EEE 332 COMMUNICATION CLASS 3&4

DR NORLAILI MOHD NOH

Text book: Louis E. Frenzel. Jr. Principles of Electronic J p Communication Systems,Third Ed. Mc Graw Hill.

1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.

1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 1-13: The electromagnetic spectrum.

1 5: 1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments. Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 3 MHz: Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) Voice Frequencies (VF) Very Low F V L Frequencies (VLF) i 30300 Hz. 3003000 Hz. include the higher d f the i l d th hi h end of th human hearing range up to about 20 kHz. 30300 kH 30 300 kHz. 3003000 kHz AM radio 5351605 kHz.

Low F L Frequencies (LF) i Medium Frequencies (MF)

( (10 kHz < f < 5MHz are the long radio waves) g )

1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 3 MHz to 3 GHz (5 MHz < f < 5 GHz are the h t di th short radio waves) )
High Frequencies (HF)
(short ( h t waves; BBC b d broadcasts; t government and military two-way communication; amateur radio.

330 MHz

Very High F V Hi h Frequencies (VHF) i

FM radio broadcasting (88108 MHz).

30300 MH 30 300 MHz

Ultra High Frequencies (UHF)

TV channels, cellular phones, military communication.

3003000 MHz

1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Ranges from 1 GHz Hz to 300 GHz
Microwaves and Super High Frequencies (SHF)
Satellite communication, radar, wireless LANs, microwave ovens

130 GHz

Extremely High Frequencies (EHF)

Satellite communication, computer data, radar

30300 GHz

1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Frequency q y g q y A signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its frequency and wavelength. Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given period of time. A cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals, current reversals, or electromagnetic field oscillations. Frequency measured cycles Freq enc is meas red in c cles per second (cps) (cps). The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).

Figure 1-15: Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave and is usually expressed in meters. Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle. The wavelength of a signal is represented by the Greek letter lambda () ().

Figure 1-15: Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.
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1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength
Wavelength () = speed of light frequency Speed of light = 3 108 meters/second Therefore: = 3 108 / f Hence, if f increases, decreases. Example: What is the wavelength if the frequency is 4MHz? g y = 3 108 / 4 MHz = 75 meters (m) ( )
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1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum The ti l Th optical spectrum exists directly above th millimeter t i t di tl b the illi t wave region. Three types of light waves are: Infrared I f d Visible spectrum Ultraviolet

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1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: Infrared Infrared radiation is produced by any physical equipment that generates heat, including our bodies. Infrared is used: In astronomy, to detect stars and other physical bodies in the universe, For guidance in weapons systems, where the heat radiated from airplanes or missiles can be detected and used to guide missiles to targets. In most TV remote-control units, where special coded signals are transmitted by an infrared LED to the TV receiver to change channels set the volume and perform channels, volume, other functions. In some of the newer wireless LANs and all fiber-optic communication.
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1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we refer to as light. Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light. The great advantage of light wave signals is that their very high f hi h frequency enables them t h dl a t bl th to handle tremendous amount d t of information i.e. the bandwidth of the baseband signals can be very wide.

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Light wavelengths are normally expressed in terms of angstroms

o A .
1A = 1010 m
o o

The visible range

8000 A (red) to 4000 A (violet)

Light waves can be modulated and transmitted through glass fibers, just as electric signals can be transmitted over wires. Light signals can also be transmitted through free space. Various types of communication systems have been created using a laser that generates a light beam at a spesific visible frequency.

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1-5: 1 5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical Spectrum: Ult i l t (UV) O ti l S t Ultraviolet
UV covers the range from 4 to 400 nm UV nm. generated by the sun is what causes sunburn. UV is also generated by mercury vapor lights and some other types of lights such as fluorescent lamps and sun lamps. Ultraviolet is not used for communication Its primary use is medical medical. Beyond the visible region are the X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays which are electromagnetic radiation b t not used i communication systems. di ti but t d in i ti t
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1-6: Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. BW is the difference between the upper and lower frequency pp q y limits of the signal or the equipment operation range. Figure below shows the BW of the voice frequency range from 300 to 3000 Hz. The upper frequency is f2 and the lower frequency is f1 1.

