Chapter7 GreenInfrastructure A.

Introduction

Greeninfrastructurereferstonaturalandengineeredecologicalsystems thatactaslivinginfrastructure,integratingnaturalvegetationandsoilsintoa communitysinfrastructurethroughavarietyoftechniques,approaches, technologies,andpractices.Greeninfrastructureisplannedandmanagedprimarily forstormwatercontrol,butitalsoprovidesadditionalsocial,economic,and environmentalbenefits.Itcanbeausefultoolforcommunitiesthatarelookingto protecttheirnaturalwaterresourcesandstormwatermanagementsystemsfrom theimpactsofdevelopmentandurbanization.Greeninfrastructuremethodscanbe implementedpracticallyanywheresoilandvegetationcanbeworkedintoa landscape.

Source:SoutheastWatershedForum

Figure 7-1: Bioretention is one typical method used in green infrastructure.

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 Communitiesmaychoosefromawidevarietyofgreeninfrastructure techniques.Thechoiceofwhichtechniquestoemployandwheretolocatethemis dependentonsitespecificationsandthegoalsthecommunitywishestoaccomplish. Specifictypesofgreeninfrastructureinclude: 1.GreenRoofs Greenroofsareroofsofbuildingsthatarecoveredwithvegetationandsoil, eitherpartiallyorcompletely.Greenroofsarelayeredsystems,withawaterproof membrane,drainagemat,rootbarrier,growingmedium,andvegetation. Evaporationofwateroccursduetotheexposureoftheplantsandgrowingmedium towindandsun,andtheplantstranspiremoistureintotheair.Thishelpstocool theroof.Itisvitalthatplantsarechosenfortheenvironmentinwhichtheroofis located.Itisalsoimportanttopromoteslowtomoderategrowthoftheplants,so thattheyareinbalancewiththeirrootsystemsduringdormantwinterperiods. Greenroofscanaidinstormwatermanagementandcansaveenergy.Theyarealso aestheticallypleasing.

B.TypesofGreenInfrastructure

Source:LouisvilleMetroDevelopmentCenter

Figure 7-2: Green Roof Design

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 Raingardens,alsocalledbioretentionbasins,areplantedtopographic depressionsthataredesignedtoabsorbrainwaterthatdrainsfromimpervious areas,suchasroofs,parkingareas,streets,walkways,andcompactedlawnareas. Raingardensreducerunoffbecausethestormwatersoaksintothegroundinstead offlowingintostormdrainsandsurfacewaters.Thiscanhelpdecreaseerosion, waterpollution,andflooding,andcanhelptorechargegroundwatersources.The RainGardenNetworkprovidesa10stepsynopsisofhowtobuildaraingarden. Thisinformationisavailableathttp://www.raingardennetwork.com/build.htm. Additionally,Burnsville,Minnesotahasimplementedaplantoinstallaraingarden systemtoinfiltratestormwaterrunoffthatservesasanexcellentexampleof utilizingthistypeofgreeninfrastructure(CityofBurnsville2006).

2.RainGardens

Source:SoutheastWatershedForum

Figure 7-3: Rain Garden.

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 Porousandperviouspavements,alsocalledpermeablepavements,are pavingmethodsthatallowrainwatertoinfiltratethroughthemintothesoilbelow. Thesepavementscanbeusedforroads,parkinglots,andwalkwaysinsteadof traditionalimperviouspavements,whichincreaseflowvelocityofstormwater runoff.Porousasphalt,concrete,pavingstones,andbricksareexamplesofpervious pavements.

3.PorousandPerviousPavements

Source:SoutheastWatershedForum

Figure 7-4: Pervious Pavement.

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4.VegetatedSwales Vegetatedswales,alsoknownasbioswales,arewide,shallowchannelsthat arecoveredonthesideslopesandbottombyadensestandofnativevegetation. Vegetatedswalesaredesignedtopromoteinfiltration,reducetheflowvelocityof stormwaterrunoff,andtrapparticulatepollutantsandsilt.Theycanbeeither naturalorconstructed,andareoftenusedaroundparkinglotssothatpollution fromautomobilesthatispickedupinstormwatercanbetreatedbeforeenteringthe watershed.

Source:SoutheastWatershedForum

Figure 7-5: Vegetated Swale.

