Nota kimia t4

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Element a substance consists of one type of atom. Compound a substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded(molecule or ions). Atom smallest particle of an element. Molecule a group of two or more atoms. Ion a positively charged / negatively charged particle. Isotopes atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleonnumbers. Relative atomic mass of an element = the average mass of one atom of an element/((1/12) x the mass of one carbon-12 atom) Relative molecular mass of an element = the average mass of one atom of an molecule/((1/12) x the mass of one carbon-12 atom) Molecule formula compound shows the actual number of atoms of each element that are present in a molecule of the compound Empirical formula compound shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the compound Mole amount of substance that contains as many particles as the number of atoms inexactly 12 g of carbon-12 the symbol of mole is mol. One mole Avogadro constant 6.02 x 1023 Group (Periodic Table) vertical columns of element (similar chemical properties). Periods (Periodic Table) horizontal rows of element. Valence electrons electrons that occupy the outermost shell. Ionic bond bond formed through the transfer of electrons between atoms of metal andnon-metal to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement. Ionic compound consist of positive ions and negative ions which are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. Covalent bond bond formed through the sharing of non-metal electrons to achieve the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement. Covalent compound (also simple molecular structure) consists of neutral molecules which are held by weak intermolecular forces (Van der Waals). Alkali (base) chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydroxide ions, OH -. Acid chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ions, H + or hydroxonium ions, H3O+. pH degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Scale ranges from 0 to 14. pH value measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+. Strong alkali ionises (dissociates) completely in water to form hydroxide ions, OH- of high concentration. Weak alkali ionises (dissociates) partially in water to form hydroxide ions, OH- of low concentration. Strong acid ionises (dissociates) completely in water to form hydrogen ions, H+ of high concentration. Weak acid ionises (dissociates) partially in water to form hydrogen ions, H+ of low concentration. Polymer long chain molecules made up by monomer (repeating unit).

So there you go!!! 28 of the most common definitions for SPM Form 4 Chemistry.

Chemistry earlier study of alchemy (an art of transforming common metals to precious metals, usually lead to gold but to no success) (alchemy has since been proven to be a wrong and currently dead branch of science) Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties and interactions of matter. Founder of Modern Chemistry (try and read up on the history of these two great men) 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) performed controlled experiments and published his work with elaborate details such as procedure, apparatus and observations. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) developed the Law of Conservation of Mass and thetheory of combustion. Making Observation Making Inference (smart guess) Identifying the Problem Making a Hypothesis Identifying the Variables Controlling the Variables Planning an Experiment Collecting Data Interpreting Data Scientific Method

10. Making a Conclusion 11. Writing a Report

Important Terms Matter anything that occupies space and has mass. Compound a substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded (molecule or ions). Element a substance that cannot be made into anything simpler by chemical reaction. Atom smallest particle of an element. Molecule a group of two or more atoms. Ion a positively charged / negatively charged particle. Cations positively-charge ions. Example: H+, K+, NH4+ and Mg2+ Anions negatively-charge ions. Example: Br-, OH-, O2- and S2O32Velocity of the particle increases when

Temperature increases Kinetic energy increases

Diffusion movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of lowconcentration. Changes in the States of Matter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Freezing / Solidification liquid -> solid Melting solid -> liquid Evaporation liquid -> gas / vapour Condensation gas / vapour -> liquid Sublimation gas / vapour -> solid Sublimation solid -> gas / vapour

(Sublimation iodine, ammonium chloride and solid carbon dioxide) Important Scientist and Their Contributions Berry Berry Teacher thinks that it will be good if students can link the contribution of each great scientists to their findings. This will allow a chronological understanding of the discoveries (for easier understanding) and to appreciate the work of these fine scientist.

John Dalton (1808) atomic theory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 1. 2. Atoms small indivisible particles. Atoms neither created nor destroyed. Atoms an element are alike. Atoms it combine in simple ratio. Atoms chemical reactions result from combination / separation of atoms. Electrons negatively-charged particles. Atoms positively-charged sphere. Atoms consists of a positively-charged nucleus with a cloud of electrons surrounding nucleus. Protons positively-charged particles.

J. J. Thomson (1897)

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

Niels Bohr (1913) 1. 1. 2. 3. Electrons surrounding the nucleus (orbit). Neutrons electrically neutral subatomic particles. Neutrons mass almost the same with a proton. Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. James Cadwick (1932)

Concepts of the Atomic Model Modern Atomic Model

1. 2.

Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons moving around the nucleus (orbits / electron shells/ quantum shells)

Proton number / Atomic number / Number of protons 1. 2. 1. Number of protons in its atom. Number of electrons (neutral atom). Sum of the number protons and neutrons.

