Cellular & Mobile Communication

CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION
SCT-ECE DEPARTMENT 1

SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY,NAMAKKAL
DEPARTMENT OF ECE

TWO MARK

SUBJECT NAME : CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION.
STAFF INCHARGE :Mrs.M.PADMAPRIYA.



SELVAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY,
NAMAKKAL-3
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
IV- ECE

SUBJECT: CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION

UNIT-I MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES AND CELLULAR CONCEPT

MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

1. What is multiple access?
Multiple access is a signal transmission situation in which two or more users wish
to simultaneously communicate with each other using the same propagation channel.

2. Write the applications of multiple access methods
The multiple access methods are used in
(i) Satellite networks
(ii) Cellular and mobile communication networks
(iii) Military communication and
(iv) Underwater acoustic networks

3. Mention the types of multiple access techniques.
(i) Frequency division multiple access(FDMA)
(ii) Time division multiple access (TDMA)
(iii) Code division multiple access(CDMA)
(iv) Space division multiple access (SDMA)

4. What is narrow band system?
The term narrow band is used to relate the bandwidth of a single channel to the
expected coherence bandwidth of the channel.
In a narrowband multiple access system, the available radio spectrum is divided
into a large number of narrowband channels.

5. What is wideband system?
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much
larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel.

In this system, a large number of transmitters are allowed to transmit on the same
channels.

6. Define FDMA.
In FDMA, the total bandwidth is divided into non-overlapping frequency sub
bands. Each user is allocated a unique frequency sub band (channels) for the duration of
the connection, whether the connection is in an active or idle state.

7. What is the need of guard bands in FDMA?
The adjustment frequency bands in the FDMA spectrum are likely to interference
with each other. Therefore it is necessary to include the guard bands between the adjacent
frequency bands.

8. Mention some features of FDMA.
(i) FDMA is relatively simple to implement.
(ii) The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
(iii) After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile
transmit simultaneously and continuously.
(iv) To provide interference-free transmission between the uplink and the
downlink channels, the frequency allocations have to be separated by a
sufficient amount (guard bands)

9. Write the nonlinear effects in FDMA.
In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the base station.
The power amplifiers and the power combiners used are nonlinear and tend to
generate inter modulation frequencies resulting in inter modulation distortion.
To minimize the effects of inter modulation distortion, stringent RF filters are
required to reject inter modulation distortion; RF filters are heavy, cumbersome and
costly.

10. Write the expression for number of channels used in FDMA system.
The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system
is given by

2
S g
S
C
B B
N
B
=
Where, B
S
==total spectrum allocation (or) system bandwidth
B
guard
= guard band allocated at the edge of the allocated spectrum band and
B
C
= Channel bandwidth

11. Write the formula for spectral efficiency of FDMA.
The spectral efficiency of FDMA is given by

1
data C
FDMA
S
N B
B
= <
Where, N
data
= number of data channels in the system and is given by

N
data
= N
S
N
ctl

Where, N
ctl
= number of allocated control channels.

12. Mention the advantages of FDMA.
(i) It supports a narrow band, and is not suitable for multimedia communications
with various transmission rates.
(ii) If an FDMA channel is not is use, then it is idle and cannot be used by other
users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
(iii) The first US analog cellular system, the advanced mobile phone system
(AMPS) is based on FDMA/FDD.
(iv) In AMPS, analog narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM) is used to
modulate the carrier.
(v) FDMA is an old and proven system and is used for the analog signal.

13. Define TDMA.
Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into
time slots and in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.

14. What is W-TDMA?
In wideband TDMA, transmission in each slot uses the entire frequency band.

15. Define N-TDMA.
In narrow band TDMA, the whole frequency band is divided into sub bands;
transmission in each slot only uses the frequency width of one sub band.

16. Write the features of TDMA.
i. TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each
user makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
ii. Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but
occurs in bursts. This results in low battery consumption, since the
subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use.
iii. Because of discontinues transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is
much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base
stations during idle time slots.

17. What is frame efficiency in TDMA?
The frame efficiency
f
is the percentage of bits per frame which contain
transmitted data.

18. Write the expression for frame efficiency in TDMA?
The frame efficiency
f
is given by
1 100%
OH
f
T
b
b
| |
=
|
\

19. Write the formula for number of channels in TDMA.

The number of channel in TDMA is given by

( 2 )
tot guard
C
m B B
N
B
=
Where m is the maximum number of TDMA users supported on each, radio
channel.

20. What is spreading signal in CDMA?
In CDMA systems, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large
bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.

21. Define near-far problem in CDMA.
Some of the mobile units are close to the base station while others are far from it.
A strong signal received at the base from a near-in mobile unit masks the weak signal
from a far-end mobile unit. This phenomenon is called the near-far problem.

22. Define soft capacity in CDMA.
Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
As in practice, the PN sequences are not truly orthogonal, multiple access
interference (MAI) or co-channel interference (CCI) will degrade the transmission
BER performance.
The maximum number of users that can be supported in each cell depends on the
required quality of service (QoS) and is limited by MAI.

23. Write a short note on soft hand off in CDMA.
Because of the universal frequency reuse, a mobile user can simultaneously
communicate with several nearby base stations using the same frequency band and the
same spreading signal in each link.
When the mobile user is at the cell boundary, it can establish a connection with
the new base station before terminating the connection with the old base station, this will
improve handoff performance.

24. Define self-jamming problem in CDMA.
Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming arises from the fact
that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the
dispreading of a particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver decision
statistic for a desired user arise from the transmissions of other users in the system.

25. Write some features of CDMA.
(i) Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
(ii) Channel data rates are very high in CDMA system.
(iii) CDMA has more flexibility than TDMA in supporting multimedia service.

CAPACITY OF CELLULAR SYSTEMS:


1. Define channel capacity.
Channel capacity for a radio system can be defined as the maximum number of
channels or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.

2. What is radio capacity?
Radio capacity is a parameter which measures spectrum efficiency of a wireless
system. This parameter is determined by the required carrier-to-interference radio(C/I)
and the channel bandwidth (BC)

3. What are the types of interference occur in a cellular system?
There are two types of interferences are occur in a cellular system.
i. Reverse channel interference and
ii. Forward channel interference

4. Define reverse and forward channel interference.
Reverse channel interference: in a cellular system, the interference at a base
station receiver will come from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
Forward channel interference: for a particular subscriber unit, the desired base
station will provide the desired forward channel while the surrounding c0-channel base
stations will provide the forward channel interference.