5.PocketWetlands Pocketwetlandsreceive,retain,andtreatstormwaterthathasdrainedfrom alimitedimperviousarea.Notonlydotheyreducestormwaterrunoff,buttheyalso provideforthefilteringofpollutants.Additionally,pocketwetlandsare aestheticallypleasingandcanevenserveasasmallwildlifehabitat.Pocket wetlandsdonotrequireasmuchspaceasotherstormwatertreatment,sotheycan beveryhelpfulincongestedurbanareas.

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 Therearetwotypesofplanterboxes,containedplantersandinfiltration planters.Containedplantersareplanterboxesthatareplacedoverimpervious surfaces.Theyholdtrees,shrubs,andgroundcover.Infiltrationplantersare containersorstructureswithopenbottomsthatcontainalayerofgravel,soil,and vegetation.Theyaredesignedtoallowstormwaterrunofftotemporarilypoolon topofthesoilandthenslowlyinfiltrateintotheground.Stone,concrete,brick, plasticlumber,orwoodcanallbeusedtoconstructinfiltrationplanters.Portland, Oregonprovidesanexcellentexampleofutilizingplanterboxesforstormwater management(CityofPortland,2004,pp.4960). 7.GreenParking Greenparkingreferstoparkinglotdesignthatincorporatesgreen infrastructureinsteadofonlyconsideringpurelyfunctionalrequirements.Green parkinginvolvesmanagingstormwateronsite,providinggenerouslandscaped areas,plantingtrees,enhancingpedestrianandcyclinginfrastructure,andreducing theurbanheatislandeffect.Torontohasimplementedaplanforgreeningsurface parkinglots(CityofToronto2007).

6.PlanterBoxes

Source:RosettaFackler

Figures 7-6 to 7-9: A green parking lot design at a Walmart in Nashville, TN. 146

 Rainbarrels,alsocalledrainwatertanks,arewatercontainersthatareused tocollectandstorerainwater.Therainwaterisusuallycollectedfromrooftopsvia raingutters.Rainbarrelshelptoreducetheamountofuntreatedstormwaterrunoff intowastewatersystemsandsurfacewaters.Thewaterstoredinrainbarrelscan berecycledformanyuses,includingwatergardens,washingcars,agriculture,and homeuse.Theycanalsosimplystorestormwatertobereleasedatafuturetime. 9.DownspoutDisconnection Downspoutdisconnectionsystemsredirectstormwaterfromtraditional collectionsystemstovegetatedareas.Bydoingso,greeninfrastructurecomponents canmanagetherunoffandstormwatervolumeisremovedfromcollectionsystems. 10.CommunityForestryandTrees Treesandforestsareessentialelementsofacommunitysgreen infrastructure.Theseincludenotonlypublicandprivateforestlandsbutalso communityforests:thecanopyoftreesinourcommunitiesyards,parks,roadsides andstreetscapes,commercialcenters,commonareas,andpublicspaces.They providemanyenvironmentalandeconomicbenefitstopropertyowners, communities,andwatersheds.Thebenefitsoftreesandcommunityforeststowater resourcesinclude: Treerootnetworksfiltercontaminantsinsoilsproducingclean water. Treespreventerosionbytrappingsoilthatwouldotherwise becomesilt.Siltdestroysfisheggsandotheraquaticwildlifeand makesriversandstreamsshallower,causingmorefrequentand moresevereflooding.Treesalongstreamsalsoholdstreambanks inplacetoprotectagainstflooding. Treesreducetopsoilerosion,preventharmfullandpollutants containedinthesoilfromgettingintoourwaterways,slowdown waterrunoff,andensurethatourgroundwatersuppliesare continuallybeingreplenished.Forevery5%oftreecoveradded toacommunity,stormwaterrunoffisreducedbyapproximately 2%. Studiesthathavesimulatedurbanforesteffectsonstormwater reportannualrunoffreductionsof27%. Inonestudy,a32foottalltreeinterceptingrainfallreduced stormwaterrunoffby327gallons.(SoutheastWatershedForum, p.2) Inadditiontowaterbasedbenefits,treesandcommunityforestsprovideair quality,climatemoderation,energyconservation,andwildlifehabitatbenefits
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8.RainBarrels