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In the electromagnetic spectrum, the resulting signal occupies a small portion of the spectrum surrounding the carrier frequency. The modulation process causes other signals called signals, sidebands, to be generated at frequencies above and below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the modulating frequency. Hence, the modulation process generates other signals that take up spectrum space. BW refers to the range of q frequencies that contain the information. Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the d i d i d i h desired information.
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Signals transmitting on the same frequency or on overlapping frequencies do interfere with one another Thus a limited number another. of signals can be transmitted in the frequency spectrum. As communication activities have grown over the years, there has been a continuous demand for more frequency channels over which communication can be transmitted. This has pushed for the development of equipment that operates at the higher frequencies. Prior to WW2, frequencies above 1 GHz were q q unused since there were no electronic components suitable for generating signals at those frequencies. But todays technology advancement has given us transistors and ICs that work in the microwave range.

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1-6: 1 6: Bandwidth
Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kH and 300 MH h b t i t l kHz d MHz has been spoken for. There is tremendous competition for these frequencies, between companies, individuals, and government services in individual carriers and between the different nations of the world world. The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural resources.

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1-6: 1 6: Bandwidth
Communication engineering is devoted to making the best th b t use of th t fi it spectrum. f that finite t Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that minimize the bandwidth required to transmit given information and thus conserve spectrum space. This provides more room f Thi id for additional dditi l communication channels and gives other services or users an opportunity to take advantage of it.

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1-6: 1 6: Bandwidth
Spectrum Management Spectrum management i provided b agencies set up b S t t is id d by i t by the United States and other countries to control spectrum use. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) are two agencies in the US that deal in spectrum management licensing. International telecommunications Union (ITU) Responsible (ITU). for organizing Regional Administrative Radio Conferences (RARC) and Worldwide Administrative Radio Conferences (WARC). (WARC) It is a body under the UN UN. Local body that manages the wireless communication and frequency spectrum is the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission Commission. This body follows the ITU specifications.
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Standards Standards St d d are specifications and guidelines necessary t ifi ti d id li to ensure compatibility between transmitting and receiving equipment . examples: GSM (Gl b l S t l (Global System f for M bil C Mobile Communication, i ti 900MHz)W-CDMA (Wideband-Code Division Multiple Access,1.9 GHz-2.1 GHz) and W-LAN (Wireless-Local Area Network,2.4 GHz-5 GHz). GHz 5 GHz)

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1-7: A Survey of Communications A li ti C i ti Applications

Simplex AM and FM broadcasting Digital radio TV broadcasting Digital television (DTV) Cable television Facsimile Wireless remote control
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Paging services Navigation and direction finding direction-finding services Telemetry Radio astronomy Surveillance Music services Internet radio and video

1-7: A Survey of Communications A li ti C i ti Applications

Duplex Telephones Two-way radio Radar Sonar Amateur radio Citizens radio Family Radio service The Internet Wide-area Wide area networks (WANs) Metropolitan-area networks (MANs) Local area networks (LANs)

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Topics Covered in Chapter 2 for EEE332

2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels 2-4: Fourier Theory

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2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Most circuits in electronic communication are used to manipulate signals to produce a desired p g p result. All signal processing circuits i i l i i it involve: l
Gain Attenuation

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2-1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels Gain,

Gain
Gain means amplification. It is the ratio of a circuits output to its input.

AV =

output input

Vout Vin

Figure 2-1: An amplifier has gain.

2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and D ib l d Decibels

Most amplifiers are also power amplifiers, so the same procedure can be used to calculate power gain AP where Pin is the power input and Pout is the power output. Power gain (Ap) = Pout / Pin Example: The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The power gain i 80 Wh t i th i i is 80. What is the input power? t ? Ap = Pout / Pin therefore Pin = Pout / Ap Pin = 6 / 80 = 0.075 W = 75 mW
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2 1: 2-1: Gain, Attenuation and Decibels

An amplifier is cascaded when two or more stages are connected together. The overall gain is the p g product of the individual circuit gain. g Example: p power g gains of 5, 2, and 17. The Three cascaded amplifiers have p input power is 40 mW. What is the output power? Ap = Ap1 Ap2 Ap3 = 5 2 17 = 170 Ap = Pout / Pin therefore Pout = ApPin Pout = 170 (40 10-3) = 6.8W

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2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and D ib l d Decibels

Attenuation Attenuation refers t a loss introduced b a circuit Att ti f to l i t d d by i it or component. If the output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss or attenuation. tt ti The letter A is used to represent gain as well as attenuation Attenuation A = output/input = Vout/Vin Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1. With cascaded circuits, the total attenuation is the product of the individual attenuations.
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2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

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Figure 2-3: A voltage divider introduces attenuation.

