Emission Formation in Diesel Engines

Emission Formation in Diesel Engines

Abstract: Emissions formed during burning of the heterogeneous diesel air/fuel mixture depend on the conditions during combustion, during the expansion stroke, and especially prior to the exhaust valve opening. NOx emissions are formed manly during the premixed burning. PM, on the other hand, is generated in diesels primarily during the diffusion flame. The visible smoke emission can be classified into black smoke, also known as hot or solid smoke, and white smoke also referred to as liquid smoke or fog. Introduction Formation of Hydrocarbons in Diesel Engines Formation of Carbon Monoxide in Diesel Engines Formation of Nitrogen Oxides in Diesel Engines Formation of Particulate Matter in Diesel Engines Smoke in Diesel Engines

Introduction
Unlike spark-ignited engines where the combustible mixture is predominantly homogeneous, diesel combustion is heterogeneous in nature. Diesel fuel is injected into a cylinder filled with compressed air of high temperature. Emissions formed as a result of burning this uneven air/fuel mixture depend on the prevailing conditions not only during combustion, but also during the expansion and especially prior to the exhaust valve opening. Mixture preparation during the ignition delay, fuel ignition quality, residence time in different combustion temperatures, expansion duration, and general engine design features play a very important role in emission formation. In essence, the concentration of the different emission species in the exhaust is the result of their formation, and their reduction in the exhaust system. Incomplete combustion products formed in the early stages of combustion may be oxidized later during the expansion stroke. Mixing of unburned hydrocarbons with oxidizing gases, high combustion chamber temperature, and adequate residence time for the oxidation process permit more complete combustion. In most cases, once nitric oxide (NO)is formed it is not decomposed, particularly in the lean flame region (LFR), but may increase in concentration during the rest of the combustion process if the temperature remains high or even increases [Henein 1972]. However, some NO decomposition may take place in the fuel-rich regions unless further oxidation takes place. Since combustion is a complex series of chemical reactions and heat transfer processes, the resultant emissions formation requires further analysis and understanding. A simplified model for heterogeneous combustion was presented in Figure 1 in the paper on diesel combustion. A more developed version of this model is presented in the following diagram, where the sources of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and NO in direct-injected diesel engines are indicated. Figure 1 details the species formed in both the premixed and mixing controlled combustion phases [Heywood 1988].

Pollutant Formation Mechanisms in DI Combustion System Formation of Hydrocarbons in Diesel Engines

Hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust consist of either decomposed fuel molecules or recombined intermediate compounds. Another source of HC in diesel exhaust is lubricating oil. The sources of HCs in DI diesel engines can be traced mainly to over- or under-mixing of fuel and air, and large fuel droplet sizes at the end of injection. In general, unburned hydrocarbons are related to the lean flame-out region (LFOR), spray core, portion of fuel injected on the walls, spray tail, and after-injection. Obviously, engine design and operating variables play a major role in the formation and oxidation of the hydrocarbon molecules. The effects of some of these variables can be summarized as follows.

Fuel-Air Ratio
In naturally-aspirated diesel engines, if the change in volumetric efficiency is neglected, the mass of air per cycle is almost constant. Changing power at fixed speed is accomplished by controlling the amount of fuel injected. Injector-to-injector differences may lead to fuel distribution variations, amount of fuel deposited on the walls, cylinder gas pressure and temperature, and injection duration. In addition, fuel injected during the ignition delay period (premixed portion) will mix with air and produces a wide range of equivalence ratios. Some of these ratios may be too lean to support stabilized combustion, others may be close to the stoichiometric ratio and ready to combust, and yet others may be too rich and too slow to evaporate, mix, and engage in the combustion process. At the onset of autoignition, mixtures that are most likely to burn are those closer to stoichiometric ratio. Combustion will continue unless the localized A/F ratio decreases rapidly due to over mixing with surrounding air or if the flame is quenched by a thermal boundary layer [Heywood 1988]. As for the very lean mixture, it may eventually engage in the combustion process if it meets and mixes with additional evaporated fuel. The opposite is true of the large droplet sizes injected toward the end of injection duration. These droplets will need both additional air or lean mixtures and high temperatures to help them evaporate, mix, and subsequently engage in the combustion process. Evaporation, mixing, and combustion rates must be fast enough to consume most of the sprayed fuel in advance of significant expansion and cooling off during the expansion stroke, otherwise excessive unburned hydrocarbons will be found in the exhaust. Figure 2, a schematic representation of the premise presented for the three A/F ratios, describes their influence on forming unburned hydrocarbon emissions [Heywood 1988]. The explanation and the schematic shown in Figure 2 are specifically applicable to the portion of the fuel injected during the ignition delay period.

