One rabbi asserts that the

Exodus never happened.

What role does
archaeology play in
verifying Biblical events?

by Rabbi Ken Spiro

http://aish.com/societyWork/sciencenature/Archaeology_and_the_Exodus.asp

A storm of debate has erupted in the Jewish world, following the well-publicized assertion
by Rabbi David Wolpe of Los Angeles that "the way the Bible describes the Exodus is not
the way it happened, if it happened at all."

Wolpe made his declaration before 2,000 worshippers at the Conservative Sinai Temple,
and the speech was reported on the front page of the Los Angeles Times. The article
entitled, "Doubting the Story of Exodus," asserts that archaeology disproves the validity of
the Biblical account.

While people don't usually get worked up about archaeology, the debate about archaeology
and the Bible is often passionate and vitriolic.

Biblical Archaeology is often divided into two camps: The "minimalists" tend to downplay
the historical accuracy of the Bible, while the "maximalists," who are in the majority and are
by and large not religious, tend to suggest that archaeological evidence supports the basic
historicity of the Bible text.

As a science, we must understand what archaeology is and what it isn't.

Archaeology consists of two components: the excavation of ancient artifacts, and the
interpretation of those artifacts. While the excavation component is more of a mechanical
skill, the interpretive component is very subjective. Presented with the same artifact, two
world-class archaeologists will often come to different conclusions -- particularly when ego,
politics and religious beliefs enter the equation.

In the subjective field of Biblical Archaeology, anyone making a definitive statement like
"archaeology has proven..." has probably chosen to take sides and is not presenting the
whole picture. When Los Angeles Times reporter Teresa Watanabe writes that "the rabbi
was merely telling his flock what scholars have known for more than a decade" (emphasis
added), she is revealing her anti-Biblical bias.

HISTORY, THEN AND NOW

Admittedly, however, there is a shortage of Egyptian documentation of the Exodus period.
Why?

We need to understand how the ancient world viewed the whole idea of recording history.
The vast majority of inscriptions found in the ancient world have a specific agenda -- to
glorify the deeds of the king and to show his full military power.
The earliest known objective "historian," in our modern definition of the term, was the Greek
writer Herodotus. He is generally considered the "father of historians" for his attempt to
compile a dispassionate historical record of the war between the Greeks and Persians.
Abraham is dated to the 18th century BCE, while the Exodus story is generally dated to the
13th century BCE -- 800 years before Herodotus.

This does not mean that early civilizations did not record events. It's just that their purpose
was more propaganda than creating any kind of objective historical record.

The British Museum in London displays inscriptions from the walls of the palace of the
Assyrian Emperor, Sancheriv. These show scenes from Sancheriv's military campaigns
from the 8th century BCE, including graphic depictions of destroyed enemies
(decapitations, impalings, etc.). Sancheriv himself is depicted as larger than life.

But one element is missing from these inscriptions: There are no dead Assyrians! That is
consistent with the ancient "historical" style -- negative events, failures and flaws are not
depicted at all. When a nation suffers an embarrassing defeat, they usually whitewash the
mistakes and destroy the evidence.

This idea has significant ramifications for archeology and the Exodus. The last thing the
ancient Egyptians wanted to record is the embarrassment of being completely destroyed by
the God of a puny slave nation. Would the Egyptians ever want to preserve details of the
destruction of fields, flocks, and first borns -- plus the death of Pharaoh and the entire
Egyptian army at the Red Sea?

In other words, we wouldn't expect to find prominent attention to Moses' humiliation of

Pharaoh -- even if it occurred.

In one major event, the battle of Kadesh on the Orantes River between the Hitites and the
Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II, both sides record it as a major victory, and is depicted as
such.

Interestingly, the Torah is unique among all ancient national literature in that it portrays its
people in both victory and defeat. The Jews -- and sometimes their leaders -- are shown as
rebels, complainers, idol-builders, and yes, descended from slaves.

This objective portrayal lends the Torah great credibility. As the writer Israel Zangwill said:
"The Bible is an anti-Semitic book. Israel is the villain, not the hero, of his own story. Alone
among the epics, it is out for truth, not heroics."

INCOMPLETE ARCHEOLOGICAL RECORD

The archeological process is tedious and expensive. To date, only a tiny fraction of
archeological sites related to the Bible have been excavated.

This thin archeological record means that any conclusions are based on speculation and
projection. Archeology can only prove the existence of artifacts unearthed, not disprove that
which hasn't been found. Lack of evidence... is no evidence of lack.

Yet that has not stopped some archeologists from making bold assertions. In the 1950s,
world-renowned archeologist Kathleen Kenyon dug in one small section of Jericho, looking
for remnants of inhabitation at the time of Joshua's conquest of the land in 1272 BCE. She
found no evidence, and concluded on that basis that the Bible was false.
The problem is that Kenyon dug only one small section of Jericho, and based her
conclusion on that limited information. Today, though the controversy lingers, many
archeologists claim there is indeed clear evidence of inhabitation in Jericho from the time of
Joshua.

Archeology is a new science, and the record is far from complete. We have only begun to
scratch the surface.

TEXTUAL MISTAKES
The Times writer makes other mistakes, such as reading the Biblical text without the
accompanying Talmudic explanation. For example, in trying to demonstrate Biblical
inconsistency, the Times writes: "One passage in Exodus says that the bodies of the
pharaoh's charioteers were found on the shore, while the next verse says they sank to the
bottom of the sea."

The preeminent Biblical commentator, Rashi, explains that after the Egyptians drowned,
the sea threw them onto the shore, so that the Jewish people could be relieved at the
knowledge that their enemies would no longer be in pursuit. (Exodus 14:30)

The credibility of the Times' article is further eroded by its quoting another Los Angeles
rabbi who mistakenly asserts that it does not matter "whether we [Jews] built the pyramids."

But as it says clearly in Exodus 1:11 and in the Passover Haggadah, the Jews "built the
store-cities of Pitom and Ramses." Jews never built any pyramids, which were built in 2500
BCE -- about 1200 years before the Exodus.

FOUNDATION OF OUR PEOPLE

The Los Angeles Times asserts: "Most congregants, along with secular Jews and several
rabbis interviewed, said that whether the Exodus is historically true or not is almost beside
the point."

We would disagree. The truth of the text is precisely the point. By attacking the veracity of
the Exodus, and reducing it to mere fable, these rabbis knock out the most basic Jewish
principle of the past 3,300 years.

The Ten Commandments declares from the start: "I am the Lord Your God."

But that's only half the story. A reading of the full verse shows how belief in God is
predicated on the Exodus experience: "I am the Lord Your God, who brought you out of the
land of Egypt from the house of slavery" (Exodus 20:2).

The Jewish people have survived for thousands of years, against all odds, because we
knew clearly the truth of Torah. When Jews in the Crusades chose to be burned at the
stake rather than convert, they were not subscribing to some weak fable. To suggest
otherwise is an insult to the millions of Jews who have died for our beliefs.

Whether layperson or rabbi, for those who reject the truth of Torah and the obligatory
nature of commandments, rejecting the Torah's historical accounts follows suit.

For over 3,000 years, the Jewish people have faithfully transmitted the Exodus story,
unique in the annals of world history. From parent to child, and teacher to student, it is an
unbroken chain of transmission. Is it true? Click here for a deeper look at the question.
This is part one of a series. Part two will consider specific claims and counter-claims
implicating the historicity of the Bible.

For more background on this topic, the Discovery Seminar presents an excellent overview
of the gamut of Jewish history, philosophy, and literature. For a current schedule, e-mail
discovery.usa@aish.com, or visit the Discovery website.

This is part one of a series. Specific claims and counter-claims implicating the historicity of the
Bible can be found in Archaeology and the Bible - Part Two .

Published: Sunday, April 29, 2001

Is there archaeological
evidence that supports the
Bible

by Rabbi Dovid Lichtman

http://aish.com/societyWork/sciencenature/Archaeology_and_the_Bible_-_Part_2.asp

"Good scholars, honest scholars, will continue to differ about the interpretations of
archaeological remains simply because archaeology is not a science, it is an art. And
sometimes it is not even a very good art."
- William Dever, Professor of Near Eastern Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
Arizona

An artist manipulates given materials, determining what the final product will look like.
Dever, one of the most highly respected voices in his field, is not referring to the manner in
which archaeological remains are retrieved, but rather to the manner in which one
interprets the significance of those remains.

When it comes to interpretation of remains from the time and place of the Bible, the radical
"differences" in interpretive style seem more like the art of war than the art of culture. For
example, here are the infamous words that launched the most recent battle concerning
archaeology and the Bible:

"This is what archaeologists have learned from their excavations in the Land of Israel: The
Israelites were never in Egypt, did not conquer the land in a military campaign and did not
pass it on to the 12 tribes of Israel."
- Ze'ev Herzog, Professor of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Tel Aviv University

Herzog, along with other archaeologists, are considered biblical minimalists (or revisionists
as Dever calls them) who see very little historical value in the Bible. Revisionists, like
Herzog and Prof. Israel Finkelstein have attempted to speak in a bombastic fashion on
behalf of the entire school of biblical archaeology. They are so convinced of their position
that they ignore any other approach that does not concur with their own.

If anything gets Dever's blood boiling it is when revisionists distort archaeology, thus
cheapening and mocking the integrity of his entire academic field.
Revisionists stubbornly dismiss as fictitious most historical aspects of the Bible. To them,
the patriarchal period (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) is all imagination, the story of Joseph
and the sojourn in Egypt is fabricated, as are the Exodus and the desert wanderings. The
conquest, settlement and united monarchy (Saul, David and Solomon) are mere
"propaganda" to quote Philip Davies. Marit Skjeggestad, a Scandinavian revisionist, said
that on biblical history, "the archaeological record is silent."

"In fact," asserts Dever, "the archaeological record is not at all silent. It's only that some
historians are deaf."

So let's turn to the evidence.

PATRIARCHAL PERIOD
One of the assumptions of Bible criticism is that the Bible was written much later than the
time period it occurred. Specifically, the claim is that the Bible was written at least 1,000
years after the Exodus. As a result, the alleged biblical writers, who could not possibly
know the minutiae of cultural norms of 1,000 years before, would by default include many
details that were anachronistic. This would be like watching a movie about life in the 1950s
where the actors wore digital watches because the writers did not do their research
properly.

One of the main indications of an anachronism in the Bible was

All this changed thought to be that of the camel. The Book of Genesis reports that
camels were mainstay beasts of burden and transportation
with the turn of a already at the time of Abraham, in the 18th century BCE. Yet it
shovel. was originally thought that camels were first domesticated in the
Middle East no earlier than the 12th century BCE. This
anachronism was a clear indication of the later writing of the Bible.
Or so it was thought.

All this changed with the turn of a shovel. Recent archaeological finds have clearly
demonstrated that the camel was domesticated by the 18th century BCE. What was
previously thought to be a knockout punch against the Bible, is now evidence supporting it.

Prof. Kenneth Kitchen, an Egyptologist at the University of Liverpool (retired) points out that
the sale of Joseph to a caravan of Midianites (for 20 silver pieces) could have been an
example of anachronism in the Bible, since 1,000 years later the price for a slave was
much higher (ancient inflation). However, the price reported in the Bible matches precisely
the going price of slaves in the region from Joseph's time period. This is just one example
that demonstrates, according to Kitchen, that "it's more reasonable to assume that the
biblical data reflect reality."