(SoutheastWatershedForum,pp.23).AccordingtoUSDAForestService,trees andvegetationreducestormwaterdischargebyupto40%,reducehomeheating andcoolingcostsbyupto30%,increasethevalueofpropertybyupto20%,and reduceparticulateairbornepollutionbyupto80%.(StormwaterManagers ResourceCenter2006)Inparticular,theeconomicbenefitsaremany.These economicbenefitstopropertyowners,businesses,andcommunities,accordingto studies,include: Treesenhancecommunityeconomicstabilitybyattracting businessesandtourists. Peoplelingerandshoplongeralongtreelinedstreets. Apartmentsandofficesinwoodedareasrentmorequicklyand havehigheroccupancyrates. Businessesleasingofficespaceindevelopmentswithtreesfind theirworkersaremoreproductiveandabsenteeismreduced. Threetreeslocatedstrategicallyaroundyourhousecancutair conditioningbillsinhalf.Onalargerscale,thecoolingeffectsof treescansavemillionsofenergydollars. Propertyvaluesofhomeswithtreesinthelandscapeare5%to 20%higherthanequivalentpropertieswithouttrees.(Southeast WatershedForum,p.1) Moreover,studiesshowthatthebenefitsoflargetreesare4to16timesthebenefits ofsmalltrees,dependingonwhetherthebenefitsareanalyzedoverashorttermor alongtermandwhetheronlybenefitstothelandownerareanalyzedorwhether benefitstotheentirecommunityareanalyzed(SoutheastWatershedForum,p.3). Communitiescandomanydifferentthingstoestablishorprotecttreesas greeninfrastructure.First,communitiescanestablishatreecanopygoalaspartof theircomprehensiveplan.Studiesrecommendthathealthycitiesshouldseekto haveatleast40%treecoverage,whichisanaverageof20largetreesperacre,in ordertoachieveecological,economic,andsocialsustainability(Southeast WatershedForum,p.1).Second,communitiesshouldestablishacommunity forestryprogramthatsupportsbothpublicandprivateeffortstoprovide,maintain, andmanagelocaltreecanopies.Whetherornotapartofacommunityforestry program,governmentagenciesshouldlandscapepubliclandsandfacilitieswith watershedsustainingtreesandinvestinmaintainingthosetrees.Third, communitiescanusetheircodesandordinancestoprotectexistingtreesand requiretreeplanningandmaintenanceondevelopmentsites.Fourth,communities canestablishwatershedreforestationprojectsthatprioritizesitesforreforestation underacomprehensivewatershedforestmanagementplan(StormwaterManagers ResourceCenter2006).
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Anumberofcommunitiesacrossthenationarepartneringwithgroupslike AmericanForeststoidentifyhowthegreeninfrastructureoftreescanhelpreduce stormwaterrunoffandnonpointsourcepollution,protectthequalityofsurfaceand groundwater,savelocalitiesmillionsofdollarsingrayinfrastructurecosts,and meettheregulatorymandatesofstormwaterandTMDLrules.Onesuch communityisthefastgrowingCityofFayetteville,Arkansas,whereAmerican Forestsrecentlyreleasedastudydemonstratingtheenvironmentalandeconomic benefitsofmaintainingandincreasinglocaltreecover. InFayetteville,rapid growthanddevelopmenthasled toan18percentdeclineof heavytreecanopyinthelast15 years.AmericanForests recentlyconductedanUrban EcosystemsAnalysisusing satelliteandaerialimagery, GeographicInformationSystem technology,scientificresearch, andtheorganizations CITYgreencomputersoftware tocalculatethebenefitstrees providetoFayettevillesurban environment.Thefindings showthattheCityof Fayettevillesexistingtreecover currentlyreducesstormwater runoffby50millioncubicfeet duringastormevent.Thestudy alsonotedthat,ifthetree canopyinFayettevillewere increasedfrom27to40percent, theenvironmentalbenefits Source:TonyArnold wouldbesignificantandthecost Figure 7-10: Forest in Kentucky. savingbenefitsofstormwater reductionalonewouldbe$135 million.(NALGEPetal.2003,p. 21)

CaseStudyinCommunityForestry:Fayetteville,Arkansas (Source:NALGEPetal.2003,p.21)

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 11.ProtectingRiparianLands,Wetlands,Floodplains,andNativeLandscapes Naturehasalreadyprovidedmuchofthegreeninfrastructurethatweneed intheformsofriparianzones(oftenwithtreesandothervegetation),wetlands, floodplains,andnativevegetation.Forest,discussedabove,andnativegrasslands alsoarenaturallyprovidedgreeninfrastructure.Unfortunately,muchofithasbeen losttohumanlandalterationactivitiesandwhatremainsisatriskofalterationor degradation.Therefore,acriticalgreeninfrastructurestrategyistopreserveand protectnaturesgreeninfrastructure,whilealsorestoringthatwhichhasbeenlost.