2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and D ib l d Decibels

Figure 2-4: Total attenuation is the product of individual attenuations of each cascaded circuit. 31

2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Decibels The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure used to express the gain or loss of a circuit. The decibel was originally created to express hearing response. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. When gain and attenuation are both converted into decibels, decibels the overall gain or attenuation of a circuit can be computed by adding individual gains or attenuations, expressed in decibels.
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2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Decibels: Decibel Calculations Voltage Gain or Attenuation dB = 20 log Vout/ Vin Current Gain or Attenuation g dB = 20 log Iout/ Iin Power Gain or Attenuation dB = 10 log Pout/ Pin

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2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Decibels: Decibel Calculations Example: An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain in decibels? dB = 20 log 5/0 003 5/0.003 = 20 log 1666.67 = 20 (3.22) = 64.4

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2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Decibels: Decibel Calculations Example: E l A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the gain or attenuation? dB = 10 log (2/50) = 10 log (0.04) = 10 (1 398) ( 1.398) = 13.98 If the decibel figure is positive, that denotes a gain. Hence, the example given shows that the filter introduces attenuation to the signal (gain<1).
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Total gain or attenuation is the algebraic sum of the individual t i di id l stage gains i d ib l i in decibels.

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Notice that dB is ve when ratio <1, dB=0 when ratio=1, power gain =3 dB and voltage gain = 6dB when ratio is 2.
Ratio (power or voltage) 0.000001 0.00001 0 00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5 1 2 10 100 1000 10,000
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Power -60 -50 50 -40 -30 -20 -10 -3 0 3 10 20 30 40 50

Voltage -120 -100 100 -80 -60 -40 -20 -6 0 6 20 40 60 80 100

100,000

2-1: Gain, 2 1: Gain Attenuation and Decibels

Decibels: Antilogs Antilogs are used t calculate i A til d to l l t input or output voltage or power, t t t lt given the decibel gain or attenuation and the output or input.

Pout dB d Pout Pout dB d dB d -1 1 dB = 10log , = log , = antilog = log Pin 10 Pin Pin 10 10 Vout dB Vout Vout dB dB -1 1 dB = 20log 20l , = log l , = antilog il = log l Vin 20 Vin Vin 20 20
Example: An amplifier has a g p p gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage p g is 50 V, what is the output voltage?

Vout Vin
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= antilog

dB 20

, Vout = 50 10 antilog
-6

60 20

= 50 mV

2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and D ib l d Decibels

Decibels: dBm When a decibel value is computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. This is a useful reference value. Pout (W) dBm = 10log 0.001(W) Example: If a microphone has an output of -50 dBm, the actual output power is
Pout = 0.001 log
-1

50
10

= 10 nW

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Decibels: dBc The value dBc is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier. The carrier is a signal that is modulated by the baseband/intelligence signal. Often the amplitudess sidebands, spurious or interfering signals are referred to the carrier. Psignal dBc = 10log Pcarrier Example: If the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to the 10 W carrier, the dBc is
dBc = 10log
40

0.001 0 001 10

= 10 4 = 40

2-4: 2 4: Fourier Theory

The mathematical analysis of the modulation and multiplexing methods used in communication systems assumes sine wave carriers and information signals. This simplifies the analysis and makes operation predictable. Practically, not all information signals are sinusoidal. Information signals are typically more complex voice and video signals that are essentially composites of sine waves of many frequencies and amplitudes. Information signals can take on an infinite number of shapes, including g p g rectangular waves (i.e. digital pulses), triangular waves, sawtooth waves, and other non-sinusoidal forms. Such signals require that a non-sine wave approach be taken to determine the characteristics and performance of any communication circuit or system. One of the methods used to do this is Fourier analysis, which provides a means of accurately analyzing the content of most comple nonsin soidal signals complex nonsinusoidal signals.
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2 4: 2-4: Fourier Theory

2-4: Fourier Theory A harmonic is a sine wave whose frequency is some integer multiple of a fundamental sine wave. Ex: The 3rd harmonic of a 2 kH sine wave i a sine wave of 6 kH h i f kHz i is i f kHz.

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Figure 2-57: A sine wave and its first four harmonics.