5. Define co-channel reuse ratio.
The minimum ratio of D/R that is required to provide a tolerable level of
co-channel interference is called the co-channel reuse ratio and is given by

D
Q
R
=
Where, D-Distance between two co-channel cells and
R Cell radius.

6. Write the expression for C/I.

1
o
k
n
o
M
n
K
k
D C
I
D
=
=

Where, n
0
path loss exponent in the desired cell
D
0
Distance from the desired base station to the mobile.
D
K
Distance of the K
th
cell from the mobile and
n
k
path loss exponent to the K
th
interfering base station.

7. Write the expression for radio capacity of a cellular system.
t
C
B
m
B N
= Radio channels/Cell
Where, m- radio capacity metric

B
t
Total allocated spectrum for the system
B
c
channel bandwidth and
N Number of cells in a complete frequency reuse cluster.

8. How bit energy-to-noise ratio is obtained in cellular CDMS?
It is obtained by dividing the signal power by the base band information bit
rate R, and the interference power by the total RF bandwidth W.

9. What are the techniques used to improve capacity of CDMA?
Reducing interference in antenna sectorization. Monitoring of voice activity such
that each transmitter is switched off during periods of no voice activity.

THE CELLULAR CONCEPT

1. Write the cellular concept.
If a given set of frequencies or radio channels can be reused without increasing the
interference, then the large geographical area covered by a single high power transmitter can
be divided into a number of small areas, each allocated a subset of frequencies. With a small
geographical coverage, lower power transmitters with lower antennas can be used.

2. What is cell cluster?
Cell cluster: A group of cells that use a different set of frequencies in each cell is
Called a cell cluster.
Cluster: The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
Frequencies is called a cluster.
3. Define cell.
Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used with small
geographic area called a cluster.

4. Write the frequency reuse concept.
Physical separation of two cells is sufficiently wide; the same subset of frequencies
can be used in both cells. This is the concept of frequency reuse.

5. Define foot print.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the foot print. It is determined from
field measurements or propagation prediction models.

6. What are the rules to determine the nearest co channel neighbors?
The following two-steps rules can be used to determine the location of the nearest co
channel cell:
Step1: Move i cells along any chain of hexagons;
Step2: An allowance for frequency reuse.

7. Define dwell time.

The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without handoff, is called
the dwell time.

8. What are the methods used for handoffs?
Depending on the information used and the action taken to initiate the handoff, the
methods for handoff can be
a) Mobile Controlled Handoff(MCHO)
b) Network controlled Handoff(NCHO)
c) Mobile Assisted handoff(MAHO)

9. What is intersystem handoff?
During a call if a mobile moves from one cellular system to a different cellular
system controlled by a different MSC. This type of handoff is called intersystem handoff.

10. Write the guard channel concepts?
One method for giving priority to handoffs is called the guard channel concepts, i.e.,
out of total available channels in a cell the no. of channels are reserved for handoff for the
outgoing calls.

11. Define hard handoff and soft handoff.
Hard handoff:
If the MSC monitors the strongest signal base station and transfer
the call to that base station then it is called hard handoff.
Soft handoff:
Mobile communicates with two or more cells at the same time and find which
one is a strongest signal base station then it automatically transfer the call to that base station
is called soft handoffs.

12. Write the features of handoff.
a. Fast and lossless
b. Minimal number of control signal exchanges.
c. Scalable with network size.
d. Capable of recovering from link failures.
e. Efficient use of resources.

13. What is intracell interference?
Interference from other mobiles at the cell-site (base station) receiver in the same cell
is intracell interference.

14. What are the major types of cellular interference available?
The two major types of system-generated cellular interference are
(i) Co-channel interference and
(ii) Adjacent channel interference

15. What is breathing cell effect?

When specific radio channels are in use, the CDMA system instead has a dynamic,
time varying coverage region which varies depending on the instantaneous number of users
on the CDMA radio channels. This effect is known as breathing cell effect.

16. Define the grade of service.
A measure of congestion which is specified as the probability of a call being blocked
(for Erlang B) or the probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of time(for
Erlang C).

17. What is set-up time?
The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user.

18. Define blocked call.
Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to congestion also referred to
as a lost call.

19. Define holding time.
Average duration of a typical call. It is denoted by H (in seconds).

20. Define traffic intensity.
Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel occupancy
measured in Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may by used to measure the time
utilization of single or multiple channels. It is denoted by A.

21. Define load.
Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Erlangs.

22. What is request rate?
The average number of call requests per unit tie. It is denoted by seconds
-1
.

23. Write the types of trunked system.
There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used,
(i) Blocked calls cleared and
(ii) Blocked calls delayed

24. Define trunking efficiency
Trunking efficiency is a measure of the number of users which can be offered a
particular GOS with a particular configuration of fixed channels.

25. What are the techniques are used to expand the capacity of cellular systems?
Three techniques are used to expand the capacity of cellular systems
(i) Cell splitting
(ii) Sectoring
(iii) Coverage zone approaches(A Microcell zone concept)

26. Define sector and sectoring.

Sector: The area covered by each directional antenna is called as section.

Sectoring: The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus
increasing system performance by using directional antennas is called
sectoring.

27. Write the drawbacks of sectoring.
(i) Each sector is nothing but a new cell with a different shape, because channels
have to be partitioned between the different sectors of a cell.
(ii) The network load is substantially increased because a handoff has to be made
each time a mobile terminal moves from one sector of a cell to another.

28. Write the advantages of micro cell concept.
(i) The co-channel interference in the cellular system is reduced since a large central
base station is replaced by several lower powered transmitters (zone transmitters)
on the edge of the cell.
(ii) Decreased co-channel interference improves the signal quality.
(iii) It will increase the channel capacity without the degradation in trunking
efficiency caused by sectoring.



UNIT-II
MOBILE RADIO PROPAGATION

1. What is the need of propagation models?
Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average received
signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal
strength in close spatial proximity to a particular location.
Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-
receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a
transmitter.