Furthermore, we find that the detailed descriptions of the court of the Pharaoh and its
protocols, as reported in Genesis, are extremely accurate to that time period. Joseph's
Egyptian name, clothing, and court orders are all very much in line with what we now
understand to have been the norm for that time and place.

SOJOURN IN EGYPT
What about evidence of Jewish slavery?

Egyptologist Sir Alan Gardiner said of Egyptian archaeology: "It must never be forgotten
that we are dealing with a civilization thousands of years old and one of which only tiny
remnants have survived. What is proudly advertised as Egyptian history is merely a
collection of rags and tatters."

This sketchy archaeological record makes a document preserved from the Israelite slavery
period even more astounding. Known as the Brooklyn Papyrus (because it is in the
Brooklyn Museum), this document portrays Israelite names from the Bible as the names of
domestic slaves: Asher, Yissachar, and Shifra. The document also includes the term
"hapiru" which many scholars agree has clear historical affinity to the biblical term "ivrim,"
meaning "Hebrews."

The Bible records that Jews built the storage cities of Pitom and Ramses. Austrian
archaeologist Manfred Bietak has succeeded in positively identifying the city of Pi-
Ramesse. This city he found dates exactly to the period of the sojourn in Egypt, and even
contains many Asiatic (of Canaanite origin) remains at the area of the slave residences.

Egyptian records also tell how Pharaoh Rameses II built a new capital called Pi-Ramesse
(the House of Rameses) on the eastern Nile delta, near the ancient area known as
Goshen, the precise geographic area where the Bible places the Israelites.

Further, the Leiden Papyrus (another Egyptian document of that era) reports that an official
for the construction of Ramasses II ordered to "distribute grain rations to the soldiers and to
the Apiru who transport stones to the great pylon of Ramasses." (Apiru, as we said, is
related to Hebrews.)

Professor Abraham Malamat of Hebrew University infers from this that the Hebrews were
forced to build the city of Ramasses. "This evidence is circumstantial at best," notes
Malamat, "but it's as much as a historian can argue."

EXODUS AND DESERT WANDERING

"When Pharaoh let the people go, God did not lead them by way of the land Philistines,
although that was near; For God said: "Lest the people repent when they see war and
return to Egypt." (Exodus 13:17)

Prof. Malamat explains the reason for this detour: At that time in Egyptian history, and
lasting for only about 200 years, there was a massive, nearly impenetrable network of
fortresses situated along the northern Sinai coastal route to Canaan. Yet these same
defenses were absent near Egypt's access to southern Sinai -- because the Egyptians felt
the southern route was certain death in the desert.

Therefore, when Moses tells the Israelites to encamp at a site that will mislead Pharaoh,
the Egyptians will conclude that the Israelites "are entangled in the land, the wilderness has
closed in on them" (Exodus 14:3). This, according to Malamat, "reflects a distinctly
Egyptian viewpoint that must have been common at the time: In view of the fortresses on
the northern coast, anyone seeking to flee Egypt would necessarily make a detour south
into the desert, where they might well perish."

More evidence comes from an ancient victory monument called the "Elephantine Stele."
Here is recorded a rebellion in which a renegade Egyptian faction bribed Asiatics living in
Egypt to assist them. Although the rebellion ultimately failed, it does confirm that in the
same time period when the Israelites were in Egypt, the Egyptians would very likely say,
"Come let us deal wisely with them, for if war befalls us, they may join our enemies and
fight against us and escape from the land" (Exodus 1:10). "That is precisely what happened
in the episode recorded in the Elephantine Stele," Malamat asserts.
Biblical criticism comes from the late archaeologist Gosta Ahlstrom. He declares: "It is quite
clear that the biblical writers knew nothing about events in Palestine before the 10th
century BCE, and they certainly didn't know anything of the geography of Palestine in the
Late Bronze age," the time of the desert wandering and subsequent conquest of the land of
Canaan. Ahlstrom's proof? He cites the biblical listing of cities along the alleged route that
the Israelites traveled immediately before reaching the Jordan River -- Iyyim, Divon, Almon-
divlatayim, Nevo, and Avel Shittim (Numbers 33:45-50), and reports that most of these
locations have not been located, and those that were excavated did not exist at the time the
Bible reports.

In the meantime, writings from the walls of Egyptian

Temples say differently. It is well known that Egypt
had much reason to travel to Canaan in those days;
trade, exploitation, military conquest. These routes
are recorded in three different Egyptian Temples --
listed in the same order as provided in the Bible,
and dated to the exact period of the Israelite
conquest of Canaan.

Another piece of outside verification is an ancient

inscription housed in the Amman Museum. Dating to
the 8th century BCE (at least), it was found in the
Jordanian village of Deir Alla, which was Moabite
territory in biblical times. This inscription tells of a person by the name of Bilaam ben Beor,
known to the locals as a prophet who would receive his prophecies at night. These features
match precisely the Bilaam described in the Bible (Numbers 21) -- his full name,
occupation, nighttime prophecies. And of course, Bilaam was a Moabite.

FROM WHICH PERSPECTIVE?

The biblical story of the Exodus is filled with divine intervention in the form of impressive
miracles; the splitting of the sea, the revelation at Mount Sinai, the manna bread which fell
from heaven, etc. In the opinion of Bible critics, the story is nonrealistic because there is
little record of mass encampments from that time, and it is absurd to consider that the
Israelites had provisions in the desert for such a huge population and for such a long period
of time.

However, this opinion needs to be viewed in its proper

That the Bible perspective. It is not the Bible that the archaeologists are
impugning, rather they find inconsistencies with their own
does not always reconstructed version! The Bible clearly states that the Israelites'
fit the academic food, clothing, and protection was provided directly by God. That
reconstituted the Bible does not always fit the academic reconstituted view,
does not constitute an indictment of the Bible.
view, does not
constitute an As for the issue of encampments are concerned, it is nearly
indictment of the impossible to find traces of large Bedouin encampments in the
Bible. Sinai Desert from 200-300 years ago. So would one expect the
remains of large encampments after 3,000 years?
CONQUEST OF CANAAN
Through the 1980s it was commonly held opinion that excavations in Jericho had failed to
discover a city there at the time of Joshua.

In the early 1990s, however, Dr. Bryant G. Woods, then of the University of Toronto,
reported finding startling remnants of Jericho in Joshua's time. The error of previous
excavations, he asserts, was that archaeologists were digging in the wrong section of the
mound of ancient Jericho.

Woods reported finding a 3-foot layer of ash covering the entire excavated area, clear
evidence of destruction by fire. He further discovered large caches of wheat from the spring
harvest that had barely been used. This means that the city fell not as a result of a
starvation siege, as would be expected against a walled city, but rather after a very brief
siege. All this matches the account in the Book of Joshua. Furthermore, the wheat was
from the spring harvest; Joshua conquered Jericho immediately after Passover, the spring
holiday.

Concerning Woods' work at Jericho, Dr. Lawrence Stager, the respected professor of
Archaeology in Israel from Harvard University said: "On the whole the archaeological
assessment is not unreasonable. There is evidence of destruction and the date isn't too far
wrong."

Rarely can an archaeologist claim that "this is the very item the Bible spoke about." Yet Dr.
Adam Zartal, chairman of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Haifa, may
have done it. Joshua 8:30-35 tells of the fulfillment of Moses' command to build an altar on
Mount Eval (Deut. 27). Zartal reports that his excavation team found this very altar. The
place is right, the time is right, and the animal bones are consistent with the biblical
offerings. Even the style of the altar is right, in such detail, says Zartal, that it looks nearly
identical to the description of the Temple's altar as described in the Talmud -- a uniquely
Israelite design that no Canaanite temples used then or later.

Zartal laments the response of the revisionist archaeological

"Silence has community. "What happened regarding the new accumulation of
facts I have cited? Almost nothing. Since the appearance of the
descended on the detailed report and the many articles I have published on the
scholarly world." excavation... silence has descended on the scholarly world."

Regarding Zartal's find, Dr. Lawrence Stager said: "If a sacrificial

altar stood on Mount Eval, its impact on our research is revolutionary. All of us [biblical
archaeologists] have to go back to kindergarten."

STILL ADAMANT
Revisionists insist there was no such entity as "Israel" until at
least the 9th century BCE. Yet a well known Egyptian
inscription dated to about 1210 BCE clearly identifies an Israel
in the land of Canaan as a people that had to be reckoned with.
The inscription, which depicts the victories of Pharaoh
Merneptah in Canaan, reads in part: "Israel is laid waste, his
seed is no more."

How do revisionists react to this inscription? Dismissively. Says

Dever: "They denigrate it as our only known reference. But one
unimpeachable witness in the court of history is sufficient.
There does exist in Canaan a people calling themselves Israel, who are thus called Israel
by the Egyptians -- who after all are hardly biblically biased, and who cannot have invented
such a specific and unique people for their own propaganda purposes."

More: In the book of Samuel, the Philistines are reported to be expert metal workers, and in
the Book of Jeremiah they are reported to have originated in Crete. Both of these details
concerning the Philistines, who were off the political map by the 9th century BCE, are
corroborated through archaeology.

Furthermore, 1-Samuel 13:19-21 records the Israelites relying on the metal smiths of the
Philistines, and a 'pym' used in the tool-sharpening process. But what this 'pym' was has
been a mystery. Recent excavations found that an ancient coin weight called a "pym,"
which was used exclusively during the Israelite settlement period, was apparently the
payment for the service of sharpening. Posits Dever: "Is it possible that a writer in the 2nd
century BCE could have known of the existence of these pym weights which... would have
disappeared for 5 centuries before his time? It is not possible."

Additionally, in the hill regions of Judea and Samaria (the heartland of ancient Israel),
approximately 300 small agricultural villages were found, built between the 13-11th
centuries BCE, the time period of the Israelite conquest of the land. According to Dever,
this represented a large population increase that did not come from the native population.
He writes, "Such a dramatic population increase cannot be accounted for by natural
increase alone, much less by positing small groups of pastoral nomads settling down.
Large numbers of people must have migrated here from somewhere else, strongly
motivated to colonize an under populated fringe area of urban Canaan now in decline at the
end of the Late Bronze Age." Also, the type of house structure was unique, and matched
descriptions in the books of Judges and Samuel. Additionally, all of the settlements lacked
any pig remnants amongst animal bones left in the area; only the Jews had a pigless diet.

DAVID AND SOLOMON

Some archaeological revisionists thought they'd dealt a harsh blow to the ego of Israeli
nationalism and Jewish pride when they declared the united monarchy of David and
Solomon "fictitious propaganda of the ancient biblical writers."

Let's see the evidence.

The Bible relates how King Solomon renovated

three cities -- Chatzor, Megiddo and Gezer -- to
serve as garrisons for his cavalry. Archaeologists
have discovered identically designed gates to these
cities that date to the time of Solomon. Noted Israeli
archaeologist Amihai Mazar wrote: "The city gates
of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer were... bold
illustration of a centralized, royal building operation
attributable to Solomon on archaeological grounds
as well as on the basis of the biblical reference."