Hydrocarbon Formation From Fuel Injected During Ignition Delay

For fuel injected after the start of combustion, fuel pyrolysis or rapid oxidation by mixing with air lead to complete combustion. Conditions that may slow down the rate of pyrolysis and oxidation will lead to localized rich mixtures and delays in completing combustion. If such conditions prevail, then exhaust gas will contain greater concentrations of unburned hydrocarbon. A schematic representation of the formation of unburned hydrocarbons from post-ignition delay fuel spray is given in Figure 3 [Heywood 1988].

Hydrocarbon Formation From Fuel Injected After Ignition Delay Effect of Engine Load
At idle and light load conditions, spatial combustion is more likely, meaning that the fuel does not reach the walls of the combustion bowl, but burns in the space between the nozzle tip and the combustion bowl perimeter. In addition, the fuel concentration in the spray core is rather small. In this case, unburned hydrocarbon emissions originate mainly from the LFOR. Increases in local temperatures of this region as combustion continues are very small, and are associated with slower oxidation reaction rates. These reaction rates are further reduced due to the very low concentration of fuel molecules as they diffuse in the air around this region. The ratio of unburned hydrocarbons formed in this region to total fuel injected is highest at idling [Henein 1972]. As engine load increases, decreasing A/F ratio causes more fuel to be deposited on the walls and produces higher concentrations in the spray core. The unburned hydrocarbons formed in this case increase; however, there is sufficient oxygen in the mixture so that, with increased temperature, oxidation reaction rates are enhanced and hydrocarbon emissions reduced [Burn 1969][Marshall 1968][Perez 1968]. The effect of load on unburned hydrocarbons is shown graphically in Figure 4 [Henein 1972].

Effect of Load on Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions

At full load as well as overload conditions, further decreases in A/F ratio resulting in more unburned hydrocarbon molecules in the spray core and near the combustion bowl walls. In this case, the contribution of the LFOR to the total unburned hydrocarbon emissions is very small. The oxidation reactions are also limited due to the lack of oxygen in the locally rich fuel-air mixture, in spite of the very high temperatures reached and the overall lean mixture [Marshall 1968]. It is also worth noting that the molecular structure of the hydrocarbon emissions tends to vary with A/F ratio. At idle and light loads, hydrocarbons emitted from DI engines are related to the LFOR and consist mainly of the original fuel molecules. At high loads most of the hydrocarbons emitted originate from the fuel molecules in the spray core and on the combustion bowl walls, where temperatures are

fairly high, and causing decomposition of the original fuel molecules. Since the A/F ratio in the spray core and near the combustion bowl walls is generally low (rich condition), there is a great possibility that some recombination reactions may occur between the hydrocarbon radicals and the intermediate compounds [Fristrom 1965]. This results in higher concentrations of the heavier hydrocarbons. The process of recombination of the hydrocarbon compounds and radicals also result in compounds having a different structure than the original fuel [Bascom 1971][Aaronson 1971].

Effect of After-injection and Secondary Injection

Injection system design problems such as after-injection and secondary injections (see Figure 19 in Pump-Line-Nozzle paper) tend to increase unburned hydrocarbon emissions. The mechanism of unburned hydrocarbon formation is a combination of slow evaporation rate, since these uncontrolled injections take place in the expansion stroke while the gas temperature is cooling off, and a mixture too rich to burn. Modern diesel engines equipped with exhaust emission control devices that require external heating for their function may use a controlled post-injection pulse of fuel. Unless extra care is taken in designing the timing and the quantity of this post-injected pulse of fuel, problems in the form of excessive unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter can arise. Injection system line dynamics as well as the mass-spring system (injector needle and return spring) must be carefully engineered over a wide range of engine speeds and loads to avoid these problems [Henein 1972].