2. Define large-scale propagation models.
The propagation models that characterize the signal strength over large
T-R separation distance (several hundreds or thousands of meters).

3. What is a small-scale model?
Propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short time duration (seconds)
are called small-scale or fading.

4. Explain free space propagation model.
The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when
unobstructed line-of-sights path between transmitter and receiver.
The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a
radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d.
2
2 2
( )
(4 )
t t r
r
PGG
P d
d L

Where, P
r
(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R
Separation
P
t
is the transmitted power
G
t
is the transmitter antenna gain.
G
r
is the receiver antenna gain
d is the T-R separation distance in meters.
L is the system loss factor.
Define effective area
The effective area of an antenna can be defined as


r
eff
D
P
A
P
=
2 2
4
t r
r t t r
h h
P PGG
d
=
Where, A
eff
Effective area of the antenna in m
2

P
r
Power delivered to the receiver in W.
P
D
- Power density of the wave in w/m
2

5. What is Isotropic radiator?
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions.

6. Define EIRP.
EIRP of a transmitting system in a given direction as the transmitter power that would
be needed, with an isotropic radiator, to produce the same power density in the given
direction.
EIRP = P
t
G
t

Where, P
t
is the transmitted power in W and
G
t
is the transmitting antenna gain

7. Explain path loss.
The path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted
power and the received power, and may or may not include the effect of the antenna gains.

8. What is far-field region?
The far-field or fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region
beyond the far-field distance d
r
, which is related to the largest linear dimension of the
transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength.

9. Write the name of three basic propagation mechanisms.
The three basic propagation mechanisms which impact propagation in a mobile
communication systems are
(i) Reflection
(ii) Diffraction and
(iii) Scattering
10. Write a note on
(i) Plane of incidence
(ii) E-field in the plane of incidence
(iii) E-field normal to the plane of incidence.
Plane of incidence: the plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the
incident, reflected and transmitted rays.
E-Field in the plane of incidents: E-field polarization is parallel with the plane of
incidence.
E-field normal to the plane of incidence: E-field polarization is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence.


11. What is intrinsic impedance?
It is defined by the radio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave in the
particular medium.

i
i
i
=

12. Define Brewster angle.
The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin.

13. What is the need of ground reflection (two-ray) model?
The two-ray model is reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal
strength over distances of several kilometers for mobiles radio systems that use tall
towers(height which exceed 50m), as well as for line-of-sight micro cell channels in urban
environments.

14. What is the use of method of images?
The method of images is used to find the path difference between the line-of-sight
and the ground reflected paths.

15. Write the expressions for both received power and path loss in two-ray model.
For received power

2 2
4
t r
r t t r
h h
P PGG
d
=
For path loss
PL (dB) = 40log d (10log G
t
+ 10log G
r
+ 20 log h
t
+ 20 log h
r
)

16. How diffraction will occur?
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is
obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).

17. Define excess path length (EPL).
The difference between the direct path and diffracted path called excess path length.

18. What are Fresnel zones?
The concentric circles on the transparent plane located between a transmitter and
receiver represent the loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which propagate to the
receiver such that the total path length increases by /2 for successive circles. These circles
are called fresnel zones.

19. Explain knife-edge diffraction model.
Knife-edge is the simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss can be
readily estimated using the classical fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge.

20. What is scattering?

When a radio wave impinges on rough surfaces, the reflected energy is spread out
(diffused) in all directions due to scattering.

21. Define radar cross section.
Radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the radio of the power
density of the signal scattered in the of the receiver to the power density of the radio wave
incident upon the scattering object and has units of square meters.

22. What is the need of bistatic radar equation?
The bistatic radar equation may be used to compute the received power due to
scattering in the far field in the urban mobile radio systems.

23. What are the path loss models available in link budget design?
a) Long-distance path loss model and
b) Long-normal shadowing model

24. What is the need of path loss models in link budget design?
The path loss models are used to estimate the received signal level as a function of
distance it becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication system.

25. What are major drawbacks in long-distance path loss model?
The long distance path loss model equation does not consider the surrounding
environment clutter may be vastly different at two different.

26. What is long normal shadowing?
The long-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur
over a large number of measurement locations which have the same T-R separation, but have
different levels of clutter on the propagation path. This phenomenon is referred to as long-
normal shadowing.

27. Name some of the outdoor propagation models.
Some of the commonly used outdoor propagation models are
(i) Longely-rico model
(ii) Durkins model
(iii) Okumura model.

28. What is the function of outdoor propagation models?
The outdoor propagation models aim to predict signal strength at a particular
receiving point or in a specific local area.

29. What are modes available in longly rice model?
The longly-rice model operates in two modes.
(i) Point-to-Point mode prediction.
(ii) Area mode prediction.


30. What is point-to-point prediction?
When a detailed terrain path profile is available, the path specific parameters can be
easily determined and the prediction is called a point-to-point mode prediction
.
31. Define area mode prediction.
If the terrain path profile is not available, the Longley-rice method provides
techniques to estimate the path-specific parameters and such prediction are called an area
mode prediction.

32. What are the drawbacks available in Longley-rice models?
Longley-rice model does not provide a way of determing correction due to
environmental factors in the immediate vicinity (neighbors) of the mobile receiver. Here
multipath is also not considered.

33. Explain Durkins model?
Durkins model describes a computer simulator for predicting field strength contours
over irregular terrain, for the estimation of effective mobile radio coverage areas.

34. Mention some of the terrain related parameters.
The terrain undulation, (a way motion or form) height (h), isolated ridge height,
average slope of the terrain and the mixed land-sea parameter, are the some of the important
terrain related parameters.

35. Write the advantages of Okumura model.
(i) It is simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction.
(ii) It is very practical and become a standard for system planning in modern
land mobile radio systems in Japan.
(iii) This model is fairly good in urban and suburban areas.
(iv) All the correction factors are also available as Okumura curves.

36. What are the drawbacks available in Okumura models?
(i) Its slow response to rapid changes in terrain, so its not good in rural
areas.
(ii) This model is fully based on measured data and does not provide any
analytical explanation.