Nucleon number / Mass number / Number of nucleon

Isotopes atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleonnumbers. (Further clarification on isotopes as there are still students who are confused with this concept Isotopes for any elements simply means that it is another element with the same number of proton and electron but different number of neutrons. It is important to note that the atomic number of isotopes are the same, although the mass number is different. If you can understand this concept, you should be okay)

Chemistry Form 5: Chapter 2 - Dehydration of Alcohol

ALCOHOL -------> ALKENE

a) b) In the dehydration of alcohols, a molecule of water is eliminated from each alcohol molecule to produce alkene. There are two methods of dehydration: Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated unglazed porcelain chips, porous pot, pumice stone or alumina (aluminium oxide). Ethanol is heated under reflux at 170 C with excess concentrated sulphuric acid.

School Laboratory Experiment

Alkene can be tested by decolourising brown bromine water or decolourising purple acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution.
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THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 9 - Making of Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which metal is the major component. The making of alloy is: To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal. To prevent corrosion. To improve the appearance of a pure metal.

Pure Metal

Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms that are in same size. Therefore, when a force is applied, the layers of atoms can slide over one another. Thus, metals are ductile or can be stretched. There are some empty spaces in between the pure metal atoms. When a metal is knocked or pressed, groups of atoms may slide and then settle into new positions. Thus, metals are malleable or can be shaped.

Alloy

 Some of the spaces between the metal atoms are filled up by the foreign atoms which may be bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms. The presence of foreign atoms disrupts the orderly arrangement or the pure metal. The layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over one another easily. This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals.

Examples of alloy
Alloy Steel Stainless steel Bronze Brass Magnalium Duralumin Composition 99 % iron + 1 % carbon 74 % iron + 18 % chromium + 8 % nickel 90 % copper + 10 % tin 70 % copper + 30 % zinc 70 % aluminium + 30 % magnesium 95 % aluminium + 4 % copper + 1 % magnesium 97 % tin + 3 % lead and antimony 50 % tin + 50 % lead 25 % copper + 75 % nickel

Pewter Solder cupronickel

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SATURDAY, OCTOBER 22, 2011

Chemistry Form 5: Chapter 2 - Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation process is addition reaction to convert alkene becomes alkane. It converts unsaturated compound to saturated compound.

Ethene reacts with H2 at 180 C in the presence of nickel or platinum catalyst to produce ethane
Click on the diagram below to play!

Application of hydrogenation: Making Margarine

Vegetable oils often contain high proportions of polyunsaturated and mono-unsaturated fats (oils), and as a result are liquids at room temperature. That makes them messy to spread on your bread or toast, and inconvenient for some baking purposes. You can "harden" (raise the melting point of) the oil by hydrogenating it in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Conditions (like the precise temperature, or the length of time the hydrogen is passed through the oil) are carefully controlled so that some, but not necessarily all, of the carbon-carbon double bonds are hydrogenated. This produces a "partially hydrogenated oil" or "partially hydrogenated fat".

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FRIDAY, OCTOBER 14, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 9 - Haber Process

1. The physical properties of ammonia are:

Colourless and alkaline gas Strong pungent smell Highly soluble in water

2. Ammonia usually produces white fumes of ammonium chloride when reacted with hydrogen chloride. 3. The main uses of ammonia are:

Manufacturing nitrogen fertilizers Manufacturing nitric acid through Ostwald process.

To make explosives, dyes, household cleaners and nylon As a cooling agent.

Making of Ammonia
Ammonia is manufactured by combining nitrogen and hydrogen in an important industrial process called the Haber process. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic.

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air. Hydrogen gas is obtained through the reaction between natural gas and steam. Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the ratio of 1 : 3 Click on the diagram below to play! How to separate ammonia

When the gases leave the reactor they are hot and at a very high pressure. Ammonia is easily liquefied under pressure as long as it isn't too hot, and so the temperature of the mixture is lowered enough for the ammonia to turn to a liquid. The nitrogen and hydrogen remain as gases even under these high pressures, and can be recycled.

An ammonia production plant. Photo courtesy of WMC Resources Ltd

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WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 12, 2011

Chemistry Form 5: Chapter 4 - Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction

Chemical energy is needed to transform a chemical substance into a new product through chemical reaction. Therefore, breaking or formation of chemical bond involves energy, which may be either absorbed or released from a chemical reaction. To break the chemical bond, energy from surrounding is absorbed resulting decrease of temperature of surrounding.

To form the chemical bond, energy from reaction is released to the surrounding resulting increase of temperature of surrounding.