Effect of Cold-Start and Misfire

In cold environments, white smoke may form due to misfire. This is a symptom of partially evaporated fuel that is struggling to evaporate and mix with air. Lack of heat from the cylinder walls, piston crown, or any of the adjacent engine components makes it difficult for the fuel to evaporate. Unless compression ratio is raised by design or by control in variable compression engines, misfire is experienced. The resulting white smoke emission is an ultimate form of unburned hydrocarbons that disappears once the engine warms up. These problems are generally aggravated by air-to-air charge air cooling, low compression ratio, injection timing retard, and coolant temperature below 25 to 29 C (77 - 85F) [Heywood 1988][Khair 1987]. This condition is the only operating condition where a diesel engine experiences misfire. Once warmed up, engine misfire should not be exhibited in diesel engines. Some engine designs include an intake charge heater that is energized a few seconds before cranking to assist in white smoke avoidance or elimination. Other engines, such as the Navistar (International Truck and Engine) 7.3 L, DI engine are equipped with a back pressure valve that exerts a light load on the engine during warmup. This measure is usually combined with an increase in idle speed to increase back pressure and thus load applied on the engine, as well as increasing friction heat. Both measures combine to provide heat to aid in fuel spray evaporation and white smoke reduction

Effect of Turbocharging
Turbocharging increases the mass of air inducted into the engine and allows a proportional increase in injected fuel quantity that leads to higher engine output. Air velocity through the intake port is higher in turbocharged engines relative to naturally-aspirated engines. It follows that air motion through the intake port of either a swirl-supported or quiescent combustion system is more likely to enhance mixing and mixture preparation. In general, better mixing leads to higher reaction and oxidation rates, and results in higher combustion temperatures which in turn cause a reduction in the concentration of hydrocarbon emissions. The reduction of hydrocarbon emissions with turbocharging, as observed by Perez and Landen for both DI and IDI engines, is shown in Figure 5 [Perez 1968].

Effect of F/A Ratio on HC Emissions in DI and IDI Turbocharged and Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engines Effect of Nozzle Opening Pressure
The effect of nozzle opening pressure on performance and emissions was evaluated in a single cylinder research diesel engine [Henein 1972]. The engine was equipped with a toroidal combustion system and the results for unburned hydrocarbon emissions are given in Figure 6. The data is given for operation at both rated (2500 rpm) and peak torque (1600 rpm) speeds, full load conditions. It is apparent that by raising nozzle opening pressure HC emissions are increased, in both cases. Most of the HC increase however, is seen at nozzle opening pressures below 24 MPa (240 bar). It is believed that raising nozzle opening pressure improves atomization and widens the lean flame-out region which, as discussed earlier, is one of the major sources of unburned hydrocarbon emissions.

Effect of Nozzle Opening Pressure on Unburned HC Emissions Effect of Injection Timing

The same single cylinder research engine used in the nozzle opening study, mentioned before, was used to investigate the effect of injection timing on performance and emissions [Henein 1972]. The results are shown in Figure 7 (the same engine conditions as those in Figure 6). Injection timing advance appears to have increased unburned hydrocarbon emissions in both cases. This finding agreed with similar results reported by Khan and Grigg [Khan 1971]. The mechanism that could explain this phenomenon appears to be the longer ignition delay which allows more fuel vapor and small droplets to be carried away with the swirling air, producing a wider LFOR. Another factor suggested by Khan and Grigg is the increase in fuel impingement on the combustion bowl walls.

Effect of Injection Timing on HC Emissions Effect of Intake Swirl

For the purpose of this section, we will define swirl by the term swirl ratio, which is the ratio of the circumferential speed of air as it enters the cylinder to the engine speed. We will also consider that increased swirl in DI engine generally improves the mixing and the hydrocarbon oxidation processes. Excessive swirl may, however, produce a wider LFOR as discussed above, or an overlap of the sprays and an increase in unburned hydrocarbon emissions. As explained earlier, swirl in DI engines may be changed by varying the ratio of the bowl diameter to its depth, known as the aspect ratio. The variation in the aspect ratio has been found by Watts and Scott [Watts 1970] to have little effect on the fuel economy; it may, however, affect the pollutant formation. Since combustion bowl sizes and shapes vary widely, it is difficult to make a general statement concerning how the combustion bowl and its influence on swirl may affect hydrocarbon emissions.