37. Write the hata model standard formula for calculate medium path loss.
The standard formula for medium path loss in urban areas is given by

L
50
(urban) (dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log f
c
13.82 log the a (h
re
)
+ (44.9 6.55 log the) log d

Where, f
c
is the frequency
h
re
is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna height.

d is the T-R se[parathion distance (in km)
a (h
re
) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height
Which is a function is the size of the coverage area.

38. What are the advantages of hata model?
a) The predictions of the hata model compare very closely with the
original Okumura model, as long as d exceeds 1 km.
b) This model is well suited for large cell mobile systems.

39. Define indoor propagation models.
The indoor propagation is used to characterizing radio propagation inside the
buildings.

40. How indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel?
The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in two
aspects.
a) The distance covered is much smaller.
b) The variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R
separation distances.

41. What are the mechanisms available in the indoor propagation models?
Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the propagation mechanisms available in the
indoor radio propagation.

42. Write the classification in the indoor channels.
Generally indoor channels may be classified either as line-of-sight (LOS) or
obstructed (OBS) with varying degrees of clutter.

43. Mention some indoor propagation model.
Some of the indoor propagation models are
a) Long-distance path loss model
b) Ericsson multiple break point model
c) Attenuation factor model

44. Define hard partitions
Partitions that are formed as part of the building structure are called hard partitions.

45. Define soft partitions.
Partitions that may be moved and which do not span to the ceiling are called soft
partitions.

46. State Huygens principle.

Hurgens principle states that all points on a wave front can be considered as point
sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and that these wavelets combine to
produce a new waterfront in the direction of propagation.

47. Mention the drawback of long-distance path loss model.
The long-distance path loss model equation does not consider the fact that the
surrounding environment clutter may be greatly different at two different locations having
the same T-R separation. This leads to measured signals which are vastly different than the
average value predicted by the model.

48. What are the demerits of Longley-rice model?
a) Longley-rice model does not provide a way of determing corrections due to
environmental factors in the immediate vicinity of the mobile receiver and
b) Multipath is also not considered.

49. Mention the problems due to non-LOS.
For the case of non-LOS, the system grades the problem into one of the four
categories. (a) Single diffraction edge
(b)Two diffraction edges
(c)Three diffraction edges
(d) More than three diffraction edges
50. What are the techniques used to improve received signal quality and link performance?
(i) Equalization
(ii) Diversity
(iii) Channel coding
51. Define reflection effect.
If an object is large compared to the wavelength of the signal, e.g., huge buildings,
mountains or the surface of the wavelengths, the signal is reflected.
The reflected signal is not as strong as the original, as objects can absorb some of the
signals power.

52. Write the disadvantages of hata model.
(i) Hatas model does not have any of the path specific corrections which
are available in Okumuras model.
(ii) This model is not suitable for PCS which have cells on the order of 1km
radius.
53. What is Okumura model?
Okumura model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban
areas.
This model is applicable for frequencies in the range of 150MKz to 1920MHz and
distances of 1km to 100km.

54. Define primary ray tracing.
The method of drawing a single ray between the transmitter and receiver is said to be
primary ray tracing.


SMALL-SCALE FADING AND MULTIPATH

1. Define fading.
Fading is nothing but reduction in radio signal strength, usually caused by reflection
or absorption of the signal.

2. Explain small scale fading.
Small-scale fading or simply fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the
amplitudes, phases, multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel
distance.

3. What is multipath wave?
Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted
signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves are called
multipath wave.

4. Write the effects of fading.
(i) Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
(ii) Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different
multipath signals and
(iii) Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays.

5. What are the factors influencing small-scale fading?
Factors influencing small-scale fading are
(i) Speed of surrounding objects.
(ii) Multipath propagation
(iii) Speed of the mobile
(iv) Transmission bandwidth of the signal.

6. Define coherence bandwidth
The coherence bandwidth is related to the specific multipath structure of the channel.
The coherence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum frequency difference for which
signals are still strongly correlated in amplitude. This bandwidth is inversely proportional to
the rms value of time delay spread (
z
)

d
Vf
f
c
=

7. What is coherence time (T
C
)?
Coherence time (T
C
) is usually defined as the required time interval to obtain an
envelope correlation of 0.9 or less.
It is inversely proportional to the maximum Doppler frequency

1
c
m
T
f
=
Where, f
m
= maximum Doppler frequency
The coherence time defines the static ness of the channel.



8. Define impulse response model.
The impulse response model is a wideband channel characterization of the channel, it
may be used to predict and compare the performance of many different mobile
communication systems and transmission bandwidths for a particular mobile channel
condition.
Mobile radio channel maybe modeled as a linear filter with a time varying impulse
response.

9. Mention some of the small-scale multipath measurement techniques.
Some of the techniques are,
(i) Direct pulse measurements.
(ii) Spread spectrum sliding correlator measurement and
(iii) Swept frequency measurements.

10. Define power delay profile.
The power delay profile provides an indication of the dispersion or distribution of
transmitter power over various paths of the multipath.

11. Write the advantages of direct RF pulse system.
(i) Lack of complexity, because off the shelf equipment can be used.
(ii) There also be a minimum resolvable delay.

12. What are the drawbacks available direct RF pulse systems?
(i) Due to the usage of wide pass band filter for multipath resolution, the System is
easily affected by interference and noise.
(ii) If the first arriving signal is blocked or fades, serve fading occurs, and the system
may not trigger properly.
(iii) Due to the use of an envelope detector, the phases of the individual multipath
components are not received.
(iv) The coherent detector permits measurement of the multipath phase using this
technique.

13. Define process gain.
The processing gain represents the gain achieved by processing a spread spectrum
signal over an unspread signal.
Processing gain = BW of spread spectrum signal/BW of unspread signal

( / )
( / )
out
in
S N
PG
S N
=

14. What do you meant by slide factor?
The slide factor is defined as the ratio between the transmitter chip clock rate and the
difference between the transmitter and receiver chip clock rates.
= / ( )
Where, Transmitter chip clock rate (Hz)
Receiver chip clock rate (Hz)


15. Write the advantages of spread spectrum method.
(i) It rejects pass band noise and interference, thus improving the coverage range
for a given transmitter power.
(ii) Sensitivity is adjustable by changing the sliding factor and the post-correlator
filter bandwidth.
(iii) The required transmitter powers can be considerably lower than comparable
direct pulse systems due to the inherent processing gain of spread spectrum
systems.

