosity and average Ilow velocity being either greater than or less than 2100 in magnitude. This
means that the onset oI turbulence can be predicted Ior pipes oI any size, and Iluids oI any
density and viscosity Ilowing at any rate through the pipe. Newtonian Reynolds number is
derived by:

However this rule does not apply Ior all types oI Iluid as some non-Newtonian Iluids still remain
in the laminar Ilow regime with greater Reynolds number.
Non-Newtonian liquids Reynolds number in a pipe can be derived by

n n
n n
K
J D
N

8
1
2
Re
8

Where;
N
Re
eIIective Reynolds number
n Ilow behavior index
k consistency index
The terms n and k relate to the Power Law model



















CHAPTER 2
PRESSURE LOSSES
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATIN DENSITY
1he lncrease ln boLLom hole pressure expressed as an lncrease ln pressure LhaL occurs when Lhe mud ls
belng clrculaLed ls known as LCu 8ecause of Lhe frlcLlon ln Lhe annulus as Lhe mud ls pumped boLLom
hole pressure ls sllghLly buL slgnlflcanLly hlgher Lhan when mud ls noL belng pumped LCu ls calculaLed
by dlvldlng Lhe annular pressure loss by 0032 and dlvldlng LhaL by 1vu Lhen add Lhe resulL Lo Lhe mud
welghL
Lxample
Annular pressure loss 200psl
1vu 10000fL
Mud welghL 96ppg
LCu . 9
10000 052 . 0
200
+
-

10ppg










Buoyancy
Drilling Iluids provide a buoy eIIect relative to the drill string weight or hook load. When the
drill pipe is lowered into the well the mud system will buoy some oI the pipe weight.
Buoyant Iorces are a Iunction oI the volume and weight oI the displaced Iluid. The buoyed pipe
weight can be calculated by
BW BF x In air weight
5 . 5
1
mw
BF


Where BW Buoyant weight
BF Buoyancy Iactor

mw
mud density

RHEOLOICAL MODELS
A mathematical model is used to describe the Iluid behavior under dynamic and static
conditions. The model is used to calculate Iriction pressure, swab and surge pressures, and slip
velocity oI cuttings in Iluids. The most commonly used models are the Newtonian, Bingham
plastic and power law.
Shear stress and Shear rate.
The two most important quantities in mud models are the shear stress and shear rate. This two
models can be described by considering two plates separated by a speciIied distance with a Iluid.
II a Iorce is applied to the upper plate while the lower is stationary a velocity will be reached and
will be a Iunction oI the Iorce ,distance between plates, area oI exposure and Iluid viscosity

J
A
F
3

Where
F Iorce applied to the plate
A Contact area
V Plate velocity
X Plate spacing
3 Fluid viscosity
The quantities
:
A
F
while

J

3 :

Where
: is shear stress,
is the shear rate
And these quantities are analogous to pump pressure and rate.

New9onian Model
This is the initial model used in the analysis oI drilling mud Ilow. It states that pump pressure
(shear stress) would increase proportionally to the shear rate, iI proportionality constant is
applied to represent the Iluid viscosity.
3 :
In practice drilling Iluids cannot be described by a single viscosity term, they require two or
more parts Ior accurate representation oI behavior. Generally most drilling Iluids are complex
and cannot be characterized by a single viscosity value, Iluids that do not exhibit this direct
proportionality between shear stress and shear rate are termed non-Newtonian. Non Newtonian
Iluids that are shear rate dependent are pseudoplastic and drilling Iluids and cement slurries are
generally pseudo plastic in nature in nature. Drilling Iluids is also shearing time dependent
making them Isotropic (i.e. apparent viscosity decreases with time aIter the shear rate is increase
to a new constant value.).