2-4: Fourier Theory

The Fourier theory states that a nonsinusoidal waveform can be broken down into individual harmonically related sine wave or cosine wave h i ll l t d i i components. A square wave is one classic example of this phenomenon, which is a rectangular signal with equal duration positive and negative alternations.

sine wave
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cosine wave

2-4: Fourier Theory

Basic Concepts Fourier analysis states that a square wave is made up of a sine wave at the fundamental frequency of the square wave plus an infinite number of odd harmonics. Ex: if the fundamental frequency of the square wave is 1 kHz the square wave can be kHz, synthesized by adding the 1 kHz sine wave and harmonic sine waves of 3 kHz, 5 kHz, 7 kHz, 9 kHz, etc. Fourier analysis allows us to determine not only sine-wave components in a complex signal but also a signals bandwidth signal s bandwidth.

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The sine waves must be of the correct amplitude and phase relationship l ti hi to t one another. The fundamental sine wave in this case has a value of 20 Vp-p (or 10 Vp). When the sine wave values are added instantaneously, the results approaches a square wave.

The more higher harmonics that are added, the more the composite wave looks like a perfect square wave Figure below wave. shows how the composite wave would look with more than 20 odd harmonics added to the fundamental. The results very closely approximate a square wave.

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The implication of this is that a square wave should be analyzed as a collection of harminically related sine waves rather than a single wave entity. This is confirmed by performing a Fourier mathematical analysis on the square wave. The result is the following equation, which expresses voltage as a function of time:

4V 1 1 3 1 5 1 7 f (t) = sin2 t + sin2 t + sin2 t + sin2 t +..... T 3 T 5 T 7 T

where the factor 4V/ is a multiplier for all sine terms and V is the square wave peak voltage. The first term is the fundamental sine wave and the succeeding terms are the 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics harmonics. Note that the terms also have an amplitude factor. In this case, the amplitude is also a function of the harmonic. The 3rd harmonic has a a p tude t at s /3 o t e u da e ta a p tude an amplitude that is 1/3 of the fundamental amplitude.
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If the square wave is direct current rather than alternating current, as shown in (b), the Fourier expression has a dc component. t

V 4V 1 1 1 f (t) = + sin2 ft + sin23 ft + sin25 ft + sin27 ft +..... f f f f 2 3 5 7

In this equation, V/2 is the dc component, the average value of the square.

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A general formula for the Fourier equation of a waveform is f i

f (t ) =

V 2

( sin 2 nft ) n
n =1

4V

where n is odd. The dc component, if one is present in the waveform, is V/2. By using calculus and other mathematical techniques, the th waveform is defined, analyzed, and expressed as f i d fi d l d d d a summation of sine and/or cosine terms

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The triangular wave exhibits the fundamental and odd harmonics, b t it i made up of cosine waves rather h i but is d f i th than sine waves.

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The sawtooth wave contains the fundamental plus all odd and even h dd d harmonics. i

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Figures (d) and (e) show half cosine pulses like those seen at the output of half and full wave rectifiers, respectively. Both have an average dc component. The half wave signal is made up of even harmonics only, whereas the full wave signal has both odd and even harmonics.

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The figure below shows the Fourier expression for a dc square wave where the average dc component is Vt 0 .
T

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2-4: 2 4: Fourier Theory

Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Analysis f A l i of variations of voltage, current, or power with respect i ti f lt t ith t to time are expressed in the time domain. Most of the signals and waveforms that had been seen so far are in this domain. Their mathematical expressions contain the variable time t t, indicating that they are a time-variant quantity. A frequency domain plots sine and/or cosine component amplitude variations with respect to frequency frequency. Fourier theory gives us a new and different way to express and illustrate complex signals, that is, with respect to frequency. frequency The complex signals containing many sine and/or cosine components are expressed as sine or cosine wave amplitudes at different frequencies.

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2-4: 2 4: Fourier Theory

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Figure 2-63: The relationship between time and frequency domains.

2 4: 2-4: Fourier Theory

Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Signals and waveforms i communication applications are Si l d f in i ti li ti expressed by using both time-domain and frequency domain plots. In many cases, the frequency-domain plot is far more useful. useful This is particularly true in the analysis of complex signal waveforms as well as the many modulation and multiplexing methods used in communication. An oscilloscope displays the voltage amplitude of a signal wrt a horizontal time axis. On the other hand, a spectrum analyzer, is the instrument used to produce a frequencydomain display. The horizontal sweep axis of the spectrum p y p p analyzer is calibrated in Hz and the vertical axis is calibrated in volts or power units or decibels. It is the key test instrument in designing, analyzing, and y g g, y g, troubleshooting communication equipment.
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