15. Mention the drawbacks of spread spectrum method.
(i) These measurements are not made in real time.
(ii) Depending on system parameters and measurement objectives, the time required
to make power delay profile measurements may be excessive.
(iii) Non-coherent detector is used, so that phases of individual multipath components
can not be measured.

16. What are the advantages of frequency domain channel sounding method?
This techniques work well and indirectly provides amplitude and phase information
in the time domain.
The system requires careful calibration and hardwired synchronization between the
transmitter and receiver making it useful only for very close measurements.

17. Write the drawbacks of frequency domain channel sounding method.
(i) This system is the non-real time nature of the measurement.
(ii) For time varying channels, the channel frequency response can change rapidly,
giving an erroneous impulse response measurement.

18. Define mean excess delay.
This is the average delay measured with respect to the first (arrival) moment of the
power delay profile.
2
2
( )
( )
k k k k
k k
k k
k k
a p
a p

= =

19. What is rms delay spread?
The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power
delay profile.

2 2
( )
c
=

20. Define maximum excess delay.
This is measured with respect to a certain power level.
The maximum excess delay of the power delay profile is defined to be the
time delay during which multipath energy falls to X Db below the maximum.
Maximum excess delay =
x
-
0

Where,
x
= max.delay at which a multipath component is within X dB of the

Strongest arriving multipath signal.

0
= first arriving signal.

21. What is Doppler spread?
Doppler spread B
D
is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received
Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.
Doppler spread is also defined as the spectral width of a received carrier when a
single sinusoidal carrier is transmitted through the multipath channel.
The maximum Doppler frequency f
d
is given by

d
Vf
f
c
=
Where , C Velocity of light
Wavelength of the radio signal in meters
f Radio frequency
22. What is flat fading?
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received
signal will undergo flat fading.

23. Write the conditions for flat fading.
The condition for flat fading is
BW of signal < < BW of channel
And symbol period > > delay spread
T
s
> >

Where, T
S
Reciprocal bandwidth (i.e, symbol period)
B
S
Signal bandwidth

rms delay spread and

B
C
Coherence bandwidth

24. What is frequency-selective fading?
If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
that is, smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency
selective fading on the received signal.

25. Define fast fading channel.
The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. This type
of channel is called fast fading channel.

26. Write the conditions for fast fading channel.
A signal undergoes fast fading if
Symbol period > coherence time
and BW of signal < BW of Doppler spread
B
S
< B
D


27. Define slow fading channel.
The channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted
base band signal. This type is channel is called slow fading channel.

28. Write the conditions for slow fading channel.
A signal undergoes slow fading if
Symbol period < < Coherence time
T
S
< < T
C

And, BW of signal > > BW of Doppler spread,
B
S
>> B
D
29. What is the need of statistical model for multipath fading channels?
Several multipath models are used to explain the observed statistical nature of a
mobile channel.

30. Mention some of the statistical modes?
The statistical modes are
a) Ossana model
b) Clarkes model for flat fading
c) Simulation of Clarke and Gans fading model
d) Two-ray rayleigh fading model
e) Saleh and Valenzuela indoor and outdoor statistical models
f) SIRCIM and SMRCIM indoor and outdoor statistical models.

31. Define level crossing rate(LCR)
The level crossing rate is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading
envelope, normalized to the total rms signal level, crosses a specified level in a positive
going direction.

32. What is the need of Rayleigh fading simulators?
Several Rayleigh fading simulators may be used in conjunction with variable gains
and time delays to produce frequency selective fading effect.



UNIT-III
MODULATION TECHNIQUES DIVERSITY AND ANTENNAS

1. Define modulation.
Modulation may be defined as the process by which some parameters of a high
frequency signal termed as carried, is varied in accordance with the signal to be transmitted.

2. What is demodulation?
Demodulation or detection is the process of recovering the original modulating signal
from a modulated wave.

3. Write the advantages of digital over analog modulation?
(i) Greater noise immunity.
(ii) Robustness to channel impairments
(iii) Easier multiplexing of various forms of information.
(iv) Greater security.

4. What are the digital modulation techniques are available?
Digital modulation techniques
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)

5. Write a short note on
(a) Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
If amplitude of the carrier is varied depending on the incoming digital signal, then it
is called amplitude shift keying (ASK)

(b) Frequency shift keying (FSK)
If the frequency of the sinusoidal carrier varied depending on the incoming digital
signal, then it is called frequency shift keying (FSK).

(c) Phase shift keying (PSK)
If phase of the carried is varied depending on the input digital signal, then it is called
phase shift keying (FSK)



6. Define M-ary trammission system.
In digital modulations instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are
transmitted simultaneously. This is called M-ary transmission.

7. What is Quadrature modulation?
Some times two or more quadrature carriers are used for modulation. It is called
quadrature modulation.

8. Define baud rate
Speed at which symbols (signals) are transmitted in a digital communications system.
Simply no. of symbols/second.

9. Define bit rate.
Speed at which data (Bits) is transmitted in a digital communication system. Simply
no. of bits/second.

10. What is QAM?
At high bit rates, a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize
the errors in the received data. This method is known as quadrature amplitude modulation.

11. Define QPSK.
QPSK is a multilevel modulation in which four phase shifts are used for representing
four different symbols.

12. What is linear modulation?
In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted (carrier) signal
varies with the modulating digital signal.

13. Write the merits of linear modulation.
(i) Bandwidth efficient.
(ii) Very attractive for use in wireless communication systems and
(iii) Accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.

14. Define nonlinear modulation.
In the non linear modulation the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regardless of the
variation in the modulating signals.
Non-linear modulations may have either linear or constant envelops depending on
whether or not the base band waveform is pulse shaped.

15. Mention the merits and demerits of non-linear modulation.
MERITS:
(i) Power efficient class C amplifiers can be used without introducing
Degradation in the spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal.
(ii) Low out of band radiation of the order of -60dB to -70 dB can be
achieved.

` (iii) Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver
design and provides high immunity against random FM noise and
Signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.
DEMERITS:
(i) Constant envelope modulations, occupy a larger bandwidth than linear
modulation schemes.
(ii) In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power
efficiency, constant envelope modulation is not well-suited.