Bingham Plas9ic model
A Bingham plastic will not Ilow until the applied shear stress t exceeds a certain minimum value

: known as the yield point. ThereIore it is theorized that some amount oI stress would be
required to overcome the mud`s gel structure beIore it would initiate movement. AIter the yield
point has been exceeded, a change in shear rate and the constant oI proportionality is called
plastic viscosity
p
3 .
The Bingham plastic model is given by;
p
: : : 3 : : +


In practice shear rates are normally taken at 300 and 00 rpm rates on a viscometer. The Iluid
viscosity and yield stress are calculated as Iollows
300 00
7 7 3
p
Where
00
7 ,
300
7 readings at 00 and 300 rpm
p
3 7 :
300
The Iluid viscosity is termed PV due to the plastic nature oI the Iluid measured in centipoises.
The plastic viscosity is aIIected by the size, shape and concentration oI particles in the mud
system. PV cannot be aIIected by chemical thinning and can be controlled only by altering the
density oI solids in Iluid.
The yield stress

: is measured in lb/100It
2;
it is a Iunction oI the inter-particle attraction oI the
solids in the mud. The yield point is aIIected by chemical thinners, dispersants and viscosiIiers. It
should be noted that the 300rpm and 00rpm shear rates are generally greater than the annular
shear rates resulting in the calculated value oI shear stress being greater than actual values.








Power Law model
This is a standard mathematical model used to describe a non linear curve and like the Bingham
plastic model more than one parameter is required Ior Iluid characterization. It can be used to
represent a pseudo plastic Iluid (n 1), a Newtonian Iluid (n1), or a dilatants Iluid (n~1) and its
given by;
n
k :

Where k consistency index,
n Ilow behavior index
` : shear stress

The Ilow behavior index is a description oI the degree to which the Iluid is non-Newtonian and
can be calculated by;

'
+

'

300
00
log 32 . 3
7
7
n

n
k
511
300
7

300 00
7 7 PJ

PJ YP
300
7



Fric9ion fac9or for power law fluid model

Ro9a9ional Viscome9er
The evaluation oI shear stress, PV and YP by a viscometer could be extremely diIIicult based on
the theory oI two Ilat parallel plates, but the rotation oI the outer sleeve a rotational viscometer
about a concentric cylinder is similar to the relative movement oI parallel plates. The API
standard Ior diagnostic test Ior drilling Iluids is a rotational viscometer.
Rotation oI the outer sleeve instead oI the inner bob has been Iound to extend the transition Irom
laminar Ilow to turbulent Ilow. The shear rate in a rotational viscometer is a Iunction oI the
radius. The Iluid velocity at a given radius is related to the angular velocity by;
7 v
Torque generated is given by
7 7 T ) 2 ( x :

And 7 5 . 30 T which is the recommended torsion spring used in testing the drilling Iluids

Diagram showing a sectional view oI a Rotational Viscometer




Summary of equa9ions for a Ro9a9ional viscome9er


FRICTIONAL PRESSURE LOSSES
The circulating system during drilling operations is divided into 4 diIIerent sections which are;
1. SurIace connections
2. Pipes or Strings
3. Annulus
4. Drill bit
It is imperative to understand the diIIerent pressure analysis and regimes that exist in the
circulating system and Iind the total pressure losses at diIIerent sections oI the system to enable
the determination oI pumping requirements Irom the pumps installed onboard the rig.
SurIace connection losses (P
surI
)
These are losses incurred Irom the connections oI the standpipe, rotary hose, swivel and Kelly.
The system pressure loss calculation begins with the determination oI the type/ class oI surIace
equipment which have been recognized by IADC which are;

When calculating surIace pressure losses, there is a need to choose the group closest to the
speciIications oI the present rig equipment and necessary extrapolation can be done.

The general equations to evaluate pressure losses in surIace connections is
P
surI
10
-5
x K
s
x MW x Q
1.8
or P
surI
E x MW
0.8
x Q
1.8
x PV
0.2

Where,
P
surI
SurIace pressure loss
K
s
SurIace pressure coeIIicient
MW mud weight
Q Flow rate
PV Plastic viscosity
It is important to note that increase in length will increase the coeIIicient while increase in ID
will decrease the coeIIicient.
Pressure losses in 9he drill s9ring
The Ilow channel in the Iluid aIter the surIace equipments is the drill string. Flows in this section
are usually oI the order 1000It/min (turbulent). The pressure losses in the drill string accounts Ior
about 35 oI the total pump pressure. All pressure losses at Iirst assume a laminar Ilow regime
applying Power law, Bingham or Newtonian model to determine the mathematical relation
between the Ilow rate and Irictional pressure drop.
Power law model Ior drill string pressure loss
The average velocity is derived by;
2
51 . 24
d
Q
J
p
-