Prof. Israel Finkelstein, a revisionist, theorized a

different dating system that places the construction
of the gates 100 years after the time of Solomon. Yet, says Dever, this new dating system
"is not supported in print by a single other ranking archaeologist."
 Further evidence exists of David and Solomon, known
biblically as the "founders of the House of David" (referring to
the dynasty of kings beginning with David). In northern Israel,
at the ancient Tel Dan, archaeologist Avraham Biran
discovered a victory inscription dated to the 9th century BCE.
A neighboring king, in describing his victories over Israel,
writes in unambiguous terms the phrases, "King of Israel" and
"Beit David" (House of David).

Additionally, another inscription of a foreign victory over Israel

is the Mesha or Moabite Stone, dated to the 9th century BCE,
and now housed in the Louvre Museum in France. French
scholar Andre Lemair studied the inscription and concluded
that the phrase "House of David" appears there also.

Ardent revisionist Dr. Philip Davies strove valiantly to claim

that the readings are ambiguous. However, in the words of
Anson Rainey:

"As someone who studies ancient inscriptions in the original, I have a responsibility to warn
the lay audience that the new fad (revisionism) represented by Philip Davies and his ilk is
merely a circle of dilettantes. Their view that nothing in the biblical tradition is earlier than
the Persian period, especially their denial of the existence of the united monarchy, is a
figment of their vain imagination. The name 'House of David' in the Tel Dan and Mesha
inscriptions sounds the death knell to their specious conceit. Biblical scholarship and
instruction should completely ignore the (revisionist) school. They have nothing to teach
us."

Davies' evasive maneuver was also too much for Dever. He said that this "is an example of
the lengths to which scholars will go to avoid the obvious when it does not suit them." It
should be noted that the Tel Dan inscription was found shortly after Davies had just
published his major revisionist work on the nonexistence of King David and the united
monarchy.

Revisionists have also argued against King David's conquest of Jerusalem and Solomon's
major building in the city, due to the lack of archaeological remains from that time period.

Archaeologist Jane Cahill explains the missing structures. In

"Determined to ancient Jerusalem, because of its narrow ridges and steep hills,
one does not build on top of the remains of a preexisting structure,
unmask the as one would do on flat land. Rather it is necessary to completely
ideology of disassemble the previous building down to bedrock, in order to get
others, they have a firm foundation and start again. Jerusalem was also heavily
quarried by the Romans and Byzantines. This "means only that
become the archaeological record has not been sufficiently preserved,"
ideologues asserts Cahill.
themselves."
Meanwhile, archaeologists Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron have
unearthed the remains of a defensive wall in Jerusalem that
predates King David. They also found a small number of towers which protected the Gihon
spring water supply, dating to the time of Abraham.
CONCLUSION
Dever sums up the attitude of objective scholars:

"In my view, most of the revisionists are no longer honest scholars, weighing all the
evidence, attempting to be objective and fair-minded historians, seeking the truth.
Determined to unmask the ideology of others, they have become ideologues themselves.
The revisionist and the postmoderns are dangerous because they have created a kind of
relativism -- an anything goes attitude -- that makes serious, critical inquiry difficult if not
impossible."

So where do we stand?

Prof. Adam Zartal, chairman of the Dept. of Archaeology at the University of Haifa has this
to say about archaeology and the Bible:

After years of research, however, I believe it is impossible to explore Israel's origins without
the Bible. At the same time, the research should be as objective as possible. The Bible
should be used cautiously and critically. But again and again we have seen the historical
value of the BIble. Again and again we have seen that an accurate memory has been
preserved in its transmuted narratives, waiting to be unearthed and exposed by
archaeological fieldwork and critical mind work.

Let my people know.

For Further Reading:

1. "Archaeology of the Land of the Bible", Amihai Mazar, Doubleday Publishing, 1992
2. "Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence", Lesko and Frerichs: editors. Eisenbrauns
Pulishing, 1997

Essay by Abrahm Malamat, "The Exodus:Egyptian Analogies"

Essay by Frank Yurco, "Merneptah's Cananite Campaigns and Israel's Origins"

3. Anchor Bible Dictionary (1992), "The City of David" essay by Tarler and Cahill,
vol.2, p.55
4. Biblical Archaeological Review (BAR),
a. "The 'House of David' and the House of the Deconstructionists", Anson Rainey,
Nov/Dec, 1994
b. "Exodus Itinerary Confirmed by Egyptian Evidence", Charles Krahmalkov,
Sept/Oct, 1994
c. "Save us from Postmodern Malarky", William Dever, March/April 2000

Published: Sunday, June 10, 2001

Biblical Archaeology:
Evidence of the Exodus from Egypt
http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodus.htm

Merneptah Stele
One of the most important
discoveries that relate to the
time of the Exodus is the
Merneptah stele which
dates to about 1210 BC.
Merneptah, the king of
Egypt, boasts that he has
destroyed his enemies in
Merneptah pylon at University
Canaan. He states:
of Penn Museum
Plundered is the Canaan
with every evil; Carried off is
Ashkelon; seized upon is
Gezer; Yanoam is made as
that which does not exist;
Israel is laid waste, his seed
is not; (ANET 1969,
378).The word "Israel" here
is written in Egyptian with the determinative for people rather than land (ANET 1969, 378 note
18). This implies that Israel did not have a king or kingdom at this time. This would be the time
of the judges. The text also implies that Israel was as strong as the other cities mentioned, and
not just a small tribe. The south to north order of the three city-states may provide a general
location for Israel. There is an interesting place named in Joshua 15:9 and 18:15, "well of
waters of Nephtoah," that may be the Hebrew name of Merneptah. The well which is probably
anachronistically named after Merneptah would be near Jerusalem. The Egyptian Papyrus
Anastasi III contains "The Journal of a Frontier Official" which mentions this well. It says:Year 3,
1st Month of the 3rd Season, Day 17. The Chief of Bowmen of the Wells of Mer-ne-Ptah Hotep-
hir-Maat--life, prosperity, health!--which is (on) the mountain range, arrived for a (judicial)
investigation in the fortress which is in Sile (ANET 1969, 258).Yurco has recently re-analyzed
the Karnak battle reliefs, and has concluded that they should be ascribed to Merneptah and not
Ramses II (1990, 21-38). There are four scenes which Yurco correlates with the Merneptah
stele. One scene is the battle against the city of Ashkelon which is specifically named. Yurco
argues that the other two city scenes are Gezer and Yanoam. He concludes that the open
country scene must be Israel. Rainey rejects this view because it shows them with chariots and
infantry (1990, 56-60). Lawrence Stager suggests that the small horses pulling the chariot
belong to pharaoh's army as in the Ashkelon scene (1985, 58). Rainey thinks the Shasu are
Israelites, but others identify the Shasu as Edomites (Stager 1985, 60). Both scholars Yurco
and Rainey agree that these battle scenes are from Merneptah's reign (Yurco 1991, 61; Rainey
1992, 73-4; Hess 1993, 134). Before the discovery of the Merneptah stele scholars placed the
date of the exodus and entry into Canaan much later. They are now forced to admit that Israel
was already in Canaan at the time of Merneptah. Israel was big and strong enough to challenge
Egypt in battle. This stele puts a terminus ante quem date of 1210 BC for the exodus (McCarter
1992, 132).
 Ancient bowl with curses
against their enemies. Metro
Museum of Art.

Execration Texts
There are two types of execration texts from the 12th Dynasty of Egypt. The oldest type are
inscribed red clay bowls that date to the reign of Sesostris III (1878-1842 BC). The second type,
dating a generation or two later (Middle Bronze II, 1800-1630 BC) are clay figurines which list
cities along major routes of travel (McCarter 1996, 43). The Egyptians practiced the magical
cursing of their enemies by inscribing pottery bowls and figurines with the names of their
enemies, and then smashing them to break the power of their enemies. "Iy-'anaq" is named
which may be related to the Anaqim or giants who dwelt in Canaan before the conquest (ANET
1969, 328). There is the ruler of "Shutu" named Job. Shutu is probably Moab the sons of Sheth
(Numbers 24:17; Ahituv 1984, 184). There are the rulers of Shechem, Hazor, Ashkelon, Laish,
Tyre, and Pella ('Apiru-Anu). The ruler of Shamkhuna is Abu-reheni (Abraham). The tribes of
'Arqata and Byblos are mentioned (ANET 1969, 329). Jerusalem is named, but there is no
mention of Israel. There is the interesting mention of the personal name "Zabulanu" which is
similar to the cuneiform for "Zebulon" (ANET 1969, 329 note 6). This was probably not the son
of Jacob, but just a popular name? In Ugaritic zbl is a place name (Gordon 1965, Text 1084:13;
Glossary #815). Rohl finds the name Jacob and Joseph (Iysipi, E31), but this is highly
questionable (1995, 352; ANET 1969, 329). The Execration texts seems to parallel the time of
the patriarchs.

Inscription of Khu-Sebek, Called Djaa

A stele found at Abydos tells about an Asiatic campaign by Sen-Usert III (1880-1840 BC) which
says: His majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His majesty reached a foreign
country of which the name was Sekmem. His majesty took the right direction in proceeding to
the Residence of life, prosperity, and health. Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched
Retenu (ANET 1969, 230b).Some scholars think "Sekmem" is probably Shechem which is
located in a pass between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Shechem controlled an important
trade route and the fertile valley to the East. It seems that Shechem was a very powerful and
important city at the time of the patriarchs. The city was surrounded by massive embankments
of earth with mudbrick walls on top. During the 17th century BC a rectangular fortress temple
was built with walls 17 feet thick (Toombs 1985, 936; Wright 1962; See Judges 9:46). In the
Amarna Letters the king at Shechem was Lab'ayu who was the most important ruler in central
Palestine (Na'aman and Aviv 1992, 288). Lab'ayu is accused of going over to the side of the
Hapiru. The Hapiru are probably the Hebrews during the time of the Judges. Joshua renews the
covenant with Israel's leaders at Mount Ebal (Joshua 8) and again at Shechem (Joshua 24).
Joshua never took Shechem so some scholars think that the Gibeonite deception included the
city of Shechem (NIV, Joshua 9). Joseph's bones which were brought out of Egypt were buried
at Shechem. There is no mention of Israel in this text.
The Story of Sinuhe
The story of Sinuhe also gives us a background picture about Syria-Palestine life in the Middle
Bronze Age which is most likely the patriarchal period. Sinuhe flees Egypt on hearing of the
death of King Amenemhet I (1960 BC) and becomes an exile like Moses. His path of flight may
have been similar to the Exodus, but his destination was Byblos. He says, "I came up to the
Wall-of-the-ruler, made to oppose the Asiatic and to crush the Sand-Crossers....I halted at the
Island of Kem-wer. An attack of thirst overtook me" (ANET 1969, 19; Lichtheim 1975, vol.1, 224;
Gardiner 1916; Anati 1963, 386; Rainey 1972). This "Wall" is the fortresses on the eastern
frontier near the present day Suez Canal. Kem-wer is the area of the Bitter Lakes.The ruler of
the Upper Retenu (northern Palestine and southern Syria) then befriended him, and Sinuhe
marries his eldest daughter. It is a tribal society which fights over pasture land and wells. One
battle is similar to the story of David and Goiath.In his old age Sinuhe is allowed to return to
Egypt. He leaves his eldest son in charge of his tribe and all his possessions of serfs, herds,
fruit, and trees. Finally, Sinuhe receives a proper burial in a pyramid tomb. This story gives
helpful background information, but there is no mention of Israel. There is a Movie called The
Egyptian (1954) that tells the story of Sinuhe.