Exothermic Reaction Chemical reaction that gives out heat to the surroundings. Temperature of the surroundings increases.

Endothermic Reaction Chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings. Temperature of the surroundings decreases.

The total energy of reactants is more than total the energy of products.

The total energy of reactants is less than the total energy of products.

Bond formation releases more energy than

Bond breaking requires more energy than

is required in the bond breaking. Examples: Combustion of fuel, burning of metal, neutralization, respiration, rusting of iron, reaction of a reactive metal with acid, reaction of alkaline metals with water, Haber process, freezing, condensation, dissolving alkali or concentrated acid in water, dissolving anhydrous salts in water.

the energy that is released during bond formation Examples: Thermal decomposition of nitrate or carbonate salts, reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonate, photosynthesis, melting, boiling, sublimation, dissolving ammonium or potassium salts in water, heating of hydrated salt.

Click on the diagram below to play!

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FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Determining the Molarity of Acid and Base Using Titration

Click on the diagram below to play! Click on the diagram below to play!
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WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 28, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Neutralization Reaction

As you can see from the equations, acids release H+ into solution and bases release OH-. If we were to mix an acid and base together, the H+ ion would combine with the OH- ion to make the molecule H2O, or plain water:

H+(aq) +

OH-(aq)

H2O

Neutralization is a reaction between acid and base to produce salt and water only as shown below:

Acid HCl HBr + +

Base NaOH KOH

Water H2O H2O + +

Salt NaC l KBr

Uses of neutralization
1. Soil treatment - if the soil is too acidic, it is treated with a base in order to neutralise it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate). 2. Indigestion - too much hydrochloric acid in our stomach leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralise the acid with a base such as, sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or milk of magnesia. 3. Bee sting contains acid - In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to neutralise the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion(zinc carbonate) or baking soda the acid can be neutralised. 4. Wasp sting contains alkaline - Hence acid is needed to neutralise and remove the painful sting. Vinegar (ethanoic acid) is used.
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MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 19, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - pH Scale

The pH scale is used to measure degree of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution based on the concentration of hydrogen ions. pH is defined as the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

Click on the diagram below to play! 1. The higher the concentration of H+ , the lower the pH value. 2. The higher the pH value, the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions. 3. At pH =7, the concentration of H+ ions is equal to the concentration of OH- . The solution is termed as being neutral for example pure water. 4. The stronger an acid, the lower of its pH value. 5. The stronger an alkali, the higher of its pH value.

Click on the diagram below to play!

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SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Strength of Alkali

The strength of alkali depends on the degree of dissociation of the alkali in water to produce hydroxide ions. The pH of an alkali solution depends on the concentration of hydroxide ions.

Strong Alkali Strong alkali have a higher degree of dissociation. A strong alkali is an alkali whichdissociates completely in water to produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions. Thus, pH value for strong alkali is higher than weak alkali.

Weak Alkali Weak alkali have a lower degree of dissociation. A weak alkali is an alkali whichionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of hydroxide ions. Only a part of the molecules ionises and the remaining still in covalent molecules. Thus, pH value for weak alkali is lower than strong alkali.

Click on the diagram below to play!

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SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - How to Differentiate Between Strong Acid and Weak Acid
A) Reaction between acids and reactive metals

rate.

Strong acids can react with reactive metal faster and more vigorously. More hydrogen gas produced at a faster

Weak acids can react with reactive metal slower and less vigorously. Less hydrogen gas produced at a slower rate. B) Electrical conductivity

Conductivity Behavior of Acids Compounds Appearance of light bulb water, H2O no light hydrochloric acid, HCl bright acetic acid, HC2H3O2 dim

Classification Weak or Strong weak strong weak

Inference of Ions or Molecules molecules ions mostly molecules, less ions

Strong acids able to conduct electricity better as shown in hydrochloric acid because it contains a large number of freely moving ions as strong acids dissociate completely in water. Weak acids conduct electricity weakly as shown in acetic acid because it contains a few number of moving ions as weak acids dissociate partially in water. Most of weak acids still remain in covalent molecule.
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SUNDAY, AUGUST 28, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Preparing a Standard Solution


solution.

Standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known accurately. The solution is normally expressed in mol dm-3 Standard solution can be prepared by using a calculated mass of solute or dilution method from concentrated

MAKING STANDARD SOLUTIONS FROM CONCENTRATED AQUEOUS

Equipment typically used when preparing a solution in a volumetric flask includes the volumetric flask and its glass stopper, pipette, a medicine dropper, and a funnel. Water can be delivered from the beaker or wash bottle. Procedure:

MAKING STANDARD SOLUTIONS FROM CALCULATED MASS

Procedure:


particles.