And the critical velocity is calculated by;


'
+

'

'
+

'

'
+

'

-
+ -
-

'
+

'
- -

n
n
n
c
n D
n
MW
k
J
1
2
1
4
4
1 3 . 1 10 82 . 5

For laminar Ilow pressure loss is
n
p
a7 a
n
n
d
J
d
k L
P

'
+

'

+
-
-
-

'
+

'

4
1 3
. 1
300
min

The equivalent viscosity is the calculated using the average velocity
J L
P d
a7 a
-
- -

min
2
90000
3

To derive the Reynolds number using both the average velocity and the equivalent viscosity
3
d J MW
p
- - -

4 . 15
Re

Flow behavior with this model will vary depending on the power index (n) value oI the Iluid.
The critical Reynolds number is
3470 1370n (Irom laminar to transitional)
4270 1370n (Irom transitional to turbulent)
II Re Rec is laminar
Re is between laminar and turbulent
Re ~ Rec turbulent
The Ilow regime usually desired in the drill string is turbulent so calculation done will be based
on turbulent Ilow analysis as based on turbulent Ilow analysis as shown below putting into the
Irictional losses.
75
7
1 log
Re
50
93 . 3 log

'
+

'

'
+

'

n n
f

d
J MW f
P
p
tu7-u0nt
-
- - -

92894


Bingham plastic model analysis oI drill pipe pressure loss
2
51 . 24
d
Q
J
p
-

'
+

'

-
- + + -

d MW
YP d MW PJ PJ
J
c
2 2
2 . 8 97 97

For turbulent Ilow regime
8 . 4
2 . 0 8 . 1 8 . 0 5
10 91 . 8
d
PJ Q MW
P
tu7-u0nt
- - - - -

And Ior laminar Ilow
d
YP L
d
PJ L
P
-
-
+
-
- -

225 90000
2
3












Pressure loss in annulus
Losses are also incurred in the annulus and the Ilow regime desired is the laminar Ilow, careIul
monitoring oI the Ilow regime and the critical Reynolds number is determined to maintain the
hole integrity and prevent the eroding oI the annulus.
Power Law model Ior annular pressure drop
2 2
51 . 24
4
p
d d
Q
J

'
+

'

'
+

'

'
+

'

-
+ -
-

'
+

'
- -

n
n
0
n
c
n D
n
MW
k
J
1 2
1
4
3
1 2 4 . 2 10 878 . 3

n
0
p
0
a7 a
n
n
d
J
d
k L
P

'
+

'

+
-
-
-

'
+

'

3
1 2
4 . 2
300
min

For turbulent Ilow regime
To evaluate the actual shear stress imposed on the borehole wall using the Iriction Iactor, the
geometric Iactor is needed. The geometric Iactor can be calculated by;

'
+

'

-
+
-

'
+

'

+
n :
n : :
G
4
1 3
2
1

Usually there is a transitional Ilow regime around the drill collar and open hole (due to change in
diameter)in cases like this the Iriction Iactor is calculated using

-
+
-

+

'
+

'

c
n
c
n c
c
f
Re
1
7
75 . 1 log
Re
50
log 93 .. 3
800
Re Re
Re
1


0
a t7anst4n
d
J MW f
P
-
- - -

92894
2









Pressure loss across 9he bi9
To achieve the objective oI maximum hole cleaning it is required to optimize the pressure drop
across the bit pressure loss across the drill is constant and however the pressure loss is greatly
inIluenced by the nozzles, the smaller the size oI the nozzle the greater the pressure drop and the
greater the nozzle velocity.
To determine the pressure drop across the bit the total pressure drop across the system P
1
P
2

P
3
P
5
to give a total value oI P
c
.
P
bit
P
standpipe
- (P
1
P
2
P
3
P
5
)
Nozzle velocity
MW
P
-t
3 . 33