Sensitivity of HC to the Fuel System

The fuel system plays a major role, not only in engine performance, but also in the formation of emissions from diesel engines. The point at which the fuel system comes closest to the combustion process is the injector nozzle hole. It follows then that the nozzle hole design is very important, especially in terms of their effect on the formation and emission of HC. Nozzle hole diameter, length, surface quality, its machining process (mechanically-drilled or by electronic discharge machining), as well as the shape and surface finish of its upstream inlet and downstream discharge side are all factors affecting HC emissions. These design parameters may directly affect the rate of injection, atomization of the fuel, and the spray penetration into the combustion bowl. Sac volume, defined as the volume between the needle seat and the nozzle holes, as shown in Figure 8, has particularly strong influence on hydrocarbons emissions.

Cylindrical Versus Conical Sac Volume

It was reported that reducing sac volume greatly reduced unburned hydrocarbon emissions [Merrion 1968]. A conical sac (Figure 8b) has a smaller volume than a cylindrical sac (Figure 8a). Fuel accumulating in the sac leaks out (nozzle dribble) through the injector holes during the expansion stroke. This fuel does not atomize into the combustion chamber nor mix with the oxidants, and therefore finds its way out to the exhaust system through the exhaust valves. Secondary injections and after-injections lead to unburned hydrocarbon emissions, especially at part load conditions. Careful design of the mass (needle) and spring system dynamics can usually solve this problem. In addition, delivery valves are often used in conventional pump-line-nozzle systems to maintain injection line residual pressure at a level that would prevent after-injections and secondary injections from occurring.

Formation of Carbon Monoxide in Diesel Engines

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an intermediate product in the combustion of hydrocarbons [Challen 1999]. It is formed mainly due to incomplete combustion, which is exacerbated by lack of oxidants, temperature, and residence time. As combustion proceeds to completion, oxidation of CO to CO2 occurs through recombination reactions between CO and various oxidants. If these recombination reactions are incomplete due to lack of oxidants or due to low gas temperatures, CO will be left without oxidation [Henein 1972]. Combustion of fuel-rich mixtures usually produces high CO emissions, but since diesel combustion is lean and has an abundant amount of air, CO from diesel combustion is extremely low. During the various stages of spray combustion in DI diesel engines, conditions that promote high combustion temperature, high oxygen content, and high mixing rates are responsible for the oxidation of CO to CO2. However, the main parameter affecting its formation remains a low A/F ratio. Figure 9 shows the relationship between the inverse of A/F (F/A ratio) and CO emissions for a turbocharged DI and a naturally-aspirated IDI diesel engine [Henein 1972].

Effect on F/A Ratio on CO Emissions in Diesel Engines Formation of Nitrogen Oxides in Diesel Engines
In the exhaust of internal combustion engines, nitrogen oxides (NOx) refer to nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). In DI diesels, NO typically constitutes 70-90% of the total NOx. Nitric oxide is a by-product of combustion rather than a compound in transition like CO. Nitrogen makes up over 75% of the intake charge air by volume. With the balance of the inducted air volume being oxygen and with help from heat resulting from burning HC fuel, NOx is formed and remains until it is exhausted through the exhaust valve. Fuel-borne nitrogen being negligibly small is not a major contributor to the chemical reaction process. The formation of NO is well understood. It is accepted that NO is formed by the extended (or modified) Zeldovich mechanism: (1)O2 + N2 NO + N (2)N + O2 NO + O (3)N + OH NO + H Essentially, when a molecule of O2 is exposed to high temperature in an N2 environment, NO is formed and an atom of nitrogen is left in an energetic and unstable state, Equation (1). The nitrogen atom tries to reach a stable state by combining with oxygen present in the cylinder, while enough energy is available in the form of heat from the combustion process. This reaction, once again forms more nitric oxide and leaves an atom of oxygen in an unstable state, as shown in Equation (2). In the modified Zeldovich mechanism, scientists suggested that radicals, such as OH, are formed and react with the