16. Why MSK is called as fast FSK?
MSK is sometimes referred to as fast FSK, as the frequency spacing used for only
half as much as that used in conventional noncoherent FSK.

17. Mention some merits of MSK.
(i) Constant envelope
(ii) Spectral efficiency
(iii) Good BER performance
(iv) Self-synchronizing capability
(v) MSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and is particularly attractive for
use in mobile radio communications systems.

18. Write the expression for normalized power spectral density for MSK.
The normalized power spectral density for MSK is given by

2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 2 ( ) cos 2 ( ) 16 16
( )
1.16 1.16
C C
MSK
b b
f f T f f T
P f
f T f T

| | | | +
= +
| |
\ \

19. What is the need of Gaussian filter?
Gaussian filter is used before the modulator to reduce the transmitted bandwidth of
the signal. It uses less bandwidth than conventional FSK.

20. Write the formula for bit error rate in GMSK.
The bit error probability for GMSK is given by,

2
b
e
O
E
P Q
N

=
`

)

Where, is a constant related to BT.

21. Give some examples of linear modulation.
The most popular linear modulation techniques are
(i) Pulse shaped QPSK
(ii) OQPSK
(iii) /4QPSK


22. Write the expression for probability of error of M-ary QAM?
The average probability of error in an AWGN channel for M-ary QAM, using
coherent detection is given by,
min
2 1
4 1
e
o
E
P Q
N M
| |
| |

|
|
|
\
\

23. Define M-ary FSK.
In M-ary system, M=2
N
different symbols are used and N-number of bits per symbol.
Every symbol uses separate frequency for transmission. Such system is called M-ary FSK
system.

24. Write the applications of MFSK and OFDM.
MFSK and OFDM modulation methods are used for high speed data connections as
part of the IEEE 802.11a standards activities to provide 54Mbps WLAN connections, as well
as for high speed line-of sight and non-line-of-sight microwave connections for MMDS
(Multichannel multipoint distribution service) Operation.

EQUALIZATION AND DIVERSITY

1. What are the techniques used to improve the received signal quality?
Equalization, diversity and channel coding.

2. What is the need of equalization?
Equalization can be used to compensate the inter symbol interference (ISI) created by
multipath within time dispersion channel.

3. Write the function of diversity.
Diversity is used to compensate for fading channel impairments, and is usually
implemented by using two or more receiving antennas.
Diversity improves transmission performance by making use of more than one
independently faded version of the transmitted signal.

4. Define spatial diversity?
The most common diversity technique is called spatial diversity, whereby multiple
antennas are strategically spaced and connected to a common receiving system. While one
antenna sees s signal null, one of the other antennas may see a signal peak, and the receiver is
able to select the antenna with the best signals at any time.

5. Define STCM.
Channel coding can also be combined with diversity (via multiple antennas) a
technique called space-time coded modulation (STCM). The space-time coding is a
bandwidth and power efficient method for wireless communication.

6. What is equalizer?

The device which equalizes the dispersive effect of a channel is referred to as an
equalizer.

7. Define adaptive equalizer.
To combat ISI, the equalizer coefficient should change according to the channel
status so as to track the channel variations. Such an equalizer is called an adaptive equalizer
since it adapts to the channel variations.

8. Write the major classifications of equalizers
The major classification of equalization techniques are linear and nonlinear
equalization.
Linear equalizers: If the output d(t) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer.
This type of equalizers is called linear equalizer.
Non-linear equalizers: If the output d(t) is feedback to change the subsequent
outputs of the equalizer.

9. Write the advantages of lattice equalizer.
(i) It is simplest and easily available.
(ii) Numerical stability.
(iii) Faster convergence.
(iv) When the channel becomes more time dispersive, the length of the
equalizer can be increased by the algorithm without stopping the
operation.
(v) Unique structure of the lattice filter allows the dynamic assignment.

10. What are the non-linear equalization methods are used?
Three very effective non-linear methods are used in most 2G and 3G systems.
(i) Decision feedback equalization(DFE)
(ii) Maximum likelihood sequence estimation(MLSE)
(iii) Maximum likelihood symbol detection.

11. Write the expression for MMSE of DFE.
The minimum mean square error of DFE is given by

2
2
min
( ) exp ln
2
( )
T
O
j
O
T
N T
E e n d
F e N

(

( (
=
`

(
+

)

A DFE has significantly smaller minimum MSE than an LTE.

12. What are the factors used in adaptive algorithms?
(i) Rate of convergence
(ii) Misadjustment
(iii) Computational complexity

(iv) Numerical properties.

13. Write the basic algorithms used for adaptive equalizations.
(i) Zero forcing (ZF) algorithm.
(ii) Least mean squares (LMS) algorithm.
(iii) Recursive least square(RLS) algorithm.

14. Write the advantages of LMS algorithm.
(i) The LMS equalizer maximizes the signal to distortion at its output
within the constraints of the equalizer filter length.
(ii) Low computational complexity and
(iii) Simple program.

15. Write the advantages of RLS algorithm.
(i) Fast convergence
(ii) Good tracking ability. If smaller value of weighting coefficient , the
Equalizer has better tracking ability.

16. Define diversity concept.
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong
signal. By having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average
SNRs at the receiver may be improved, often by as much as 20dB to 30dB.

17. Write the types of diversity techniques.
The diversity techniques are classified into following categories.
a) Space or antenna diversity
b) Angle or direction diversity
c) Polarization diversity
d) Time diversity.
18. Write the classification in space diversity reception method.

Space diversity reception method can be classified into four categories.
a) Selection Diversity
b) Feedback diversity
c) Maximal ratio combining and
d) Equal gain diversity.



UNIT-IV
SPEECH CODING

1. Define Encoder.
The analog-to-digital converter, located on the transmitter, is also known as the
encoder or simply coder.

2. What is Decoder?
The digital-to-analog converter, located in the receiver is known as the decoder.

3. Define CODEC.
The word CODEC is derived from coder/decoder.
Coder (or) encoder = analog-to-digital converter
Decoder = digital to-analog converter
Simply it is the combination of coder and decoder.