Source:LindaPearsall

Figures 7-11 and 7-12: Wetland and Riparian Zone.

Thefollowingprovidessomeexamplesofhowthesetypesofgreen infrastructurecanbeutilizedinparticularsettings(WERF2007): Streetscapeandroadwayprojects - Addtreeboxesorinfiltrationgardenstocapturestreetrunoff.

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12.SpecificExamplesofGreenInfrastructureFeatures inParticularDevelopmentSettings

Designmediansasinfiltrationareas. Useporouspavementforparkinglanes.

Commercialareaswithsignificantparking - Drainroofstogardens,planters,orparkingislandsand medians. - Usepermeablepavementinlowtrafficareas. - Drainparkingtograssbuffersandvegetatedswales. Smallinfillbuildingsitesorretrofits - Installagreenroofforbuildingsandparkingstructures. - Installpermeablepavementincourtyardsandplazas. - Drainroofstograssbuffersorswales. Residentialareas - Drainroofstoraingardens,grassswales,andgrassbuffers. - Draindriveways,walkways,andpatiostoadjacentrain gardensorgrassbuffers. - Constructdrivewaysusingpermeablepavement.

Examplesofgreeninfrastructureandpoliciessupportinggreen infrastructurecanbefoundonthefollowingwebsites: CenterforNeighborhoodTechnology,GreenInfrastructure, http://greenvalues.cnt.org/greeninfrastructure StateEnvironmentalResourceCenter,GreenInfrastructurePolicyIssues Package,http://www.serconline.org/grInfrastructure/index.html U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,ManagingWetWeatherwith GreenInfrastructure, http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298 WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation,LivableCommunities, http://www.werf.org/livablecommunities C.ChoosingGreen:TheBenefitsofGreenInfrastructure Greeninfrastructurecanprovideavarietyofenvironmental,economic,and socialbenefits.Thesebenefitscanbeespeciallypronouncedindevelopedarea becauseenvironmentaldamageisusuallygreaterandgreenspacemorelimitedin theselocales.Thebenefitsofgreeninfrastructureinclude:
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1.Greeninfrastructureimproveswaterquality. Greeninfrastructurereducestheconcentrationofpollutantsinstormwater runoff.Itdoessobycausingrunofftoinfiltrateclosetoitssource,thushelpingto preventpollutantsfrombeingtransportedtosurfacewaters.Additionally,plants andmicrobescannaturallyfilterandbreakdownstormwaterpollutantsin infiltratedrunoff. 2.Greeninfrastructurereducesanddelaysstormwaterrunoffvolumes.

Greeninfrastructureutilizesthenaturalretentionandinfiltration capabilitiesofvegetationandsoilstonaturallyretainandabsorbstormwater,thus reducingthevolumeofstormwaterrunoff,aswellasreducingstormwaterrunoff peakflows.Greeninfrastructurealsoincreasestheamountofperviousground cover,whichinturnincreasesstormwaterinfiltrationrates.Thisalsoreducesthe volumeofrunoff.Byreducingrunoffvolumesandpeakflowsenteringsurface waterbodiesandwastewatersystems,greeninfrastructurelimitsthefrequencyof floodingandsystemoverflowevents. 3.Greeninfrastructureimprovesairquality.

Greeninfrastructurecontributestoimprovedairquality.Vegetationand treesabsorbpollutantsfromtheair,thusfilteringmanyairbornepollutants.They alsocooltheair,leadingtodecreasedgroundlevelozonepollution. 4.Greeninfrastructureenhanceswatersupplies.