nitrogen atoms to form more NO and an atom of hydrogen as given by Equation (3). It follows that all three equations show mechanisms by which NO can be formed and that the longer the residence time in this high NO formation regime, the greater the NOx concentration. According to this mechanism, atomic nitrogen does not start the chain reaction because its equilibrium concentration during the combustion process is relatively low compared to the equilibrium concentration of atomic oxygen [Henein 1972]. Therefore, in diesel combustion the local NO formation in the spray is related to the local oxygen atom concentration and the local temperature. NO2 forms from NO by reaction with excess oxygen and quenching by excess air in the cylinder can freeze NO levels at well above equilibrium concentrations. As the temperature decreases during the expansion stroke, the NO concentration does not decrease to the equilibrium concentration, because it is stable under these conditions. It is believed that in reciprocating engines the NO removal processes during the expansion stroke are very slow, and thus NO concentration remains nearly constant during expansion [Lavoie 1970][Starkman 1967]. This is particularly true in fuel-lean combustible mixtures [Komiyama 1973]. The premixed portion of the fuel (mixed during the ignition delay), which burns before the time of peak cylinder pressure, is particularly important for NO formation. After it has burned, it is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature and so reaches the highest temperature of any portion of the cylinder charge. For this reason, techniques to control NOx focus on this early phase of combustion. Unfortunately, most of these techniques resort to reducing combustion temperatures. In so doing, they lead to penalties in hydrocarbon emissions, particulate emissions, and fuel consumption. It is common to refer to the NOx/PM trade-off or the NOx/fuel consumption trade-off in diesel engines. These expressions point in part to the admission that means to reduce NOx emissions would invariably lead to increases in particulate emissions as well as fuel consumption, and vice versa. Most factors affecting the initial rate of heat release will affect the NOx formation rate in the same direction [Challen 1999]. Many control schemes attempt to reduce the amount of fuel burned in the premixed burning phase. These schemes include rate-shaping using a lower injection rate early in the injection period followed by a considerable injection rate increase after the start of combustion. They also include pilot injection, which has a separate small injection to initiate combustion with a minimum of fuel followed by a main injection after combustion initiation. Having reviewed NOx formation, it is perhaps time to study the effects of some engine variables and other parameters on NOx emissions.

Fuel-air ratio
Increasing load in naturally-aspirated diesel engines implies an increase in fuel for the same mass of air inducted at a constant speed. As more fuel is burned, more heat is generated and an increase in combustion temperature is experienced. The availability of high combustion temperature provides adequate energy to help the chemical reactions described by the Zeldovich and modified Zeldovich

mechanisms, thus causing more NOx formation as long as N2 and O2 are present. It was suggested by Henein and Patterson that a reduction in F/A ratio to below 0.02 would actually reduce NOx formation due to the drop in combustion temperature by air dilution [Henein 1972]. Figure 10 shows the increase in maximum combustion pressure (Pmax), exhaust temperature (Texh), brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), and observed NO as a function of F/A ratio. It is worth noting that smoke also increases as F/A ratio increases, but NO, corrected to an equivalence ratio of 1, decreased as a function of F/A ratio within the test range. The increase in observed NO emission did not appear to be proportional to F/A ratio, indicating that there are other factors affecting NO formation.

Effect of F/A Ratio on NO Formation Effect of Nozzle Opening Pressure

Increasing nozzle opening pressure tends to improve atomization. With smaller fuel particles due to improved atomization, combustion efficiency improves, releasing higher heat and raising combustion temperature. In general, higher combustion temperatures lead to higher NO formation [Henein 1972].

Effect of Injection Timing

Injection timing advance appears to extend the ignition delay. The reason for this observation is that fuel is injected into a lower pressure medium having lower temperature. The longer the ignition delay, the greater the portion of fuel injected during that period, and the better the chance for it to mix with air. In other words, the earlier the fuel is injected, the longer the ignition delay (Figure 11), and the greater the premixed portion of the fuel prior to ignition [Henein 1972]. Higher NO formation is usually related to the premixed portion of the fuel.