The Hyksos

Hyksos princess crown Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware

It seems most likely that Joseph rose to power during the time of the Hyksos, or just before in
the 12th Dynasty when many Asiatics came into Egypt. It also seems most likely that the
Exodus from Egypt should be equated with the expulsion of the Hyksos. Not all the Hyksos
were Israelites. It says in Exodus that a great mixed multitude came out of Egypt with Moses
(Exodus 12:38). The Greek name "Hyksos" was coined by Manetho to identify his fifteenth
Dynasty of Asiatic rulers of northern Egypt. The word comes from the Egyptian Hk3(w) h3swt,
which means "ruler(s) of foreign countries" (Meyers 1997, 3:133) which Manetho mistranslated
as "Shepherd Kings". The Hyksos were of West Semitic background probably from southern
Palestine who migrated down into northern Egypt during the 12th and 13th dynasties. At first
they lived peacefully with the Egyptians until the deterioration of Egypt's power when in 1648
BC they captured the Egyptian capital at Memphis.

The Hyksos made Avaris their capital which is modern Tell ed-Dab'a, which was later known as
Piramesse (Exodus 1:11). "Avaris" is the Greek term for the Egyptian Hwt-w'rt meaning
"mansion of the desert plateau" (Meyers 1997 3:134). Other important Hyksos cities were Tell
el-Yahudiyeh (meaning "mound of the Jews") known for its distinctive black and white ware, and
Tell el-Maskhuta (probably Succoth in Exodus 12:37 NIV note, 13:20).
Store Cities of Pithom and Rameses
Exodus 1:11 states, "So they put slave masters over them to oppress them with forced labor,
and they built Pithom and Rameses as store cities for Pharaoh" (NIV).

Professor Hans Goedicke believes that the Biblical city of Ra'amezez is incorrectly equated with
Pi-Ramesses. Hershel Shanks writing about Goedicke's view states, "But the fact is that the
store city of Ra'amezez cannot be identified with Pi-Ramesses, the Residence of the
Ramessides. This identification is impossible phonetically, as has been demonstrated
conclusively more than 15 years ago (D.B.Redford, "Exodus I, II", Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 13,
pp. 408-413, 1963). Moreover, the Residence of the Ramessides is never denoted in Egyptian
sources by the use of the royal name Ramesses alone. When the Residence of the
Ramessides is referred to, the royal name is always connected with the Egyptian word pr,
meaning house or residence: the reference is always in the form "Per Ramesses" (BAR,
September/October 1981, p. 44).

Long before Per Ramesses, in the same area was Avaris the capital of the Hyksos kings and a
border town when written in hieroglyphic transliteration is R3-mtny (Khatana) which is today
called Tell ed-Dab'a and is being excavated by Manfred Bietak, Director of the Austrian
Archaeological Institute in Cairo. The hieroglyphic R3-mtny can be projected back into Semitic
transcription as Ramesen. Therefore Shanks concludes, "Biblical Ra'amezez can therefore
almost certainly be identified with Tell el-Daba (Ibid.).

Pithom is most likely to be identified with Tell el-Rataba according to Goedicke (Ibid.)

Jacob-El

Yakobher seal from Metro Museum of

Art

According to the Turin king list there were six Hyksos kings who ruled for 108 years. One
important ruler was named "Y'qbhr" or "Jacob-hr" (Albright 1934, 11). There have been several
different translations of this name. Early scholars purposed the meaning of "Jacob-El" as "Jacob
is my god", but Albright observed that the name is a name-pattern verb plus theophorous
element (1935, 191, n.59; Ward 1976, 358). In Phoenician and Akkadian hr means "mountain".
Ward states:Here hr, 'mountain,' appears as a synonym for 'ilu, 'god, much as Hebrew sur,
'rock,' and similar words were used, e.g., Suri-'el, 'El is my rock.' I would thus render Y'qb-hr as
'(My) mountain (i.e. god) protects,' which would be identical in meaning to Yahqub-'il (1976,
359).Hr meaning "mountain" or "rock" is identical to the word El or "god". In the Old Testament
Zobel proposes:The name (Jacob) is a hyocoristic form of what was originally a theophorous
name belonging to the class of statement-names made up of a divine name and the imperfect of
a verb. Its full form, not found in the OT, was 'Jacob-El'(1990, 188-9; Shanks 1988, 24-25).

Therefore the name "Jacob" found in the Bible would be the same as the name "Jacob-El"
which is found on a number of Hyksos Scarabs. Although this name was common among the
Arameans, but uncommon among the Canaanites and Phoenicians (Zobel 1990, 189), R. Weil
was the first to connect the Hyksos princes with the Biblical story of Jacob (Kempinski 1985,
134). In 1969 a scarab of Jacob-El was found in the Middle Bronze II tomb at Shiqmona, a
suburb of Haifa, that was from a mid-18th century deposit 100-80 years before the Hyksos
(Kempinski 1985, 132-3). The Jacob-El of Shiqmona must have been a local Palestinian ruler,
possibly the same Jacob of the Bible. According to Genesis 32:23-33 Jacob's name was
changed to Israel. Steuernagel was the first to propose the idea of the "Jacob tribe" or "proto-
Israelite Jacob group" (Zobel 1990, 194). It may be that the name "Israel" was not officially used
until after the conquest of Canaan when a league of 12 tribes was formed. This would help
explain the absence of the name "Israel" from early sources. Joseph Austrian Manfred Beitak
excavating Tell ed Dab'a, the ancient capital of the Hyksos, between 1984 to 1987 discovered a
palace and garden dating back to the 12th Dynasty with a tomb containing a statue of an Asiatic
with a mushroom hairstyle that some scholars think might be Joseph (Aling 1995, 33; 1981;
Rohl 1995, 327-367). Much more evidence is needed to claim for certain that this is Joseph's
tomb (Redford 1970). There is an interesting study done by Barbara Bell on the records of the
Nile's water levels. She concluded that in the middle of the 12th Dynasty there were erratic Nile
water levels that caused crop failure (Bell 1975, 223-269). Could this be Joseph's famine?
There is "The Tradition of Seven Lean Years in Egypt" written during the Ptolemaic period about
the reign of Djoser that states: To let thee know. I was in distress on the Great Throne, and
those who are in the palace were in heart's affliction from a very great evil, since the Nile had
not come in my time for a space of seven years. Grain was scant, fruits were dried up, and
everything which they eat was short. Every man robbed his companion (ANET 1969, 31).

The Story of Two Brothers is an Egyptian text that dates to about 1225 BC that is very similar to
the story of Joseph. This tale tells how a young man was falsely accused of a proposal of
adultery by the wife of his older brother after he had rejected her advances (ANET 1969, 23-25;
Lichtheim 1976, 2:203-211). In the 12th Dynasty Egyptian tomb of Khunum-hotep (1890 BC) at
Beni Hasan is pictured a caravan of 37 Asiatics arriving in Egypt trading black eye paint
(stibium) from the land of Shutu (ANEP 1969, fig. 3). The leader is named Ibsha and bears the
title "ruler of foreign lands" from which the name "Hyksos" is derived (ANET 1969, 229). The
land of Shutu is probably an ancient term for Gilead (Aharoni 1979, 146). The Ishmaelites who
took Joseph down to Egypt came from Gilead through Dothan (Genesis 37:25). In the 13th
Dynasty there were a number of Asiatics serving in Egyptian households. One text lists 95
servants from one Theban household with 37 of the names being Asiatics, and at least 28
females (ANET 1969, 553-4; Albright 1955, 222-233). There is a Asiatic women named Sekratu
(line 13) which is related to "Issachar." In line 23 an Asiatic woman is called "Asher," and in line
37 another woman is called Aqaba which is related to "Jacob." This may indicate that some of
the tribes of Israel were in Egypt at this time. In the Book of Sothis which Syncellus believed
was the genuine Manetho it gives the specific time when Joseph rose to power under Hyksos
king, Aphophis who ruled 61 years. It says: Some say that this king (Aphophis) was at first
called Pharaoh, and that in the 4th year of his kingship Joseph came as a slave into Egypt. He
appointed Joseph lord of Egypt and all his kingdom in the 17th year of his rule, having learned
from him the interpretation of the dreams and having thus proved his divine wisdom (Manetho
1940, 239). Halpern has concluded, "Overall, the Joseph story is a reinterpretation of the
Hyksos period from an Israelite perspective" (1992, 98).

Coffin of Ahmos at Metro Museum of

Art
Expulsion of the Hyksos
The earliest document that describes the time of the Hyksos is from the Temple of Hat-shepsut
(1486-1469 BC) At Speos Artemidos which says: Hear ye, all people and the folk as many as
they may be, I have done these things through the counsel of my heart. I have not slept
forgetfully, (but) I have restored that which had been ruined. I have raised up that which had
gone to pieces formerly, since the Asiatics were in the midst of Avaris of the Northland, and
vagabonds were in the midst of them, overthrowing that which had been made. They ruled
without Re, and he did not act by divide command down to (the reign of) my majesty (ANET
1969, 231; Breasted 1988, 122-26; Shanks 1981, 49).The Hyksos worshipped Baal which was
associated with the Egyptian god Seth. This led to the neglect of other gods and temples which
upset the Egyptians. There is debate over the exact period of time that The Admonitions of
Ipuwer describes. The text itself is from the 19th-20th Dynasty. John Van Seters strongly argues
for the time of the Hyksos (1966, 103-120). It states: Foreigners have become people
everywhere....the Nile is in flood....poor men have become the possessors of treasures....many
dead are buried in the river....let us banish many from us....the River is blood (ANET 1969, 441;
Lichtheim 1975, 1:151). This sounds similar to the event of the first plague against Egypt
(Exodus 7:14-24). The river is not actually blood, but looks blood red because the Nile is
flooding. Some speculate that the rest of the plagues are a result of the Nile flooding. The
expulsion of the Hyksos was a series of campaigns which started with Kamose who was king in
Thebes, and rebelled against the Hyksos. His son Ahmose was finally successful in pushing the
Hyksos out. A commander named Ah-mose records in his tomb the victory over the Hyksos. He
says: When the town of Avaris was besieged, then I showed valor on foot in the presence of his
majesty. Thereupon I was appointed to the ship, 'Appearing in Memphis.' Then there was
fighting on the water in the canal Pa-Djedku of Avaris. Thereupon I made a capture, and I
carried away a hand. It was reported to the king's herald. Then the Gold of Valor was given to
me. Thereupon there was fighting again in this place....Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I
carried off spoil from there: one man, three woman, a total of four persons. Then his majesty
gave them to me to be slaves. Then Sharuhen was besieged for three years. Then his majesty
despoiled it (ANET 1969, 233). Note that Avaris was besieged, there is no mention of how
Avaris was taken, and there is no burning of Avaris stated which still fits Josephus' account.
Bietak who has been excavating ancient Avaris says that there is no evidence for a violent
destruction of Avaris. He states: The archaeological material stops abruptly with the early 18th
Dynasty. There are no scarabs of the 18th Dynasty type in Stratum D/2. The most likely
interpretation is that Avaris was abandoned. No conflagration layer or corpses of slain soldiers
have been found so far in the large and widely separated excavation areas A/II and A/V (Bietak
1988). The end of Avaris may have involved a surrender, or as Josephus has stated, an
arranged retreat to Palestine (Against Apion 1.14.88, Bietak 1991, 47).