Greeninfrastructureincreasesnaturalinfiltration,thusimprovingtherateat whichgroundwateraquifersarereplenished.Improvedgroundwaterrechargecan enhanceprivateandpublicdrinkingwatersupplies,andcanhelptomaintain normalbaseflowratesforstreamsandrivers.Inaddition,greeninfrastructure techniquesthatcaptureandusestormwaterhelptoconservewatersupplies. 5.Greeninfrastructurereducesenergydemands andincreasesenergyefficiency.

Theincreasedamountsofgreenspaceandvegetationprovidedbygreen infrastructureindevelopedareascanreduceenergydemandsbecausetheymitigate theurbanheatislandeffect,thusloweringtemperatures.Thiscanalsolowerthe demandforairconditioningenergy,thusdecreasingpowerplantemissions.If incorporatedonandaroundbuildings,greeninfrastructurecanhelpwithshadeand insulation,thusdecreasingtheenergythatisneededforheatingandcooling. Additionally,divertingstormwaterfromwastewatersystemsreducestheenergy neededtopumpandtreatthewater.Allofthisreducesenergycoststobusinesses, governments,andcommunityresidents.

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6.Greeninfrastructureimproveshumanhealth.

Greeninfrastructurecanplayavitalroleinimprovinghumanhealth.Alarge numberofstudiesshowthatgreenspaceandvegetationcanpositivelyimpact humanhealth,includingreducedlevelsofinnercitycrime,astrongersenseof community,andreducedsymptomsassociatedwithattentiondeficitand hyperactivitydisorders(U.S.EPA2009). 7.Greeninfrastructureenhancescommunitiesandneighborhoods. Greeninfrastructurecanimprovetheaestheticsofacommunitybecauseof theincreaseintreesandplants.Italsoprovidesincreasedaccesstorecreational spaceandwildlifehabitats,thusimprovingcommunitylivability.Community cohesivenesscanbeenhancedbyinvolvingresidentswiththeplanning, implementation,andmaintenanceofgreeninfrastructuresites.Additionally,a numberofstudiesshowthatgreeninfrastructurecanincreasethepropertyvalues inthesurroundingarea(U.S.EPA2009). 8.Greeninfrastructuremoderatestheimpactsofclimatechange.

Greeninfrastructurecanbenefitadaptabilityforawiderangeof circumstancesthatresultfromclimatechangeimpacts.Thisadaptabilityispossible becausegreeninfrastructurecanconserveandreusewater,promotegroundwater recharge,andreducesurfacewaterdischargesthatcancauseflooding.Additionally, thevegetationutilizedingreeninfrastructurecanserveassourcesofcarbon sequestration,thuscapturingcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere. 9.Greeninfrastructuresavesmoney. Greeninfrastructurecansavecapitalcostsassociatedwithbuilding, operating,andmaintainingtraditionalformsofinfrastructure.Thecostsof repairingdamagecausedbystormwatercanalsobeavoided. D.ImplementingGreenInfrastructureinProjects Onceacommunityhasdecidedthatutilizinggreeninfrastructuremaybean option,itmustthenassessifthisisthebestoption.Onemethodthatcanbeused whendeterminingwhether,orwhere,toincorporategreeninfrastructureisvalue engineering.Thisapproachallowsforacomparisonofthecostsandvaluesofgreen infrastructurewiththatoftraditionalinfrastructure.Valueengineeringenablesa communitytoconsidertherelativecostsandbenefitsofthecomponentsofa project,andthensuggestswherechangesmaybemadetoprovidemorevaluefor lesscost. Thevalueengineeringapproachinvolvesthefollowingsteps(WERF2007):

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Identifyelementsofvalueorbenefitthatcanbeusedtomeasureand compareprojectcomponents.Factorsthatcanbeconsideredwhen identifyingelementsofvalueorbenefitarelandarearequirements forfloodstorageandwaterqualitytreatment,allowableordesired runoffvolume,onsitewateruserequirements,groundwaterrecharge needs,landscapeamenitiesopportunities,creationofhabitat,and recreationopportunities. Developaschematicoftheprojectusingtraditionalformsof infrastructure,andestimatethevalueorbenefitprovided,alongwith capitalandlifecyclecosts. Developanalternativeschematicoftheprojectusinggreen infrastructure,andestimatevalueandcostsofeachcomponent. Comparethetwodifferentapproachestoidentifywhichprovidesthe bestvalue.Thisisnotstrictlyacostbasedanalysis.

Onceitisdecidedthatagreeninfrastructureapproachwillbeutilized,and projectsbegintobeplanned,thefollowingprinciplesandpracticescanhelpto ensurethatagreeninfrastructureprojectsucceeds: Establishaninterdisciplinaryteamatthebeginningoftheproject. Thisgroupshouldinclude,amongothers,communityleaders,the projectowner,reviewagencies,engineers,andlandscapearchitects. Worktoensurethatthisteamremainstogetherthrough implementationoftheproject. Understandtheregulatoryanddevelopmentreviewenvironment. UnderstandwhichBestManagementPracticesworkbestinwhich developmentsettings. Understandthecontextinwhichtheprojectwillbeplaced.Thetype ofproject,aswellasitsaestheticqualities,shouldreflectsurrounding landusesandneighborhoodcharacter. Designtheprojecttomimicthenaturalenvironment. Designsustainableprojectsthatcanbeeasilymaintained(WERF 2007). E.ImplementingGreenInfrastructureinLocalPoliciesandCodes Greeninfrastructureisamatterofpublicpolicy,aswellaslandownerand developerchoices.Ingeneral,whenacommunityhasdeterminedthatgreen infrastructurewouldbebeneficial,certainpolicyrecommendationscanbeusedto encouragetheuseofgreeninfrastructure: getdevelopmentrightthefirsttime; incorporategreeninfrastructureintolongtermcontrolplansfor managingcombinedseweroverflows;
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revisestateandlocalstormwaterregulationstoencouragegreen design; establishdedicatedfundingforstormwatermanagementthatrewards greendesign; provideincentivesforresidentialandcommercialuseofgreen infrastructure; reviewandreviselocaldevelopmentordinances; preserveexistingtrees,openspace,andstreambuffers; encourageandusesmartgrowth;and getthecommunityinvolved(NRDC2006,pp.1315).

Morespecifically,though,incorporatinggreeninfrastructureintowetgrowth policiesrequiresattentiontolocalcodesandordinances.Althoughsomeofa communitysgreeninfrastructurewillresultfrompublicprojects(e.g.,government buildingsandfacilities,landscapedesignandmanagementalongroadsand highways,andwetlandsorstreamrestorationinitiatives)orfromthemanagement ofpubliclands(includingparks,natureareas,andrecreationalfacilities,wetgrowth policiesalsoincludethecreationofgreeninfrastructureonprivatelands. Communityofficialsandstakeholdersshouldanalyzetheirlocalcodesand ordinancestodeterminewhetherthey: allowgreeninfrastructureaspartofneworexistinglanduses; encouragegreeninfrastructureaspartofneworexistingland uses;and requiregreeninfrastructureaspartofneworexistinglanduses. First,acommunityslanddevelopmentcodesandordinancesmightdirectly orindirectlyprohibitlandownersanddevelopersfromusinggreeninfrastructure andthereforeneedtobechanged.Examplesmightinclude:1)minimumlotsizesor setbackrequirementsthatpreventclusteringofstructuresandpreservationof existingnaturalfeaturesofdevelopmentsites;2)barrierstosharedownershipand managementofswales,wetlands,andothergreeninfrastructure;3)requirements thatstructuresconnectdownspoutsdirectlytothestormwatersewersystem;4) roofdesignorstructuralrequirementsthatdonotallowforgreenroofs;or5) parkingrequirementsthatpreventgreenparkinglotdesign,amongother regulatoryrequirements.Theseprovisionsshouldbeanalyzedandamendedto allowgreeninfrastructure. Second,acommunityslanddevelopmentcodesandordinancescanactually facilitatedecisionsbylandownersanddeveloperstousegreeninfrastructure. Thesemightincludedensitybonusesorotherdevelopmentbonuses(e.g.,parking bonuses,heightbonuses,streamlined/fasttrackpermittingprocesses)forcertain especiallyvaluableorextensivegreeninfrastructurefeaturesofadevelopment projectbeyondnormalrequirements.Theymightincluderebatesoforreductions instormwaterorsewerserviceorhookupfeesforcertaingreeninfrastructure featuresthatminimizerunoff.Theymightincluderelieffromlandscaping
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requirementsifexistingmaturetreesandotherexistingnaturallandscapefeatures areretained.Localcommunitiesshouldanalyzetheircodesandordinancesfor opportunitiestoaddincentivesthatencouragegreeninfrastructure. Third,communitiesshouldconsiderrequiringlandownersanddevelopersto usegreeninfrastructurefeatures,especiallyfornewdevelopment.Examples include1)treepreservationordinances;2)minimumtreecanopyand/or landscapingrequirements;3)prohibitionsondevelopmentofwetlands,riparian bufferzones,naturalforests,nativegrasslands,orsimilarwatershedsupporting lands;4)maximumsitecoverageratios;and5)requirementsthatdevelopersselect fromamenuofgreeninfrastructurebestmanagementpractices(BMPs)in designinganddevelopingsites,amongotherpossibleregulatoryrequirements. Protectingorrequiringgreeninfrastructurebyregulationcanbenecessary,because developedsiteswithoutadequatestormwatermanagementareimposingthecosts andharmsoftheirlandusesontoneighbors,otherpropertyowners,businesses, governmentagencies,taxpayers,andthepublic.Privatepropertyrights,evenfrom highlylibertarianorfreemarketperspectives,haveneverallowedlandownersto usetheirlandinwaysthatharmothersortransferthecostsoftheirlandusesto others(i.e.,knownbyeconomistsasnegativeexternalities),whichiswhatis happeningwhendevelopedlandhashighquantities,velocities,and/orpollution levelsofrunoffflow.However,protectionsofexistinggreeninfrastructureand regulationsrequiringharmpreventinggreeninfrastructureespeciallywhen landownerscanchooseamongavarietyofgreeninfrastructuremethodsare cheaper,moreefficient,andmoreeffectiveatpreventingharms(andexternalized costs)forallrelevantpartiesthanthealternativewaysofremedyingtheseharms: litigationorfines.Regulatorymethodsandexamplesarediscussedfurtherin Chapter12.Inaddition,Chapter5exploreshowgreeninfrastructuremightbe incorporatedintolowimpactdevelopmentstandards. Sources: CenterforNeighborhoodTechnology.GreenInfrastructure.Availableat http://greenvalues.cnt.org/greeninfrastructure. CityofBurnsville,Minnesota.2006.BurnsvilleStormwaterRetrofitStudy. Availableathttp://www.ci.burnsville.mn.us/DocumentView.asp?DID=449. CityofPortland,Oregon.2004.2004StormwaterManagementManual,Chapter2, StormwaterManagementFacilityDesign.Availableat http://www.portlandonline.com/shared/cfm/image.cfm?id=55791&#page=49. CityofToronto.2007.DesignGuidelinesforGreeningSurfaceParkingLots. Availableat
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http://www.toronto.ca/planning/urbdesign/greening_parking_lots.htm#greenguid elines. NationalAssociationofLocalGovernmentEnvironmentalProfessionalsetal. (NALGEPetal.).2003.SmartGrowthforCleanWater:HelpingCommunities AddresstheWaterQualityImpactsofSprawl.Availableat http://www.resourcesaver.com/file/toolmanager/CustomO93C337F42157.pdf. NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC).2006.RooftopstoRivers:Green StrategiesforControllingStormwaterandCombinedSewerOverflows.Availableat http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/rooftops/rooftops.pdf. SoutheastWatershedForum.TheValueofCommunityForests. Stoner,NancyandAlexandraDapolitoDunn.2008.FromRooftopstoRivers: GreenInfrastructureYieldsEconomicandEnvironmentalBenefits.American PublicWorksAssociationReporter.February:15.Availableatwww.apwa.net. StormwaterManagersResourceCenter.2006.LandConservationFactSheet: UrbanWatershedReforestation. StateEnvironmentalResourceCenter.GreenInfrastructurePolicyIssuesPackage. Availableathttp://www.serconline.org/grInfrastructure/index.html. UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(U.S.EPA).2009.ManagingWet WeatherwithGreenInfrastructure.Availableat http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298. WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF).2007.WhenDoesGreen InfrastructureMakeSense.Availableat http://www.werf.org/livablecommunities/pdf/greenpay.pdf. WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation.LivableCommunities.Availableat http://www.werf.org/livablecommunities.

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