Volumetric flask is more accurate than beaker for the preparation of standard solution. Water is added using dropper to bring the solution to the graduation mark. Standard solution must be covered by stopper to prevent the contamination of the standard solution by foreign After preparing the standard solution, shake it well to ensure thorough mixing.
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SUNDAY, AUGUST 21, 2011

Chemistry Form 5: Chapter 3 - Conversion of Iron (II) to Iron (III) and Iron (III) to Iron (II)

Conversion of Fe

2+

to Fe3+

Oxidising agent : bromine water Reducing agent : Fe2+ ions Oxidation half equation: Fe2+ ions lose electrons and are oxidized to Fe3+. The presence of Fe3+ ions is confirmed by the formation of brown precipitate with excess of NaOH solution. Fe2+ --------> Fe3+ + e Reduction half equation: Bromine molecules which give bromine water its brown colour gain electrons and are reduced to colourless bromide ions. Br2 + 2 e -------> 2 BrOverall ionic equation: 2 Fe2+ + Br2 2 Fe3+ + 2 Br-

Observation: Brown bromine water decolourises. The solution changes colour from pale green (Fe2+) to yellow (Fe3+).

Conversion of Fe

3+

to Fe2+

Oxidising agent : Fe2+ ions Reducing agent : zinc Oxidation half equation: Zinc atoms lose their electrons and are oxidized to zinc ions, Zn2+. Zinc powder dissolves in iron (III) chloride. Zn -------> Zn2+ + 2 e Reduction half equation: Fe3+ ions accept electrons and are reduced to Fe2+. The presence of Fe2+ ions is confirmed by the formation of green precipitate with excess of NaOH solution. Fe3+ + e Fe2+ Overall ionic equation: 2 Fe3+ + Zn ---------> 2 Fe2+ + Zn2+

Observation: Zinc powder dissolves into solution. The solution changes

colour from brown (Fe3+) to pale green (Fe2+).

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THURSDAY, AUGUST 18, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Strength of Acid

The strength of an acid depends on the degree of dissociation of the acid in water to produce hydrogen ions and anions. The pH of an acid solution depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions.

Strong Acid Weak Acid Strong acid have a higher degree Weak acid have a lower degree of of dissociation. dissociation. A strong acid is an acid A weak acid is an acid whichdissociates completely in whichionises partially in water to water to produce a high produce a low concentration of concentration of hydrogen ions. hydrogen ions. Only a part of the molecules ionises and the remaining Thus, pH value for strong acid is still in covalent molecules. lower than weak acid.

 Thus, pH value for weak acid is higher than strong acid.

Click on the diagram below to play! Weak Acid Strong Acid Examples of strong acid

HCl HBr HI

Hydrochloric acid Hydrobromic acid Hydroiodic acid

HNO3 Nitric acid H2SO4 Sulfuric acid HClO4 Perchloric acid

Examples of weak acid

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SUNDAY, AUGUST 7, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Chapter 7 - Concentration of Solution (Molarity)

Molarity is defined as moles of solute per liter or 1

dm3 of solution. Molarity is used to express concentration of solution. 3 3 1 dm = 1000 cm The unit of molarity is mol dm-3

Click on the diagram below to play!

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THURSDAY, AUGUST 4, 2011

Chemistry Form 4: Understanding of Acid and Bases

Acid is a chemical substance thatdissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ ions. This causes the concentration of hydrogen ion in the solution to increase and thepH to drop. According to the Arrhenius definition, when hydrogen chloride which is a gas HCl is dissolved in water, it dissociates to produce hydrogen ions and chloride ions in solution. This making HCl an acid when dissolves in water.

Without presence of water, the acid will not dissociate to produce hydrogen ions and it will not show acidic properties. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Also, a base is a chemical substance that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions, OH- ions. This causes the concentration of hydroxide ion in the solution to increase but decrease in concentration of hydrogen ion. This is why the pH increases when a base is added to water. According to Arrhenius definition, sodium hydroxide, NaOH is a base because when it dissolved in water, the NaOH dissociates to produce hydroxide ions.

Without presence of water, the base will not dissociate to produce hydroxide ions and it will not show basic properties. Acid Base

Operational Definition

Arrhenius Definition

When added to water pH < 7 When added to water dissociates to release a hydrogen ion (H+)

When added to water pH > 7 When added to water dissociates to release a hydroxide ion (OH-)

The Swedish Chemist, Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927). The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is an extension of his theory of electrolyte solution, which formed his 1884 doctoral thesis.
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