Bi9 Op9imiza9ion and Nozzle Size Selec9ion
In other to maximize drilling hydraulics and select the nozzle size that best suit a particular
drilling condition and all other aspects concerning drilling Iluids must be considered and other
calculations Ior pressure drop in the various sections must be done. Pressure losses in surIace
connections, inside and around the drill pipe inside and around drill collar are evaluated and the
total taken as the pressure loss in the system excluding pressure drop at the bit
Surface pressure and Horse power
The Iirst component in any hydraulic design is the surIace equipment and the hydraulic horse
power available, the two limiting Iactor on the surIace hydraulic horse power are;
1. Flow rate range.
2. Operating Pressure
FLOW RATE RANE
The Ilow pattern in the annulus should be laminar; thereIore the upper limit Ior the Ilow ratio is a
Reynolds number oI 2000. The highest velocity in the annulus will be around the collars and by
calculating the 'Critical Velocity 'over that section. The lower limit range where there is a
suIIicient hole cleaning is determined by using the velocity around the drill pipe and the largest
annular section
OPERATIN PRESSURE
Most mud pumps can produce the required pressure with minimal Iuss. However the surIace
system comprises oI the standpipe, rotary hose, pulsation damper etc. the minimum surIace
pressure is usually limited to the maximum pressure rating oI the pump pressure
1714
Q P
H
ps
-

Bottom hole pressure and Horse power
Determination oI bottom hole cleaning pressure necessary to maximize the drill rate is dependent
on hydraulic impact Iorce and hydraulic horsepower. It is important to note that the lowest Ilow
rate and highest pump pressure will result in the highest pump pressure will result in the highest
pump pressure will result in the highest bit hydraulic horse power.
Hydraulic Horse power
The theory that cuttings are best removed Irom beneath the bit by delivering the most power to
the bottom oI the hole is applied to determine the hydraulic horsepower required to liIt cuttings
through the annulus to the surIace.
The amount oI pressure at the bit or bit pressure drop is essential in determining hydraulic horse
power.
Bit pressure drop


1120
2
n
-
J MW
p
-

ThereIore hydraulic horse power is
1714
Q P
-
-

Usually when drilling Iluids get to the bit, there is a 5 drop in pump pressure expended in
Iorcing the Iluid through the jet nozzles.
Hydraulic horse power at nozzle 0.5 x hydraulic horse power at surIace
For practical purpose it is oIten best to select a pump liner size that can be suitable Ior the entire
well rather that periodically reduce liner size with depth, maximum horse power rating is give
by
max
max
1714
P
E HPP
Q
- -

HYDRAULIC IMPACT FORCE
This theory subscribes to the ideology that cuttings are best removed Irom beneath the bit when
the Iorce oI the Iluid leaving the jet nozzle and striking the bottom oI the hole is greater and its
determined by
1930
Jn Q MW
H
f
- -

Unlike hydraulic horse power, impact Iorce depends on maximizing Ilow rate and nozzle
velocity rather than the pressure. In simplicity a large volume oI Iluid impacts with moderate
Iorce, rather than a small volume oI Iluid impacts with moderate Iorce, rather than a small Iluid
impacting with moderate Iorce. Optimization is achieved when circulating rates and bit nozzle
sizes are chosen and will take as much as 48 oI the surIace pump pressure to Iorce the Iluid
through the jet nozzles.
H
iI
0.48 x H
ps



RAPHICAL METHOD
Nozzle size selection can be done using a graph analysis by use oI log-log paper. Since a plot oI
log (P
d
) vs. log(q) theoretically has a gradient oI 1.75 it can be shown that the conditions Ior the
selection oI bit nozzle size occurs at the intersection oI the line representing the total Irictional
pressure loss to and Iro the bit and the path oI optimum hydraulics

The path oI optimizing hydraulics has 3 segments as shown below
INTERVAL 1: This is deIined by maximum Ilow rate corresponding to the shallow portion oI
the well where the pump is operated at the maximum allowable pressure and the maximum
possible Ilow rate Ior convenient liner size and pump horse power rating.
INTERVAL 2: this is deIined by the total pressure drop to and Iro the bit and it corresponds to
the intermediate portion oI the well where the Ilow rate is reduced gradually to maintain the
proper maximum bit hydraulic horse power or impact Iorce.
INTERVAL 3: this is deIined by the minimum Ilow rate, and corresponds to the deep portion oI
the Ilow rate where the Ilow rate has been reduced to the minimum value that will eIIiciently liIt
the cuttings to the surIace.