Effect of Injection Timing on NO and Other Parameters

As injection timing is retarded, the opposite effect is experienced. Ignition delay tends to be shorter and ultimately, the premixed portion of the fuel is reduced. Reducing the premixed fuel portion leads to lower NO formation and is illustrated in Figure 11. Since retarding injection timing has a desirable effect on NO formation, it has become an effective means to control NOx emissions. An important side effect to this action is the increase in fuel consumption, as shown in the diagram, unless other measures are taken to avoid this loss in fuel economy.

Effect of Cetane Number

Fuels with high cetane number are easier to evaporate and quick to ignite. Therefore, they are characterized with shorter ignition delay periods. Consequently, they have smaller premixed fuel portions and lower NO emissions for the same BMEP compared to fuels having lower cetane number [Challen 1999]. With low cetane fuel, ignition delay is usually long and more fuel is present in the LFR when combustion starts. This larger quantity of premixed fuel produces a higher gas

temperature upon combustion early in the cycle, and more NO is formed in the LFR.

Effect of Swirl
Air motion in the cylinder affects fuel and air mixing rates. While high swirl, or a high degree of air motion is generally desirable, over-swirling can be experienced. A good indication of over-swirling is a deteriorating fuel economy and an increase in HC, CO, and particulate matter emissions. Generally, an increase in air swirl improves mixing and promotes efficient combustion and more NO formation. The mechanism responsible for the increased NO formation is the higher initial heat release rate [Challen 1999].

Effect of Intake Charge Dilution

Intake air charge dilution is accomplished through several methods including nitrogen, water, and exhaust gas recirculation. The effect of charge air diluents is usually reduced NO formation. Two mechanisms are referred to when explaining the reason for reduced NO formation. The first is simply oxygen displacement, meaning that the normal oxygen inducted through the fresh air charge is reduced or displaced by a diluent that is inert or has less oxygen than fresh air. Reducing oxygen in the cylinder leads to sluggish combustion (lower rate) and therefore, lower peak pressure and temperature as well as NO emission. The second explanation is that the diluent acts as a heat-sink in the combustion process. Diluents with high specific heat, such as water, N2, or CO2, are most effective in reducing NO formation. Their high specific heat combined with their much lower temperature (relative to combustion temperature) causes them to absorb heat from combustion, thus lowering combustion temperature and reducing NO emissions. This is one of the principles underlying the application of EGR in diesel engines.

Formation of Particulate Matter in Diesel Engines

Perhaps the most controversial of all regulated emissions, particulate matter (PM) is defined as any matter in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine that can be trapped on a sampling filter medium at 125F (52C) or less. As such, the diesel PM is not a well defined physical species. Rather, it is a complex emission, including a number of components, which is discussed in more detail in the paper on diesel particulates. The above definition of PM uses the all-encompassing term "any matter" to describe what can be considered part of total PM. In general, particulate matter originates from the organic and inorganic substances inducted into the engine along with the fuel and air. One of the major constituents of PM is the carbonaceous matter resulting from the heterogeneous combustion process in diesel engines. Small particles or combustion nuclei form as a result of both diffusion and premixed flames, and in the case of premixed flames by both rich and lean conditions. Research on these particles, including when they are formed in the flame and their chemical composition, is ongoing. Dust (in air) or inorganic material (in the fuel or fuel additives) may appear as particulates in the exhaust (ash, oxides, etc.). Trace metals from engine component wear may be carried by the lube oil and eventually migrate to the exhaust where they can be trapped on the

particulate sampling filter. The presence of sulfur in the fuel and lube oil contributes to the formation of sulfate particulates. An added problem associated with sulfates is their retention of humidity which may more than double their mass. Finally, high boiling hydrocarbons and their derivatives are also included in the PM. This material, referred to as the soluble organic fraction (SOF), is composed mainly of lube oil derived hydrocarbons. Loss of oil control resulting from improper cylinder bore honing or piston ring wear can be a major source of oil consumption and contribution to unburned oil content in particulate matter [Khair 2001]. Other soluble organic constituents include unburned fuel, in spite of the high combustion efficiency displayed by diesel engines.