This exit from Egypt by the Hyksos probably included the Israelites as well. The story of the
Exodus is most likely bases on the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, for there is no other
record of any mass exit from Egypt (Robertson 1990, 36; Halpern 1994, 89-96; Redford 1897,
150). The evidence seems to fit well with Josephus' account. Although the Egyptians saw the
expulsion of the Hyksos as a great military victory, the Israelites viewed this as a great salvation
victory for them. This seems similar to other events recorded in ancient history where both sides
claim a great victory. Ramses II battled with the Hittites and almost lost his life, yet he calls this
a great victory, but so do the Hittites. In reality it was a stalemate, so they both signed a treaty
(ANET 1969, 201; Soggin 1993, 213) Ahab is seen as a powerful king (ANET 1969, 279).
Sennacherib claims a great victory over the Jews by taking 46 cities and surrounding
Jerusalem. Hezekiah is said to be "like a bird in a cage" (ANET 1969, 288), yet he claims a
great victory because Jerusalem is not captured. In the Mesha or Moabite stone (ANET 1969,
320) the king of Moab, Mesha claims a great victory over Israel, yet Israel claims a great victory
over Moab (II kings 3:4-27). So it seems that what the Egyptians saw as a great victory over the
expulsion of the Hyksos, the Israelites saw as a great exodus victory of salvation.
The Sinai
Archaeological surveys and excavations show that there was very little occupation during the
Late Bronze Age (Anati 1986). This seems most likely due to Ahmose's campaign against the
Hyksos, and to the Israelites migration to Canaan. The Israelites could not have come out of
Egypt in the 14th century because of the lack of archaeological evidence in the Sinai. Two of
the most influential German scholars von Rad and Noth argued, "The Exodus and Sinai
traditions and the events behind them were originally unrelated to one another" (Nicholson
1973, 1). Von Rad saw the Sitz im Leben of the Sinai covenant in the feast of Tabernacles
celebrated at Shechem while the settlement tradition was celebrated at Gilgal with the feast of
Weeks. Von Rad also saw Heilsgeschichte (salvation history) strikingly silent about Sinai events
(Deut. 26:5b-9). Noth put forth the idea that "early Israel took the form of a tribal league on the
analogy of the city-state confederations later attested in Greece and Italy and known to the
Greeks as "amphictyonies" (Nicholson 1973, 12-13). On the other hand Weiser vigorously
debated the view that the Sinai and Exodus traditions were independent of one another
(Nicholson 1973, 33). In 1954 Mendenhall put forth the idea that the Sinai covenant is similar to
the Hittite suzerainty treaties (1954, 50-76). Nicholson concludes that one is at an "impasse"
since none of these views are convincing (1973, 53). There does seem to be clear parallels
between the Sinai covenant and ancient suzerainty treaties, and ancient tribal leagues did exist
(Chambers 1983, 39-59). There are various suggestions as to were Mt. Sinai is. De Vaux
believes that the theophany of Sinai was a description of a volcanic eruption in northern Arabia
(1978, 432-8). Exodus 19:18 describes the mountain like a furnace of smoke. From a distance it
would look like a pillar of cloud in the day, and a pillar of fire at night. Following this cloud of
smoke would lead them right to the volcano. There are no volcanoes in Sinai, but there are
several in northern Arabia (Lee 1996, 20). The only known large eruption around this time is
Santorini on the Greek island of Thera (Simkin et al. 1981, 111). Professor Goedicke thinks a
giant tidal-like wave called a tsunami caused by the eruption of Santorini, destroyed the
Egyptian army, and the eruption formed the pillar of cloud and fire in Exodus (Shanks 1981, 42-
50; Oren 1981, 46-53). Note that at the time of Ogyges there occurred the first great deluge in
Greece. Ogyges "lived at the same time of the Exodus from Egypt" (Eusebius 1981, 524).
Maybe a tsunami caused this deluge in Greece? Jewish tradition seems to place Mt. Sinai in
Arabia. Demetrius stated that Dedan was Jethro's ancestor which is identified with the oasis of
el-'Ela, and when Moses went to Midian he stayed in Arabia (De Vaux 1978, 435). In Josephus'
book Antiquities of the Jews he placed Sinai where the city of Madiane was (Antiquities, II.264;
III.76). In the Babylonian Talmud (Sotah 5a) R. Huna and R. Hisda say, "the Holy One, blessed
be He, ignored all the mountains and heights and caused His Shechinah to abide upon Mount
Sinai" (Freedman and Simon 1935, 18-19). According to Old Testament passages Mt. Sinai is
identified with Seir and Mt. Paran. Deuteronomy 33:2 says, "The Lord came from Sinai, and
rose up from Seir unto them; he shined forth from mount Paran" (KJV, see also Judges 5:4-5,
Hab. 3:3,7; Axelsson, 1987; Simons 1959). It seems that the itinerary that was followed in
Numbers 33:18-36 locates Sinai in northern Arabia. Midian was also located here (I Kings
11:18) where Moses lived with Jethro, priest of Midian, for forty years (Exodus 2:15, 3:1).

TABLE 9
Archaeological Finds in Sinai*

Kadesh South Northeast Southern

Period & Date Central Negev
Barnea Negev Sinai Sinai

Early Bronze High Egyptian

Dense Dense Dense
3200-2200 Density mines

Middle Bronze High Egyptian

Dense Sporadic Dense
2200-1550 Density mines

Late Bronze Copper Egyptian

Sparse Sparse Sparse
1550-1200 mines mines

Iron I 1200-1000 Sparse Israelite forts & Copper Sparse Mining is

 colonies mines sparse

*Based on Emmanuel Anati's book Har Karkom: The Mountain of God in 1986.

According to the New Testament, Paul in Galatians 4:25 states, "For this (H)Agar is mount Sinai
in Arabia" (KJV). Paul is probably following Jewish tradition that placed mount Sinai in northern
Arabia. From Egyptian topographical lists one area the Shasu lived in was Seir. One place is
called "land of the Shasu Yhw" (Axelsson 1987, 60). Yhw is used as a toponym, a place-name,
which is most likely named after a deity. Yhw corresponds to the Old Testament YHWH, which
would make this the earliest known reference. Axelsson concludes, "Thus it is conceivable that
the full name of the area in question was Yhw's land, Yhw's city, Yhw's mountain, or the like"
(Axelsson 1987, 60). After further study Astour places this city north of Israel in Lebanon (1979,
17-34; for more on the origins of YHWH see, De Moor, 1990, Huffmon, 1971, Murtonen, 1951).

Middle Bronze Age Destruction

The Late Bronze Age begins with the wide spread destruction of the Middle Bronze Age. This
may be the result of Ahmose, the Hyksos, or even Israel. There is some question as to how far
Ahmose went into Canaan. He did get as far as Sharuhen which a number of scholars think is
Tell el-'Ajjul (Rainey 178-85; Shea 1979, 3-5). He besieged it for three years before he took it
(ANET 1969, 233). This may be as far as Ahmose got (Hoffmeier 1989). This may also be as far
as Israel got. Two years after the Exodus (Numbers 10:11) Israel tried to take Canaan from the
South, but failed (Numbers 14:45). This would be at the same time Ahmose was still besieging
Sharuhen. Moses may have thought while the Egyptians were keeping the Hyksos of Canaan
contained at Sharuhen, that they could conquer the land, but since the Hyksos were strong
enough to hold off the Egyptians for three years, they could easily beat Israel. With the defeat of
the Hyksos by Ahmose 40 years later Joshua would be able to conquer Canaan, but only a
small part of the central highlands was settled by Israel. In the past scholars concluded that
Ahmose must have caused the destruction of the Middle Bronze Age, but Reford has shown
that Ahmoses' campaign was restricted to Sharuhen and its neighborhood to punish the Hyksos
(Redford 1979, 274; Bietak 1991, 58; Weinstein 1981, 1-28). The first substantial campaign
against inland Palestine was by Thutmose III (Bietak 1991, 59). From a survey of the central hill
country Finkelstein does not connect the Egyptian conquest with the end of the Middle Bronze
Age. He states: There is no solid archaeological evidence that many sites across the country
were destroyed simultaneously, and such campaigns would fail to explain the wholesale
abandonment of hundreds of small rural settlements in the remote parts of the land (Hoffmeier
1990, 87). There are several key cities that will be considered, Jericho, Ai, and Hazor. First of
all, is the city of Jericho which is highly controversial about when it was destroyed.

Jericho

Jericho an oasis near the Dead Sea Destruction layer at Jericho

The ancient city of Jericho is identified with Tell es-Sultan. The first large scale excavation was
by Sellin and Watzinger from 1907 to 1909. The next major excavation was directed by
Garstang from 1930 to 1936. Garstang believed that the fourth city was destroyed by Joshua
just after 1400 BC A third major excavation was done by Kenyon between 1952 to 1958. She
challenged Garstang's date by insisting that the fourth city double walls were from the Early
Bronze Age. Jericho was mainly abandoned during the Late Bronze Age, but the Middle Bronze
Age was violently destroyed by fire. Kenyon states: The date of the burned buildings would
seem to be the very end of the Middle Bronze Age, and the destruction may be ascribable to the
disturbances that followed the expansion (expulsion) of the Hyksos from Egypt in about 1560
BCE (Stern 1993, Vol. 2, 680). Could these disturbances be the Israelite conquest? Both
Kenyon and Garstang agree that the Middle Bronze Age city of Jericho was destroyed as a
result of the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt. There have been many proposals to solve the
time of Joshua's conquest. Courville cuts out over 600+ years by equating the end of the Early
Bronze Age with Joshua's conquest around 1400 BC (1971, 151; Bimson 1981, 119). On the
other hand Aardsma adds 1,000 years between the book of Judges and I Samuel (1993; Wood
1993, 97). Rohl has subtracted 300+ years from Egyptian history, and James also lowers
Egyptian chronology by 250+ years (Rohl 1996; James 1991). One that has been influential in
the public is Velikovsky's radical views that deletes 800+ years from history (1950; 1952;
Newman 1973, 146-151; Yamauchi 1973, 134-39). Bimson (1981) only lowers the chronology
by 100 year, but there is no need to be adding or subtracting years. Equating the Exodus with
the Expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt solves this problem. All the archaeological data seems
to fit Biblical chronology when this is done, except AI which is highly controversial (See Table
10).

AI
AI has been located at Et-Tell by Albright. A brief excavation was conducted here by Garstang
in 1928. A second excavation was done from 1933 to 1935 by Marquet-Krause. A third
excavation was conducted by Calloway sponsored by the American Schools of Oriental
Research from 1964 to 1970. The major problem here is that AI was destroyed at the end of the
Early Bronze Age, and was abandoned until the beginning of the Iron Age, yet Joshua is said to
have destroyed it (Stern 1993; Zevit 1985, 58). There are several explanations for this.
Livingston locates AI at Khirbet Nisya, yet there is no clear evidence for this (Bimson and
Livingston). Yadin interprets the Bible etiologically here (Shanks 1988, 64). It explains how the
ruins of AI got this way according to the writer. Millard believes that the villagers would only use
Et-Tell as a stronghold when under attack (1985, 99). The name "AI" means "ruin," so AI was
destroyed earlier, but reused only as a fort. This seems to be the best explanation.

TABLE 10
Modern Views of OT Chronology
(Not Endorsed by Most Scholars)

Person Years Subtracted Years Added

Aardsma 1,000

Bimson 100

Courville 600

James 250

Rohl 300

Velikovsky 800

TABLE 11
Cities Destroyed by Joshua Compared to the Archaeological Data*
 Middle Bronze Age Late Bronze Age
Cities
Destruction Destruction

Jericho yes no

AI no no

Hazor yes yes

Bethel yes no

Hebron yes no

Dan yes no

Lachish yes yes

*Mostly based on Bimson's Redating the Exodus and Conquest (1981, 216), and Rohl's
Pharaohs and Kings (1995, 306).

Hazor
Hazor was a major commercial center. It is mentioned in the Mari documents, and in the
Egyptian Execration Texts (Stern 1993, 594). The first major excavation here was by Yadin from
1955 to 1958. Excavations were resumed in 1968 and in 1990. There is speculation that an
archive is located in the royal palace (Rabinovich 1996, 8). This would be a major find, and
shed much light on the Late Bronze Age in Israel. The Canaanite city of Hazor has been
destroyed several times. The final destruction was at the end of the 13th century which Yadin
believes was done by Joshua (Stern 1993). Judges chapter 4 tells about the battle of Deborah
and Barak with Jabin the king of Hazor, and his commander Sisera. How could this happen if
Hazor was destroyed by Joshua? Bimson thinks that the 13th century destruction of Hazor
should be equated with Judges 4 (1981, 181-7). It is wrong to assume that Jabin, king of Hazor
is the same person in Joshua 11 and Judges 4. Jabin is probably a dynastic name like
Abimelech (Kitchen 1966, 68). A clay tablet with the name Jabin (Ibni) has been found at Hazor
(Horowitz 1992, 166). Joshua's conquest of Hazor should be connected with the end of the
Middle Bronze Age destruction. Dever places the destruction of Middle Bronze sites from 1550
to 1450 BC (Hoffmeier 1990, 87; Dever 1990, 75-81). This would be at the same time period
that Joshua is conquering Canaan. Recent scientific radiocarbon dating of cereal grains from
Tell Es-Sultan (Jericho) place the end of the Middle Bronze Age (MB-IIC) around 1540 BC
(Bruins and Plicht 1996, 213-14). This would rule out the 1406 BC (Late Bronze Age) date by
conservative scholars. Bimson states, "The admittedly poor 'fit' between Biblical tradition and
Late Bronze Age archaeological evidence is universally conceded by scholars" (Bimson and
Livingston 1987, 41; see Table 11). The problem with Bimson's view is that he eliminates one
hundred years from history when there is no need to do this according to radio-carbon dating.
New advances in tree ring dating correlated to Carbon 14 will be able to achieve more accurate
dates (Bower 1996, 405-6; Renfrew 1996, 733-34; Kuniholm 1996, 780-83).
Egyptian Topographical Lists

Thutmose III
The topographical lists of
Thutmose III (ca. 1481 BC)
can be divided into two
parts; the "Megiddo-list" or
"Palestine-list, and the
"Naharina-list, or "Northern-
list" (Simons 1937, 28). The
"Megiddo-list" names towns
and places whose chiefs
Thutmose and Dr. Meyers at took refuge within the walls
Metro Museum of Art, NYC. of Megiddo, and were taken
captive by Thutmose III to
Thebes. There are only
three copies of this list that
contain 119 topographical
names (Rainey 1982, 345-
359). The "Naharina-list" is
just the extension of the
"Megiddo-list" containing
over 300 place-names.
These lists are found in the
temple of Amon at Karnak. The lists are probably grouped geographically by regions according
to three administrative districts (Aharoni 1979, 158). There were three headquarters during the
El Amarna letter which seems to divide this list nicely; Gaza, Sumur, and Kumidi. The first four
regions belong to the district of Kumidi; southern Beqa'(#3-11, 55-56), Damascus vicinity (#12-
20), Bashan (#21-30), and the northern Jordan valley (#31-4). There are four regions of the
Gaza district; the plains of Jezreel (#35-54), the coastal plain and the Sharon (#57-71), Judean
hills (#103-6), and the Ephraimite hills (#107-17). The next two regions belong to the district of
Sumur; the northern Beqa' (#72-9) and Upper Galilee (#80-102), (Aharoni 1979, 158). North
sees the list reflecting the march of Thutmose's army first with numbers 53-119 in the right
column, then with numbers 1-52 in the left column (Aharoni 1979, 157). Aharoni sees only a
South to North geographic arrangement of place-names along the coastal plain of Sharon (#57-
71), (1979, 157). Redford argues for a typical Bronze Age itinerary in numbers 89-101 of the list
(1982, 55-74). Hoffmeier does an excellent job of comparing the Annal of Thutmose III with
Joshua 1-11 (1994, 165-179; cf. Hess 1996, 160-170; 1994, 191-205; Younger 1990). There
are many Old Testament names that are recognized in these lists, but there are two important
place-names that effect this study. The first is number 78, Joseph-El, which indicates the tribe of
Joseph was already in Canaan before 1481 BC (Redford 1979, 277) which is the 23rd year of
Thutmose's coregency (ANET 1969, 235). The second is number 102, Jacob-El, which also
indicates the tribes of Israel were already in Canaan at this time. A date earlier than 1481 BC is
needed for the Exodus. It may be argued that the name Israel was not yet used at this time until
a league of 12 tribes was formed. Others have studied these toponym lists in detail (Giveon
1979, 135-141; Ahituv 1984). Several different locations have been proposed for these palce-
names. There are three other interesting name correlations given by Yeivin who states: There is
a group of three such names, all connected with the same geographical unit, in which appears
also the place-name Jacobel. The first is No. 100, i-i-rw-tw, which could be transcribed 'Ard, and
identified in all probability with the Benjamine clan....The second is No. 106 M-(M)-Q-R-W-T,
which is transcribed Miqlot (Mikloth), and identified with another Benjaminite clan, descended
from the 'Father of Gibeon'....The third place name is No. 108 S3-RW-TY-Y, which is to
betranscribed Shelat, and most plausibly identified with Shela, the third and surviving son of
Judah by his Canaanite concubine,Bat-shua(1971, 22).
There is an interesting story about how Joppa was captured by soldiers who hid in 200 baskets
that were brought into the city on a ruse (ANET 1969, 22). This probably happened on
Thutmose III's first campaign.

Amenhotep II
Amenhotep II was the son of Thutmose III who ruled Egypt from 1453-19 BC There are three
known military campaigns into the land of Canaan (Aharoni 1979, 166). The lists of prisoners
gives a cross-section of the population at that time. Aharoni states: The first group included 550
maryannu (noble chariot warriors), 240 of their wives, 640 Canaanites, 232 royal sons, 323
royal daughters and 270 concubines. A final summary lists: 127 rulers of Retenu, 179 brothers
of the rulers, 3600 'apiru, 15,200 living Shasu, 36,300 Huru, 15,070 living Neges, and 30,652
families thereof.... Among the residents of Palestine the Horites account for 66 per cent, the
Shasu 27.5 per cent and the 'apiru 6.5 per cent (1979, 168-9; Lemche 1991, 43-46). The
Israelites have been associated with both the 'apiru and the Shasu (Akkadian Shutu). Some
scholars think the name "Hebrew" came from "'apiru." This does seem to give clear evidence for
the Hebrews being settled in Canaan at this time.

Amenhotep III
In the temple of Amon in Soleb (Nubia) there is a topographical list from the time of Amenhotep
III (1408-1372 BC). In column IV.A2 is written t3 ssw yhw3 which means "Yahweh of the land of
the Shasu" (Giveon 1964, 244; Redford 1992, 272; Astour 1979, 17-34). In the ancient Near
East a divine name was also was given to a geographical place where the god was worshipped
(Axelsson 1987, 60). This is the first clear extra-biblical evidence of the name "Yahweh." The
land of the Shasu may be the same area as the Midianites in the Bible where Moses stayed for
40 years (Axelsson 1987, 61; Giveon 1964a, 415-16). De Vaux says, "Geographers place
Midian in Arabia, to the south-east of the Gulf of 'Aqabah" (1978, 332). This also is where Mount
Sinai may be located. Astour locates the land in Lebanon (1979, 17). The Shasu were Bedouins
who led a nomadic existence. "Shasu" was a general term the Egyptians used to describe any
Bedouins East of the Delta. The Egyptians would define certain Shasu according to their
location. For example there are the Shasu of Edom (ANET 1969, 259). The word "Shasu"
became in Coptic shos meaning "shepherd" (ANET 1969, 259 note 2). It may be that the
Israelites when they were wandering in the desert were probably grouped with the Shasu by the
Egyptians. Giveon points out marked similarities between the Shasu and the Hebrews (1967,
193-196; Bietak 1987, 169). When they came out of the desert and into the hill country of
Palestine, they were probably called Hapiru as in the El Amarna letters instead of Shasu.There
is another very interesting name in the temple of Amon in Soleb on Column XA.2 it says, iswr or
"Asher" (Giveon 1964, 250). From the position of iswr which is right after qrqms (Carchemish) in
the list and before ipttn (column XA4) which may refer to Abez of Issachar (Joshua 19:20), the
location of this place would be in northern Palestine. Giveon prefers the translation of "Asher"
which may refer to the tribe of Israel. Giveon says, "Les autres toponymes de cette colonne
indiquent une region a l'Ouest d'Assur, il est donc preferable d'opter pour Asher" (Translation:
The other names in this column indicate a region to the West of Assur, it is therefore preferable
to opt for Asher. 1964, 251).

On a statue-base of Amenhotep III at Kom el Hetan which is the funerary temple of Amenhotep
III there is a topographical list with the place-name Yspir (Series a:1; Kitchen 1965, 2). This is
the same name translated "Joseph-El" in Thutmose III's Topographical list (ANET 1969, 242).
After Yspir in both lists the place-name Rkd appears (Series a:2 in Amenhotep III's list, and #79
in Thutmose III's list; Simons 1937, 112). Rkd is the same place-name as Ruhizzi in the El
Amarna letters (EA 53:36, 56; EA 5426; EA 56:26; EA 191:2; Rainey 1982, 354). The ruler of
Ruhizzi is Arsawuya who seems to be located in northern Palestine or southern Syria (EA
53:36, 56; Moran, 125).
Seti I
Seti I is the founder of the 19th Dynasty whose goal was to revive the Egyptian empire. The
kings of the 19th Dynasty identified themselves with the Hyksos religious tradition of
worshipping the god Seth (Baal) whom Seti (Seth's Man) was named after. In 1320 BC Seti
celebrated the 400th year of the reign of Seth, and the beginning of the Hyksos rule (1720 BC).
Ramese II (1279 BC) set up a 7.2 foot high granite monument called "Stele of the Year 400" at
Avaris which he renamed Pi-Ramese, "House of Ramese" (ANET 1969, 252-3; Breasted 1988,
3:238-42; McCarter 1996, 46-7). This founding of the Hyksos rule is most likely alluded to in
Numbers 13:22 which says, "Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan (Avaris) in Egypt"
(KJV; Mazar 1986, 21; Albright 1957, 242). In Seti's first campaign there is a battle with the
Shasu which is pictured on the Karnak reliefs (ANEP 1969, fig. 323-9). The tribal chiefs of the
Shasu are gathered on the mountains of kharu (upper Galilee) to fight the Egyptians. It says:
The foe belonging to the Shasu are plotting (5) rebellion. Their tribal chiefs are gathered in one
place, waiting on the mountain ranges of Kharu. They have taken to clamoring and quarreling,
one of them killing his fellow. They have no regard for the laws of the palace (ANET 1969, 254;
Breasted 1988, 3:52).

Seti claims victory against "the Shasu from the fortress of Sile to the Canaan" which includes
the "Upper Retenu" (ANET 1969, 254; Aharoni 1979, 177; Lemche 1991, 46-48; Giveon 1971).
It seems that this general term "Shasu" is referring to the Hebrews who lived in the mountain
ranges of upper Galilee. "They have no regard for the laws of the palace" may be because they
are following the laws of Moses. "They have taken to clamoring and quarreling" seems to
describe the period of the Judges. Note that they have "tribal chiefs" and no king at this time.
There is one important name on the topographical list from Karnak, i-s-r (Simons 1937, 147).
Aharoni believes that this name is "the earliest reference to the Israelite tribe of Asher. I-s-r
(#265) also occurs in Ancient Egyptian Onomastica by Gardiner (1947, 192-3; Paton 1913, 39).
A stele of Seti I discovered at Beth-Shean states that the Hapiru from Mount Yarumta with the
Tayaru attacked the Asiatics of Rehem (ANET 1969, 255; Rowe 1929, 88-93). Mount Yarumta
is probably Jarmuth of the tribe Issachar (Joshua 21:29). It seems that the tribe of Issachar is
already in Canaan by this time (1303 BC; Aharoni 1982, 124). Breasted concluded that these
Shasu (Bedwin) are the same as the Hapiru of the El Amarna letters. He says, "The attempt of
the Hebrews to gain a footing in Palestine is undoubtedly involved in the larger movement of the
Bedwin, which Seti here records" (1988, 50). On the next page is a summary of the keys names
found in ancient Egyptian topographical lists (Table 12).

Ramses II

Rameses II at U of Penn
Museum.

Ramses II came to power in about 1279 BC And reigned for 67 years. A stele from his 9th year
was discovered at Beth-shean that mentions the Shasu and the city of Per-Ra-messu which is
the same name in Exodus 1:11 (Rowe 1929, 94-98). In the Nubian city of Amara-West the
remains of a temple of Ramses was uncovered. A list of 104 Asiatic names were discovered
which names places in the Negeb, Edom, the city of Dor, and some think Jericho (Horn 1953,
201-3). One interesting name that was found is yhw which is "Yahweh" in Hebrew (Horn 1953,
201; Giveon 1964, 244). The line reads t3 s3sw yhw which I translate as "Yahweh of the land of
the Shasu" (Horn 1953, 201; Giveon 1964, 244; Astour 1979, 17). In reliefs from Luxor the land
of Moab (m-w-i-b) and Dibon (t-b-n-i) are first mentioned in Egyptian (Aharoni 1979, 182). In
Ramses II's topographical list the place-name "Jacob-El" (#9) appears again (ANET 1969, 242;
Simons 1937). The first appearance was in Thutmose III's list. This means that this city of Jacob
has been around for two hundred years. Contemporary with Ramses II is "A Satirical Letter" that
describes the geography of Canaan. In this letter it mentions "Qazardi, the Chief of Aser" (i-s-r,
Asher; ANET 1969, 477).

TABLE 12
Egyptian Topographical Lists

Tuthmosis III Amenhotep II Amenhotep III Seti I Ramses II

Names
(1481 BC) (1440) (1386) (1291) (1275)

Jacob-El yes yes

Joseph-
yes yes
El

Asher yes yes yes

Yahweh yes yes

Shasu yes yes yes yes

Hapiru yes yes

See ANET, 242-3.

Aharoni states, "The use of this name to define a tribal group in Canaan at that time proves that
it must be equated with the Israelite tribe of Asher" (1979, 183; Mazar 1986, 37). This
description of Canaan seems to match the description of the border land of Canaan in Numbers
34. This brings us up to the time of Merneptah where Israel is specifically mentioned. One
important group of letters that must be considered in depth is the El Amarna letters.

The Amarna Letters

Akhenaton Akhenaton's Cartuoch at U of Penn

Museum
In 1887 an Egyptian peasant woman discovered a collection of cuneiform tablets at the site of
Akh-en-Aton's capital from the 14th century BC, now called Tell El-Amarna. There were a total
of 377 tablets found. Later some more tablets were found. About half of them were written in
Akkadian by Canaanite scribes in Palestine describing the conditions there. One major problem
was the "Hapiru" who were taking over the land. They wanted the king of Egypt to send
reinforcements."Hapiru" is probably related to the word "Hebrew" (Greenberg 1955, 91-2).
Hapiru (Akkadian) is sometimes spelled "Habiru" or "'apiru" (Egyptian). The Egyptian word is 'pr.
In these letters "Hapiru" is spelled with the Sumerian logogram SA.GAZ. Hapiru was a general
term for "robber" or "migrant" (Astour 1962, 382). Na'aman states, "Common to all the people
designated as 'Habiru' is the fact that they were uprooted from their original political and social
framework and forced to adapt to a new environment" (1986, 272; Buccellati 1977, 145-7). He
believes the best meaning of Habiru is migrant, but in the Amarna letters it went beyond this to
"a derogatory appellation for rebels against Egyptian authority" (Na'aman 1986, 275). Rowton
says: The term 'apiru is of West Semitic origin, and it first appears in Mesopotamian urban
society at a time when that society was being penetrated by Amorites. This suggests that it was
brought in by the Amorites and that it originally denotes some aspect of tribal society....the
economically and socially uprooted" (1976, 17). The use of the term "Hebrew" in the Old
Testament is found primarily in the pre-monarchical period, and used in unfavorable contexts by
foreigners like the Egyptians (Gen 39:14,17, 41:12; Ex. 1:16, 2:6) and the Philistines (ISam
4:6,9; 13:3,19; 14:11; 29:3). The bands of David and Jephthah give some of the clearest
pictures of what the Habiru were like (Mazar 1963, 310-20). It seems that later in history the
social meaning of Hapiru was changed to an ethnic term for Israel. The social term Hapiru
disappeared in ancient texts (12th century BC) mainly due to the rise of national states, but was
kept in Israel and developed into an ethnic term (Na'aman 1986, 286).

The El Amarna letter 288 from Jerusalem says: The strong arm of the king seizes the land of
Nahrima and the land of Cush; but now the Hapiru are seizing the cities of the King! There is not
a single governor (left) to the king; all are lost. Behold, Turbasu was slain at the gate of Zilu
(but) the king kept silent. Behold Zimredda, the (sons of) Lachish smote him, slaves who have
become Hapiru (Na'aman 1979, 678; Moran 1992, 330-32; ANET 1969, 488-89; Na'aman and
Aviv 1992; Pfeiffer 1963, 50).

The El Amarna (EA) 299 from Gezer says, "Now the Hapiru are prevailing over us. So may the
King, my Lord, take me away from the land of the Hapiru, so that the Hapiru will not destroy us"
(Na'aman 1979, 679; Moran 1992, 340). EA 273 says, "May the king, my lord, be informed that
war is waged in the land and that the land of the king, my lord, is being ruined by going over to
the Hapiru" (Na`aman 1979, 680; Moran 1992, 318).

In EA 256 (line 18) the name "Yashuya" appears which some have tried to connect to the name
"Joshua" (Weippert 1962, 128; ANET 1969, 486; Moran 1992, 309). Rohl equates this name
with "Jesse" father of David (1995, 228). Albright does not think "Yashuya" is Joshua because
Joshua would probably be written as Ya-hu-su-uh (1943, 12 note 27). This letter is from Mut-
Ba'lu, prince of Pella, to the Canaanite Yanhamu who was the Egyptian commissioner for
Palestine and Syria. Mut-Ba'lu denies he has hid Ayyab (Job), the prince of Ashtaroth (in
Bashan) who was wanted by Yanhamu for robbing a Babylonian caravan (Albright 1943, 9-10;
Na'aman and Aviv 1988, 181). "Yanhamu" may be of Hebrew origins (ANET 1969, 486 note
11). In lines 22-24 it says, "all the towns of the land of Garu (Golan) were hostile--Udumu"
(Albright 1943, 14). Albright says, "The name (Udumu) is clearly identical with that of Edom
('Udumu) and the legendary land of 'Udm ('Udumu?) in the Keret Epic of the fifteenth century
BC" (1943, 14 note 36).

Pfeiffer says, "Although the place names of the Amarna texts are parallel to those of the Old
Testament, the personal names are totally different" (1963, 53; Ahituv 1984). In the Amarna
letters Abdi-Khepa is king of Jerusalem where as in Joshua Adoni-zedek is king (Joshua 10:3).
Meredith Kline has therefore concluded that the Conquest by Joshua of Canaan precedes the
Amarna Age. He sees the Hapiru as the oppresses in the book of Judges (1957; Pfeiffer 1963,
53).
Cities that are not mentioned in the El Amarna letters are also important to note. Bimson says:
The fact that various Canaanite cities important in other periods do not feature in the Amarna
correspondence is adequately accounted for by the fact that the incoming Israelites had
destroyed them just a few decades before. Cities which do not feature include Gibeon, Jericho,
Hebron (?), and Bethel (1981, 227).

The important cities of the El Amarna letters are the cites which weres not taken by the
Hebrews. These are Jerusalem (Judges 1:21), Megiddo (Judges 1:27), and Gezer (Judges
1:29). The cities of Hazor and Lachish revived quickly from destruction while Shechem probably
went over to the Hebrews with the Gibeonites, and was never destroyed. In Joshua 11:10 Hazor
is called "the head of all those Kingdoms" which are mentioned in the first three verses of
Joshua 11. This description of Hazor as "the head of all those Kingdoms" does not fit well with
the El Amarna letters (Late Bronze Age), but is an excellent description of the Middle Bronze
Age (Bimson 1981, 228). The king of Hazor in EA 148 is charged with aiding the Hapiru which is
just the opposite of what happens in the book of Joshua. EA 148 says, "The King of Hasura
(Hazor) has abandoned his house and has aligned himself with the 'Apiru" (Moran 1992, 235).

Ahlstrom states, "several letters seems to indicate that most of Palestine is 'apiru territory"
(1993, 245). The Hapiru of these Amarna letters seem to clearly be identified with the Hebrews
of the Old Testament during the time of the judges before the monarchy.