4. What are the major classifications of speech coders?
Based on compression, speech coders are broadly classified into two categories
a) Waveform coders
b) Vocoders(Voice Coder)

5. Define waveform coders.
Waveform coders essentially used to reproduce the time waveform of the speech
signal as closely as possible. They are designed to be source independent and can hence code
equally well a variety of signal.

6. Write the examples of waveform coders.
a) Pulse code modulation (PCM)
b) Differential pulse code modulation(DPCM)
c) Adaptive differential pulse code modulation(ADPCM)
d) Delta modulation(DM)
e) Adaptive delta modulation(ADM)
f) Continuously variable slope delta modulation(CVSDM) AND
g) Adaptive Predictive Coding(APC)


7. Define vocoders.
Vocoders is a circuit used for digitizing voice at a low data rate by using knowledge
of the way in which voice sounds are produced. A vocoder is an example of lossy
compression applied to human speech.

8. What are the types of speech signals available?
The speech signal is assumed to be of two types.
a) Voiced
b) Unvoiced

Voiced sound: (m,n,v pronunciations) are a result of quasiperiodic vibrations of
The vocal chord.
Unvoiced: (f,s,sh pronunciations) are fricatives produced by turbulent air flow
Through a constriction.

9. Write the vocoders parameters.
The parameters associated with vocoders are the voice pitch, the pole frequencies of
the modulating filter, and the corresponding amplitude parameters.

10. Give the advantages of vocoders.
a) It achieves very high economy in transmission bit rate.
b) Less robust.

11. What are the types of vocoders available?
a) Linear predictive coder (LPC)
b) Channel vocoders
c) Formant vocoders
d) Cepstrum vocoders and
e) Voice-excided vocoders.

12. What is LPC vocoder?
Linear predictive coders (LPCs) are belongs to the time domain class of vocoders.
This vocoders attempt to extract the significant features of speech from the time wave form,
this is a low bit rate vocoders.

13. Write the transfer function of LPC.
The linear predictive coding system models the vocal tract as an all pole linear filter
with transfer function described by
1 100%
OH
f
T
b
b
| |
=
|
\

Where, G is a gain of the filter and
Z
-1
represents a unit delay function.

14. What are the types of linear predictive coders available?
(i) LPC vocoders
(ii) Multipulse excited LPC.

(iii) Code excited LPC and
(iv) Residual excited LPC.

15. What is MPE-LPC?
By using, more than one pulse typically eight per second, and adjusting the individual
pulse positions and amplitudes sequentially to minimize a spectrally weighted mean square
error. This technique is called the multiple excited LPC (MPC-LPC).

16. Write the applications of CELP.
(i) Advanced DSP and VLSI technology, real-time implementation of
CELP codecs are possible.
(ii) The CDMA digital cellular standard (IS-95) proposed by QUALCOMM
uses a variable rate CELP codec at 1.2 to 14.4 kbps.

17. Mention the advantages of CELP?
(i) CELP can provide high quality even when the excitation is coded at only
0.25 bits per sample.
(ii) These coders can achieve transmission bit rates as low as 4.8kbps.

18. What are the factors, we are considering to select speech codecs for mobile
communications?
Factors must be considered are
(a) Compression
(b) Overall system cost
(c) Capacity
(d) End-to-end delay
(e) The algorithmic complexity of the coder
(f) The dc power requirements
(g) Compatibility with existing standards and
(h) Robustness of the encoded speech to transmission errors.

19. What are the blocks are available in GSM encoders?
The GSM codec consists of four blocks. They are
(i) Pre-processing
(ii) Short-term prediction(STP)
(iii) Long-term prediction(LTP) and
(iv) Regular pulse excited(RPE)

20. What are the blocks are available in GSM decoder?
(i) RPE decoding
(ii) LTP synthesis
(iii) STP synthesis
(iv) Post-processing



UNIT-V
CELLULAR STANDARDS

1. Why the second generation was developed?
The second-generation systems have been developed to provide higher quality
signals, higher data rates for support of digital services, and greater capacity.

2. What are second generation standards are available?
a) Global system mobile (GSM) in Europe.
b) IS 136 also Known as North American Digital Cellular (NADC) or US Digital
Cellular (USDC) in North America.
c) PDC in Japanese, TDMA standard.
d) IS-95 in North America also known as cdma one.

3. Write the advantages 2G over 1G.
a) Natural integration with the evolving digital wire line network.
b) Flexibility for capacity expansion.
c) Reduction in RF transmits power.
d) Encryption for communication privacy and
e) Reduction in system complexity.
f) Higher data rate.
g) Higher quality of signal and supports digital services.

4. What are the services offered by GSM?
GSM has defined three different categories of service
(i) Telephone services
(ii) Bearer (or) data services and
(iii) Supplementary services.

5. Write about telephone service of GSM.
(i) Teleservices provide communication between two and user
applications according to a standard protocol.
(ii) GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented teleservices.
(iii) This service including emergency calling and facsimile.
(iv) GSM also supports videotext and teletex.


6. Write GSM features.
a) Subscriber identity module(SIM) which is a memory devices that stores information
such as the subscribers identification numbers, the networks and countries where the
subscriber is entitled to service, privacy tags, and other user-specific information.
b) GSM equipment manufacturer must sign the memorandum of understanding (MoU).
The MoU is an international agreement which allows the sharing of cryptographic
algorithms and other proprietary information between countries and carriers.

7. What are the subsystems available in GSM system?
a) Base station subsystem (BSS)
b) Network and switching subsystem (NSS) and
c) Operation support subsystem(OSS)

8. What is the function of NSS in GSM?
The NSS manages the switching functions of the systems and allows the MSCs to
communicate with other networks such as the PSTN and ISDN.

9. What are the functions of OSS in GSM?
The OSS has three main functions
a) To maintain the all telecommunications hardware and network operations with a
particular market.
b) Manage all charging and billing procedures and
c) Manage all mobile equipment in the system.

10. Define Abis interface.
The interface which connects a base transceiver station (BTS) to a base station
controller (BSC) is called the Abis interface.

11. Define A interface.
The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called the A interface, which is
standardized within GSM.

12. Write the function of A-Interface.
a) The A interface uses an SS7 protocol called the signaling correction control part
(SCCP) which supports communication between the MSC and the BSS, as well as
network messages between the individual subscribers and the MSC.
b) The A interface allows a service provider to use base stations and switching
equipment made by different manufacturers.