Proper nozzle area that will correspond to the optimize bit hydraulics is calculated by;




CHAPTER 3
Cu99ings Transpor9
Drilling Iluids have a Iunction oI bringing cuttings to the surIace and inadequate hole cleaning
can lead to hole Iill, packing oII, stuck pipe and excessive hydrostatic pressure. Some parameters
that aIIect cuttings transport to the surIace are Iluid density and viscosity, annulus size,
eccentricity, annular velocity and Ilow regime, pipe rotation, cuttings density, size and shape oI
the cuttings.
Generally cuttings are oI irregular shape and size and they are subjected to torque caused by the
shearing oI the mud. The only practical way to estimate the relative sinking velocity or slip
velocity is to develop a correlation based on empirical data.
Cu99ing Slip Veloci9y
While drilling cuttings travel up the annulus experience a positive upward Iorce up to the drilling
Iluid velocity, density and viscosity and a downward negative Iorce due to gravity. The rate at
which cuttings Iall is known as its slip velocity
Empirical assump9ions
1. The most important Iactors controlling adequate cuttings transport are annular velocity
and rheological properties.
2. Annular velocity oI 50It/min provides adequate cuttings transport in typical mud.
3. Cuttings transport eIIiciency increases with Iluid velocity increase.
4. The slippage oI cuttings as they are transported induces a shear thinning oI the mud
around the cuttings reducing the expected transport eIIiciency.
5. Cuttings size and mud density have a moderate inIluence on cuttings transport and hole
size, string rpm and drill rate have eIIects on cuttings transport.
It is an empirically accepted Iact that cuttings will travel up the annulus more eIIiciently iI they
travel Ilat and horizontally. II cuttings turn on its edge it slips more easily.
Cuttings slip velocity in turbulent Ilow is estimated using

5 . 0
4 . 113

'
+

'

-
MW CD
MW p d
J
d p
s
And Ior laminar Ilow

35 . 0
2
2 . 175

'
+

'

-
MW
MW p
d J
d
p s
3

Where,
V
s
Slip velocity
d
p
Particle diameter
p
p
particle density
MW Mud weight

CD Drag coeIIicient (this is the Irictional drag between the Iluid and particle)
SWAB AND SURE PRESSURES
The axial movement oI drill string in the annulus brings about surge and swab pressures and this
can be deduced Irom similar methods Ior calculating annular pressure losses. Pressure changes
caused by lowering the pipe into the well bore are called surge pressures and the pressures
generated by pulling out oI the well bore are called swab pressures, they are considered to be
generally hydrostatic, an increment in the total well bore pressure and possible Iormation
Iracturing can result Irom surge and swab pressures.
An experiment was carried out by Burkhardt to evaluate surge and swab pressures. His work
involved running casing into a well equipped with pressure sensors showing pressure response to
pipe movement. Positive and Negative pressure readings were observed Ior the cases oI pipe
being liIted oII slips and later decelerated. A thesis showing the relationship between pipe, hole
geometries and the eIIect oI dragging mud adjacent to the pipe . This relationship is represented
by a clinging constant which is deduced Irom the mud velocity.


4
2
p
pc
cd
J Q
x

ThereIore the velocity in the annulus is the quotient oI Ilow rate and area


2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
p H
p p
p H
p
p
d d
J d
c
d d
d
J c
A
Q
J

'
+

'

'
+

'

x
x

II pipe is open ended velocity in the annulus is derived by;


4 2
2 2
4
2 2
4
2 4
p p H p H
p p H p
p
d d d d d
d d d d
J J
+



EIIective annular velocity
p p
J k J J



In essence surge and swab pressures are computed by substituting the eIIective velocity into any
oI the previously deIined Iriction pressure equations.
In practical sense surge and swab pressure is composed oI the pressure required to break the gels
in the mud and pressure caused by actual Iluid movement. II the maximum allowable surge and
swab pressures are known, it is possible to determine a pulling or running speed Ior the pipe
NOTE
The maximum surge pressure is usually 9he difference be9ween 9he lowes9 exposed frac9ure gradien9 and 9he
mud weigh9 The maximum swab pressure is 9he difference be9ween 9he gradien9 forma9ion pressure from an
exposed permeable zone and mud weigh9
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES