Mycologist, Volume 18, Part 4 November 2004. ©The British Mycological Society Printed in the United Kingdom.
DOI: 10.1017/S0269915XO4004069
The perception of Ganoderma lucidum in Chinese and
Western culture
DOROTHY McMEEKIN
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Michigan, USA, 48824
E-mail: mcmeekin@msu.edu
The art, mythology, and controversial science surrounding Ganoderma lucidum (Ling Chih) in China are described.
Keywords: Chinese art and mythology, Ganoderma
lucidum, Ling chih, morphology, controversy
The idea that either fungi or a particular fungus have
special medicinal, symbolic or mystical properties has
existed in China since antiquity. This has been described
by modern historians and subject to various
interpretations based on the translations of the Chinese
symbols, which have evolved, and local customs. It was
stated that mushrooms ‘absorb the earthly vapors and
leave a Heavenly atmosphere’ (Wei, 1969). Frequently
the concrete connection between myth and image is a
place: the sky, an island or a mountain. It was believed
that the sacred fungus grew in the home of the
immortals on the ‘three aisles of the blest’ off the coast
of China (Yetts, 1912). Parts of ‘The Classic of the
Mountains and the Seas’, written in China between the
3rd century BCE and 2nd century CE, contain
descriptions of plants and rocks (especially jade) on
447 mountains, and a text from about the 1st/century
CE mentions a small or fairie ‘mushroom people’, and in
another location a Mount Mushroom (Birrell, 1999).
This author notes that this is largely mythology and the
problem of plant identification is unresolved.
Although historically there were several special
fungi (Wang Yun-Chang, 1987), today Ganoderma
lucidum (Fig 1) is usually considered to be Ling Chih
(Lingzhi, ling-chi) or sacred fungus (Arora, 1986; Little,
1988). Besides immortality, it symbolizes success, well
being, divine power, good health, and longevity.
In the 6th century CE one Taoist sect, descended from
a mystical group founded in about the 4th century BCE
engaged in alchemy. The following is an example of one
of their elixirs supposed to promote immortality. It was
prepared by an adolescent disciple Chou Tzu-liang (ca
515-516/century CE). Powdered mushroom (plus
cinnabar: mercuric sulphide) was steeped overnight in
an earthenware jar buried 3 ft from a north wall. It was
dug up, put inside at the head of the bed, boiled in a
copper vessel, and left sealed. The elixir was achieved if
it gave off enough light for reading at night, stopped
flowing streams, sealed doors etc.. All of these steps
were for precise times. For more details see Strickmann
(1979). The disciple swallowed some elixir and died.
The idea that G. lucidum is hallucigenic and thus the
‘soma’ is explored and rejected by Wasson (1968). Too
tough to be edible, one way to prepare it is to soak the
fruiting body in wine for several months, and then the
liquid is either drunk or put in candy (Arora, 1986). It
is sold for medicinal purposes in markets in Thailand
today (Chamberlain, 1996).
Ganoderma lucidum is found on either the base of
stumps or roots of living hardwoods, and has a
worldwide distribution. There are two growth forms:
one common in N. America with little or no stem (Fig
1), and the other with a long stem and relatively small
cap more common in the tropics and old world. (like G.
perzonatum Fig 4). There are many intermediate forms
and occasionally specimens have branched stems
(Arora, 1986). A 19th C physician to the Russian
delegation in Peking described the ling chih sold in
apothecary shops as orange, ligneous and branched
(Bretschneider, 1892). A detailed review of Ganoderma
sp in N. Europe was provided by Petersen (1987).
Scientific explanations of its shape can be either
environmental or genetic or both. Wasson (1968)
suggested that the branched form is caused by lack of
light, since the original specimen (the basis of
mythology) with nine branches appeared on wood in
the inner pavilion in the Imperial Palace being
constructed by Emperor Wu during the Han Dynasty in
the 2nd /century BCE (see Fig 3, 17th/century CE scroll).
This is supported by Bambeke (1895), who found
longer stems and smaller caps in caves. Boudier (1899)
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Mycologist, Volume 18, Part 4 November 2004

Fig 1 Ganoderma lucidum, fresh specimen, Ginn Woods, Indiana, Sept. 20, 2002. Fig 2 Ganoderma lucidum, growing on a saw-
dust mixture in plastic containers, photo by Wen-Neng Chou, National Museum of Natural Science, Taiwan.

reported that injury caused branching. fungus in the beak of the crane in Fig 9, hence the
The distribution of long stems that are occasionally conclusion that the clouds are actually cloud-
branched in the Old World and little stems in mushroom designs (Wasson, 1968) and symbolize the
N. America (Arora, 1986) may reflect a genetic aforementioned Heavenly atmosphere. A variant cloud-
difference in the population. To investigate this Triratan mushroom is on a cup (Fig 8).
& Chaiprasert (1991) crossed 14 monokaryotic The last stage in this shift toward abstraction is a
cultures of G. lucidum native to Thailand and most of painting titled ‘The pavilion of the purple fungus’
the basidiocarps formed were like the parent (Fig 1 (Siren, 1958) in which the fungus is not shown at all,
type), but there were ‘unusual ones’. These studies were and thus not pictured here. Just putting the word
conducted under fairly uniform conditions: a substrate mushroom into the title implies immortality. Examples
mixture of pararubber (Hevea brasiliensis) sawdust, rice like those chosen here (Figs 3 & 5 – 10) can be found in
bran, gypsum and magnesium sulphate with ‘natural
indoor daylight’ at 27-32°C. They associate branching
in some cases with CO2 accumulation under plastic
wrap in an arrangement similar to that shown in Fig 2.
The proliferation of representations of G. lucidum in
art beginning in the 1400’s CE is associated with
Taoism. A number of abstract styles can be used to
depict this organism as is shown in the diagrams in
Fig 5. These styles are based on the fact that the upper
surface of the fan shaped G. lucidum (Fig 1) has
concentric grooves and brown to reddish brown bands
with a white area of most recent growth at the margin.
Style a (Fig 5) is a sceptre, a symbol of power frequently
in the hands in an emperor’s portrait, and here (Fig 7)
as part of a ‘rebus’: a bouquet of plants representing
immortality (Yetts, 1912). In Fig 6 a man and a boy are
gathering fungi (Fig 5 style b), not flowers (see the Fig 3 A nine branched Ganoderma lucidum on a table is a detail
symbol for fungus Fig 5 b, Fry et. al. 1925). Style c (Fig in a hanging scroll depicting ‘Lady Xuanwen Jun giving
instructions on the classics’, dated 1638, by Chen Hongshou
5) with nine branches is on the table in Fig 3.
1598-1652, Ming Dynasty, ink and color on silk, 173.7 x
You may think that the designs behind the crane in 55.4 cm. © The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2002, Mr. and
Fig 10 are just clouds but they are shaped like the Mrs. William H. Marlatt Fund, 1961.89.

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Fig 4 Ganoderma perzonatum, dried specimen, Puerto Rico, 1913, collection of the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, N.Y.
reference number 7143. Fig 5 Styles of Ganoderma lucidum representation in art: a) a scepter, b) symbol for Ling Chih "sacred
fungus" (Fry et al 1925), c) type in either cloud like or branched form. Fig 6 A man and boy gathering fungi (see symbol Fig 5
b), a) and b) Fig 6 are enlargements of the contents of the baskets, scroll, 1930, Michigan State University Museum, Cat. No.
1637.4. Fig 7 A rebus or bouquet of plants, detail of wine pot, 19th C, Michigan State University Museum, Cat. No. 2382.27.
Fig 8 A cloud-mushroom design on a cup purchased from a street vendor in Hong Kong in 1987. Fig 9 A crane (symbol of
longevity) with a fungus in its beak, a detail on an oriental lacquered stand in an antique store in Ohio, USA. Fig 10 A crane
surrounded by cloud mushrooms, detail in the gown of a "Portrait of a Chinese Lady", anonymous, early 19th C, Ming tradition,
watercolor on silk, gift of Dr. Shao Chang Lee, Kresge Museum of Art, Michigan State University, Cat. No. 60.3.1.

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many places ranging from museums of fine arts and
natural history to antique stores and street vendors
illustrating the pervasiveness of the fungus as a symbol
in Chinese culture.
By studying the perception of fungi in China we can
acquire insight into both Western and Eastern culture.
If you examine photos of 17th and early 18th C European
decorated objects referred to as ‘Chinoiserie’ by art
historians, who indicate that their designs are based
primarily on descriptions and only secondarily on
Chinese imported products (Gruber, 1994), you will
find that representations of fungi are missing. The
indices of Western books on Chinese art include jade,
cranes, chrysanthemum, lotus, etc, also linked to
mythology, but fungus and mushroom with similar
symbolism are not listed even though they appear in
the photos and text.
Eastern scientists have reported that spore extracts
of G. lucidum prolong the life span, stimulate and
regulate the immune system, and affect the endocrine
system in mice suggesting that it is an antiageing agent
(Xiao et al., 1993). Liu (1993) not only reported
therapeutic effects of G. lucidum in mice but also in
patients with several human diseases and pointed out
the need for greater effort in understanding the nature
and mode of action of these agents. Pegler (2002)
comments that limited clinical tests in the West have
failed to confirm the claim of curative properties. To
what extent is the perception of a ‘cure’ or even the
observation of experimental results by a scientist
influenced by one’s cultural history, i.e. Eastern or
Western? If you think something will cure you, is it
more likely to do so?
Why were the uncommon forms of G. lucidum
described as monstrocities caused by teratogens in the
West (Bambeke, 1895) or abnormal (Pegler, 2002),
while in the East they were viewed more positively?
These questions may motivate us to further study. Non-
mycologist acquaintances and museum curators are
interested in knowing what is in their art collections.
For field mycologists it is an area to explore when it is
not the season for gathering fungi.
Questions are being raised as to whether what is
now called G. lucidum is one species or several because
of its diverse morphology (Seo & Kirk, 2000; Pegler &
Yao, 1996). Ryvarden (1994) has referred to the
situation as taxonomic chaos. This organism, that has
been considered for centuries in some Asian societies as
medicinally good for humans, has relatively recently
been associated with a root rot disease in coconut in
India (Bhaskaran, 2000). Can the fungus associated
with either art or a plant disease really be G. lucidum, if
taxonomists haven’t decided on its description?
168
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Val Berryman, curator of collections at the
Michigan State University Museum, for sharing his
expertise in this area.
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Society for General Microbiology 154th Meeting. Joint
Environmental Microbiology Group and the British
Mycological Society session, Bath, March 31-April 1 2004
The joint SGM/BMS session at the University of
Bath was an ideal occasion to bring together expertise
from mycology, microbiology, and geoscience. Two
excellent presentations by Henry Ehrlich and Geoffrey
Gadd opened the session, and conveyed a sense of
conceptual synergy that remained for the two days.
An extraordinarily high quality of symposia by
international leaders in the fields of fungal activity,
biomineralisation, bioremediation, and other
disciplines was presented, supported by a wide
variety of posters and informal discussions in a
relaxed environment. Several presentations that
included animated modelling of fungal growth and
nutrient transport mechanisms illustrated the
potential of applying advanced mathematics to
biological systems.
The University of Bath was a large enough venue to
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Immunological aspects of Chinese medicinal plants as
antiageing drugs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 38:
167-175.
Yetts, W. P. (1912). Symbolism in Chinese Art. The China
Society. E. J. Brill Co.: Leyden, Holland.
provide all the necessary amenities but yet small
enough to contribute to an overall convivial
atmosphere, and the isolated setting of the campus
on top of a hill overlooking the UNESCO World
Heritage city of Bath lent a creative atmosphere to the
meeting. Delegates were well catered for, and the
"Choices" breakfasts provided energy for the morning
sessions. Ample tea/coffee breaks provided both the
opportunity to replenish energy and to peruse the
many multi-disciplinal posters that were on display.
The evening program included frequenting several of
the excellent local restaurants and pubs and also
featured a society reception at the Roman Baths and
conference dinner on the University campus, both of
which were well attended.
Deirdre Gleeson and James Baldini
169