Carbonaceous Particulate Release and Oxidation

Figure 12 presents a summary of diesel engine variables affecting soot particle formation and oxidation, after Broome and Khan [Broome 1971]. The first part of the chart represents the mechanisms leading to carbonaceous particulate formation, while the second part of the chart represents the mechanisms of their oxidation. The underlined parameters on the right hand side of the chart are means that help solve the observed symptom. The top line of the chart shows that an increase in the amount of incompletely mixed fuel and its equivalence ratio is one of the causes of net carbonaceous particulate release. A good example of incomplete combustion is partially combusted carbon in the form of soot. In other words, carbonaceous particulate results from diffusion burning rather than combustion of a well-mixed fuel and air mixture whose equivalence ratio is close or equal to stoichiometric. Diffusion burning would obviously be enhanced when more fuel is injected after the start of ignition. Another possibility for more diffusion burning is through a greater unmixed portion of the fuel injected during the ignition delay period. Factors that may affect diffusion burning are therefore, the ignition delay period and the physical and chemical events that take place in it as well as the rate and duration of injection. Higher initial injection rates tend to increase the premixed portion of the fuel and reduce carbonaceous particulate. Longer injection durations tend to increase diffusion combustion by increasing the fuel injected after the start of ignition. Designers of diesel combustion systems may have a few tools to avoid excessive diffusion combustion and carbon release. Increasing cetane number improves the evaporation and mixing processes and in turn reduces diffusion burning and particulate formation. Another design parameter that could help is compression ratio, since increasing it would provide more heat that could be used by the injected fuel to evaporate, mix with air, and burn as premixed rather than diffusion combustion. Another approach to the particulate control issue is its oxidation following its formation. The second part of the chart in Figure 12 presents a few tools to enhance the oxidation of carbon after its release during combustion. Increasing the time available for the combustion process may give additional opportunity for incomplete combustion products to find extremely lean pockets with which to mix. In the presence of high temperature in the cylinder, oxidation is then enhanced and exhaust carbonaceous particulate emissions are

reduced. Providing more time for the combustion and oxidation process can be achieved through reduced engine speed.

Diesel Engine Variables Affecting Soot Particle Formation and Oxidation Other Sources of Particulate Matter
Loss of oil control, combustion quality, cold starting emission of white smoke, unburned fuel, and general fuel quality problems are among common sources of particulate matter. In general, the sources of particulate matter in diesel engines can be categorized as follows (the sources are listed randomly and not necessarily in order of contribution to the total particulate matter problem): 1. 2. Loss of oil control Black smoke from excessive richness

* over fueling * poor combustion * transients 3. White smoke

* cold start * misfire 4. Other hydrocarbon origins

* nozzle dribble * secondary injections * after injections 5. Fuel quality

* sulfur content * aromatic content * cetane number Loss of oil control can result from many areas within the internal combustion engine. Improper cylinder liner honing, lack of piston ring pack sealing, lube oil seeping through excessive valve guide and stem clearances, turbocharger lubrication and bearing malfunction, extended diesel engine idling, and excessive piston-to-liner clearances are all contributors to high oil consumption. Lube oil jets are usually an integral part of heavy-duty diesel engine applications. These jets are aimed at the underside of the combustion bowl to cool the entire piston crown area. Excessive flow through these jets has been shown to cause high oil consumption. In addition, sudden accelerations or changes from low to high loads are prone to generate more unburned lube oil, since ring pack sealing may be less than desirable. At low load, combustion pressure is low and causes a decrease in the sealing force applied to the back of the piston ring. The lower the sealing force, the lower the sealing and the higher the oil consumption.