13. What are the databases available in NSS of GSM?

In the NSS, there are three different databases are used. They are

(i) Home location register(HLR)
(ii) Visitor location register(VLR)
(iii) Authentication center (AuC).


14. Write the functions of HLR.
(i) The HLR is a database which contains subscriber information and location
Information for each user who resides in the same city as the MSC.
(ii) Each subscriber has international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). This
number is used to identify each home user.
15. What is the function of VLR?
The VLR is a database which temporarily stores the IMSI and customer information
for each roaming subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.

16. Write the functions of AUV?
(i) The Authentication center is a strongly protected database which
handles the authentication and encryption keys for every single
Subscriber in the HLR and VLR.
(ii) The authentication center contains a register called the equipment
identity register (EIR) which identifies stolen or fraudulently altered
phones that transmit identity data that does not match which
Information contained in either the HLR or VLR.

17. What are the basic channels available in GSM?
GSM specifies two basic groups of logical channels.
(i) Traffic channels (TCHs) and
(ii) Control channels (CCHs)

18. Write the types of TCH channels of GSM.
(i) Full-rate TCH(TCH/F) and
(ii) Half rate TCH (TCH/H)

19. What are the control channels available in GSM?
There are three main control channels in the GSM system. They are
(i) Broadcast channels (BCH)
(ii) Common control channel (CCCH)
(iii) Dedicated control channel (DCCH)

20. Write the dedicated control channels available in GSM?
(a) Stand-alone dedicated control channels (SDCCHs)
(b) Slow associated control channel (SACCH)
(c) Fast associated control channels (FACCHs)

21. What is the need guard period (Space).
The guard period is used to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different path
delays and to give the transmitter time to turn on and off.


22. Define DTM mode.
By incorporating a voice activity detector (VAD) in the speech coder, GSM systems
operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTM) which provides a longer subscriber
battery life and reduces instantaneous radio interference since the GSM transmitter is not
active during silent periods.

23. What are the ciphering algorithms used in GSM?
(i) Two types of ciphering algorithms called A
3
and A
5
are used in GSM
to prevent unauthorized network access and privacy for the radio
transmission respectively.
(ii) The A
3
algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by verifying the
user pass code within the SIM with the cryptographic key at the MSC.
(iii) The A
5
algorithm provides the scrambling for the 114 coded data bit
sent in each TS.

24. Define Burst Formatting in GSM.
Burst formatting adds binary data to the ciphered blocks, in order to help
synchronization and equalization of the received signal.

25. Mention the features of GSM.
(i) DECT provides a cordless communications framework for high traffic
density, short range telecommunications and covers a broad range of
application and environments.
(ii) DECT is configured around an open standard (OSI) which makes it
possible to interconnect wide area fixed or mobile networks such as ISDN
or GSM.
(iii) DECT provides low power radio access between portable parts and fixed
base stations at ranges of up to a few hundred meters.

26. Write the applications of GSM.
(i) DECT offers excellent quality and services for voice and data
applications.
(ii) It is to provide local mobility to portable users in an in-building private
Branch exchange (PBX)
(iii) It supports telephone services.

27. What are the channels in IS-95 supported by forward link?
The forward link supports four types of channels.
(i) Pilot
(ii) Synchronization
(iii) Paging
(iv) Traffic

28. What is the need of pilot channel?


The pilot channel is indented to provide a reference signal for all MSS within a cell
that provides the phase reference for coherent demodulation.

1
ST
AND 3
RD
GENERATION WIRELESS NETWORK:

1. What are the supervisory signals are used AMPS?

The supervisory signals are the supervisory audio tone (SAT) and signaling tone
(ST).

2. What is the need of wide-band signaling in AMPS?

Wide-band data signaling may be used on a voice channel to provide brief data
messages that allow the subscriber and the base station to adjust subscriber power or initiate
a hand off.

3. Write the function of SAT in AMPS.

The particular frequency of the SAT denotes the particular base station location for a
given channel and is assigned by the MSC for each call.

4. Mention any four parameters of AMPS.

Base station transmission band: 869 to 894 MHz.
Mobile unit transmission band: 824 to 849 MHz.
Spacing between forward and reverse channels: 45 MHz.
Channel bandwidth: 30 kHz.

5. Write the advantages of N-AMPS over AMPS.

N-AMPS provided three users in a 30 kHz AMPS channel by using FDMA and 10
kHz channels, and provided three times the capacity of AMPS.

6. What are the main objectives of the 3G system?

The objective of the 3G of wireless communication is to provide fairly high speed
wireless communications to support multimedia, data and video in addition to voice.

7. Compare the CDMA systems.

Specification
IS-95
(Current System)
Cdma 2000
(U.S.A)
W-CDMA
(Japan/Europe)
Channel 1.25 MHz 5MHz 5MHz

bandwidth
Number of
carriers
1 3 1
Chip rate 1.2288 Mb/s
1.2288 Mb/s per
carrier
4.096 Mb/s
Data rate 9.6 kb/s Variable to 2 Mb/s Variable to 2Mb/s

8. What is WLL?
Wireless local loops using radio transmission in the VHF and UHF bands
have been employed in isolated areas for some time, because they can transmit signals
for several kilometers without the need for stringing cable.

9. Write the advantages of WLL.
The WLL has a number of advantages over a wired approach to subscriber loop
Support.
Cost: WLL systems are less expensive than wired systems.
Intallation time: WLL system can be installed in a small fraction of the time required
for a new wired system.
Selective installation: Radio units are installed only for those subscribers who want
the service at a given time.

10. Define Pico net.
The simplest Bluetooth networks called piconets can have from two to eight
nodes. A piconet is a collection of Bluetooth devices which are synchronized to the
Same hoping sequence.

11. What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is an open specification for short range wireless voice and data
Communications that was originally developed for cable replacement in personal area
Networking to operate all over the world.

12. What is scatter net?
One Bluetooth devices can operate simultaneously on two piconets, acting
As a bridge between the two. A conglomeration of two or more piconets is called a
Scatter net.



PREPARED BY, APPROVED BY,
A.BASHEETH, M.MATHIVANAN
LEC/ECE HOD/ECE

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