Lack of Piston Ring Sealing

Particulate formation may be also encouraged by a number of engine operational reasons. For instance, hard accelerations are performed by an instantaneous increase in engine fueling. In general, the available air to efficiently mix with this increased fuel is less than is required. In naturally aspirated engines, the ability of quickly filling the cylinder with charge air may be hindered by reduced volumetric efficiencies; while the turbocharger lag in turbocharged engines may cause an instantaneous drop in charge air. In both engine configurations, a momentary lack of charge air is experienced and this leads to additional carbonaceous particulate emission. In cold ambients, compression heat in most DI engines with 17 or 18:1 compression ratio is unable to raise the compressed air temperature enough to help the fuel evaporate, mix with air, and burn. Therefore, fuel is partially evaporated and exits the exhaust port and system in the form of white smoke. This problem is especially aggravated by additionally retarding injection timing and over-cooling charge air, and is primarily caused by misfire. The contribution of unburned hydrocarbons to particulate matter has been already mentioned. Nozzle dribble, after injections, and secondary injections are all major sources of hydrocarbon-based particulate. Yet, besides lube oil, fuel itself is the main source of particulate if it does not have the right ingredients to support good combustion or it is not being used properly. High sulfur and aromatic content together with low cetane number is the best list of ingredients for high particulate formation and tailpipe emissions.

Smoke in Diesel Engines

Smoke in diesel engine exhaust is an indication of poor combustion, resulting from an over-rich A/F ratio or partially evaporated fuel during cold start conditions. Smoke emission, especially if it is black, is diesel's worst enemy since it is emitted in plain view of the public, giving the diesel its reputation of being a dirty engine. Social and environmental pressures are leading diesel engine manufacturers to design and produce engines that are nearly smoke-free. Most industrialized countries have therefore introduced regulations of varying degrees of complexity to control smoke emission from road vehicles. Smoke may be in the form of particles, either solid or liquid suspended in the exhaust gases (aerosols). It obstructs, reflects, or refracts light and causes soiling of structures as well as limiting visibility. Diesel engine exhaust smoke can be classified as follows: 1. White in appearance under direct illumination, consisting of a mixture of fuel and lubricating oil particles in an unburned, or partly burned state. This form of smoke is sometimes referred to as liquid smoke or fog. 2. Black in appearance, consisting of solid particles of carbon from otherwise complete combustion of fuel. This form of smoke is often referred to as hot or solid smoke.

A classification of the sources of diesel smoke is shown in Figure 14. For the sake of clarity of presentation, the chart has been split into two parts, which describe (a) "cold smoke", both liquid and solid, and (b) "hot smoke".

Smoke Sources in Diesel Engines

In cases where excessive lube oil consumption is experienced, smoke emitted takes on a shade of blue or grey. Blue or grey smoke is therefore an indication that an engine has reached the point where major maintenance is required. However, unburned fuel can also appear as blue smoke if the droplet size is about 0.5 micron. The white component, on the other hand, is mainly a result of too low a temperature in the combustion chamber during the fuel injection period. It has a droplet size of about 1.3 micron. This phenomenon is mainly experienced during cold starting, in low ambient temperatures or at high altitude. White smoke disappears as the engine warms up. Figure 15 shows a photograph of white smoke emitted from an experimental truck in cold start mode [Khair 2001].

White Smoke Emitted During Cold Start

White smoke can also result from fuel injected too late in the combustion cycle or can even be an indication of a design fault, in the sense that the compression ratio is too low, or has been optimized for an inappropriate combination of operating conditions [Challen 1999]. A few manufacturers opted to use electric inlet or intake manifold heaters. These are typically turned on perhaps 30 seconds before cranking the engine in cold start conditions. They also cycle between being on and off until the water jacket temperature indicates 25 to 27C (77 - 80F). Limits imposed on NOx emission in the 1990's have dictated that injection timing be retarded and that air-to-air intercooling be used. Both measures lead to increased likelihood of white smoke formation. There are no regulations in place limiting white smoke even though it is quite visible and widespread at truck stops especially in colder climates. The main causes of excessive black smoke emission are either poor maintenance of air filters and/or fuel injectors, or incorrect setting of the fuel injection pump/system. Such smoke consists mainly of carbon particles or coagulates of a wide range of sizes, from 0.02 microns to over 0.12 microns mean diameter [Challen 1999]. This size distribution depends to some extent on the type of combustion system, which also affects the onset of smoke emission as fuel input quantity is increased. Figure 16 gives an example of black smoke emitted under accelerating conditions [Khair 2001].

Black Smoke Emitted Under Accelerating Conditions