The Hapiru are not just mentioned in the Amarna letters. In Ugaritic a tablet (2062:A:7; Gordon
1965, Glossary #1899) found in the oven when Ugarit was abandon shows that the Hapiru were
active here around 1200 BC Not all Hapiru were Hebrews. Greenberg states, "Since the time of
Bohl it has become commonplace that 'all Israelites were Hebrews (Hapiru), but not all Hebrews
(Hapiru) were Israelites'" (1955, 92).

In a letter found at Taanach the personal name Ahiyami, or Ahiyawi was found which suggests
this name is compounded with Yahweh. Paton says, "This favors the theory that the Habiru in
Canaan were Israelites" (1913, 38). Albright claims that in EA 252 there is an archaic Hebrew
proverb. About 40% of EA 252 is written in pure Canaanite (or Hebrew). In lines 15-18 there is a
proverb which Albright compares with Proverbs 6:6 and 30:25 about the ant which says, "If the
ants are smitten, they do not accept (the smitting) quietly, but they bite the hand of the man who
smites them" (1943, 29). This is more evidence that the Hapiru in Canaan were Hebrews.

There is a newly discovered prism of a new king named Tunip-Tessup of the kingdom of
Tikunani that names a number of Hapiru (438) who were soldiers or servants (Shanks 1996, 22;
Salvini 1996). When this is translated this may give us some more clues to who are the Hapiru.

Ugaritic Texts
In the spring of 1928 a Syrian farmer was plowing his field when he uncovered a stone over a
grave. Archaeologists were called in which led to the discovery of the near by ancient city of
Ugarit, modern day Ras Shamra (Curtis 1985, 18; Craigie 1983, 7). Many clay tablets were
uncovered which were written in cuneiform in a language now called "Ugaritic." See also Ugarit
and the Bible. Since Ugaritic is very similar to Hebrew it can help illuminate Hebrew words. One
of the most interesting personal names is ysril which equals "Israel" in Hebrew (Gordon 1965,
Text 2069:3; Glossary #1164). It is the name of a charioteer (mrynm; Zobel 1990, Vol.6, 399).
While this is not referring to Israel as a nation, it does show the use of this personal name in the
Late Bronze Age. The name "Israel" may have originally meant "El rules" in Ugaritic (Zobel
1990, 401).

Another interesting name is yw (CTA 1 IV:14; Herdner 1963, 4) which may be identified with
"Yahweh" in Hebrew according to Dussaud (Cooper 1981, 367). Herdner states that the reading
yw is certain (1963, 4 note 3). Murtonen also argues for this reading (1951, 6-8). Gordon says,
"Yahwe with -h- corresponds to Yw exactly like yhlm to Ug. ylm" (1965, Glossary #1084). The
name yw appears in the Baal and Yam text which is part of the cycle of Baal myths. The
supreme god El instructs Kothar-and-Khasis (the craftsman god) to build a palace for Yam
(Sea) who is also called judge Nahar (river). As El sits in his banqueting hall he declares to the
other deities that Yam's personal name was yw, but his new name is to be "darling of El" (Deut.
33:12). In order to secure his power Yam must drive his rival Baal from his throne. El then holds
a feast to celebrate this naming ceremony (Gibson 1977, 3-4). The actual text in line 14 (CTA 1
iv:14; Herdner 1963, 4; Gibson 1977, 39) says, sm. bny. yw which I translate as "the name of
my son is Yahweh." This would make Yahweh a rival of Baal which is reminiscent of the conflict
of Elijah with the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel (I Kings 18).

Could Yahweh have originally been associated with the sea god Yam of the Canaanites?
Murtonen sees Yw as a variant or epithet of Yam (Cooper 1981, 367). MacLaurin sees 'elohim
as a composite of 'eloh + Yam meaning "the god Yam" (Cooper 1981, 368). This is probably
very unlikely. Pope states, "Morphologically it ('elohim) is the plural of 'eloah" (1955, 9; Dijkstra,
1995, 53; Cross, 1973, 65). Pettinato suggested that Ya appears in Eblaite at the end of names
like Baal does in Ugaritic. One example is dmrb'l meaning "Baal is my sentinel" compared to
dmry meaning "Ya is my sentinel" (Pettinato 1981, 277; Compare this with Exodus 15:2).
Pettinato later states that Ya does not refer to an individual god, "but rather an absolute or
divine god" (1991, 180).

The Ugaritic personal name abmlk corresponds to the Hebrew name "Abimelech" (Gordon
1965, 348). The ab means "father", and mlk means "king", therefore meaning "father of the
king." Closely related is the name abrm which corresponds to the Hebrew "Abiram" or "Abram"
which Abraham was called before his name was changed (Genesis 17:5; Gordon 1965, Text
#2095:4; Albright 1935, 193). The word abrm is probably from AB (father) plus rm (high)
meaning "exalted father" (Clements 1974, 52-53; See the summary chart in Table 13). The
place-name ablm in Ugaritic "probably connects with such Hebrew toponyms as Abel-beth-
Maacah, Abel ha-Shittim, Abel Mizraim" according to Gaster (Astour 1975, 255). Barton thinks
that Daniel and Aqht were pre-Israelite heroes of Galilee, and translates qrt.ablm as "city of the
meadows" and identifies it with Abel-beth-Maacah in I Kings 15:20,29 (Astour 1975, 255). The
word ablm may also mean "mourners" (Gordon 1965, 349; Glossary #27).

TABLE 13
Ugaritic Texts with Old Testament Names

Transliteration Translation Ugaritic Text*

qrt . 'ablm city of Abel CTA 19 IV:165

abmlk Abimelech UT 314:8

abrm Abraham UT 2095:2,4

father of mankind
AB . 'adm CTA 14 III:151
(Adam)

Asher Baal (place-

atr . B'l UT 62:7
name)

and to well-watered
wl . 'udm . trrt CTA 14 III:109
Edom

ysril Israel UT 2069:3

bnmt son of Moses UT 2046:rev.5

yw Yahweh CTA 1 IV:14

y'l Ya(hweh) is God UT 311:7

zbl Zebulon UT 1084:13

*UT-Ugaritic Textbook by Gordon in 1965. CTA-Corpus
Tablettes Alphabetiques by Herdner in 1963.

The city ablm in Aqht is the "meadow" were Aqht, son of Daniel, was slain (CTA 19 IV:163-166;
Astour 1975, 254; Gibson 1977, 199). Because of the spilling of Aqht's blood there would be
crop failure for seven years. The land would dry up. Could there be a double meaning here, and
in Genesis 4 for Abel meaning "meadow" and "mourner" (or dried up) was slain in a field? Cain
also would have crop failure (Gen. 4:12).

The Ugaritic mt according to Aistleitner is derived from the Egyptian ms meaning "child"
(Gordon 1965, 440; Glossary #1579). Gordon states, "The vocalization of the Eg.(Egyptian)
mose (as in 'Thutmose') suggests that 'Moses' is the same n.(noun) that appears in
Ug.(Ugaritic) lit.(literature)" (1965, 440; Glossary #1579).

In Ugaritic the place-name zbl is mentioned that is the same in Hebrew as "Zebulon" (Gordon
1965, Text 1084:13; Glossary #815). Both words come from the same root meaning "to raise,
elevate" (Astour 1975, 284). This text is a list of the quantities of wine from the areas it was
produced. Astour notes that zbl is "A town in the Piedmont district of the Kingdom of Ugarit, now
Karzbil" (1975, 284). Although this does not refer to the tribe of Zebulon, it shows the use of this
word during the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 BC).

There is one tablet among the administrative records at Ugarit that mentions a man from
Canaan. The text says y'l. kn'ny, "Ya'el the Canaanite" (Gordon 1965, 206; Text 311:7; Rainey
1963, 45). Ya'el may have been a Hebrew. This also seems to indicate that Canaan was "a
district separate and distinct from the kingdom of Alalah" (Rainey 1963, 43; Na'aman and Aviv
1994, 403).

The Ugaritic story of Keret is about a just king named Keret who had no heir. He was told by El
in a dream to gather an army and march seven days to Udm (Edom). He is then to wait seven
days before he asks for the daughter of the king of Udm in marriage. He will then have eight
sons and daughters. Albright says, "The name (Udumu) is clearly identical with that of Edom
('Udumu) and the legendary land of 'Udm ('Udumu?) in the Keret Epic of the fifteenth century
BC" (1943, 14 note 36). Gordon states, "It is no accident that Udm (cf. & 'Idomeneus' the Cretan
leader of the Iliad) occurs in the Krt text....The Caphtorians settled in Canaan, from Ugarit to
Edom" (1965, 352; Glossary #85; CTA 14 III:108-9). The seven day wait is reminiscent of the
seven day wait around the city of Jericho (Joshua 6:3-4). This story shows that Edom is already
a kingdom at this time.

The Philistines

Philistine pottery, U of Penn

Around 1200 BC the Philistines migrated in great numbers to Canaan after the great sea battle
with the Egyptians. On the walls of Ramses III's temple of Medinet Habu there are reliefs
showing the battle with the Philistines (ANEP 1969, figs. 7,9,57,& 341; Yadin 1963, 336-43;
Dothan 1992, 16-22). In the topographical list of Ramses III the city of Jacob-El is listed as well
as the city of Levi-El (ANET 1969, 242-3).

In the book of Judges the Philistines do not come into the picture until the end of the judges with
Samson (Bimson 1981, 86-88). So most of the book deals with problems before the Philistines
came to power in 1200 BC The Philistines probably fled their homeland of Crete after the
eruption of Santorini on the island of Thera. They are mentioned in the Iliad of Homer (Book I,
Bierling 1992, 51, 72). Probably after the Trojan War the Philistines migrated south and tried to
take over Egypt. Because they were not successful they settled in Canaan.

There are five groups of sea people, Philistines, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denye(n), and Weshesh
(ANET 1969, 262). One group of sea peoples called "Denye(n)" or "Dannuna" is what Dothan
suggests could be the tribe of Dan in the Bible (1992, 215-19; Iliad, Book 1.56, 87).

Settlement
There have been a number of theories that have questioned the conquest of Canaan. They opt
for a peaceful infiltration or a peasant's revolt in the hill country. It was Alt who first suggested in
1925 that the Israelites gradually infiltrated into Canaan peacefully (Yamauchi 1994, 16). In
1962 George Mendenhall first proposed the "Peasant Revolt Model" which was further
developed by Norman Gottwald (Mendenhall 1962, 66-87; 1973; 1958, 61-64). Mendenhall
suggested that "Israel came into existence as the result of sociopolitical upheaval and
retribalization among the Canaanites at the end of the Late Bronze Age" (Yamauchi 1994, 17-
18; Freedman and Graf 1983). Some of the evidence that is put forth is that tribes are already in
the land, but this is because they are assuming a late date for the Exodus. The names of the
tribes, or patriarchs show that they were already settled in Canaan by Thutmose III's campaigns
into Canaan (1490 BC).

An analysis of the genealogies in the Bible is very illuminating. According to the book of
Chronicles there is no genealogy for the tribe of Dan, and Zebulon. Manassah had an Aramean
concubine, while some claim Gad and Asher are Canaanite divinities. Yeivin states, "it should
be observed that many of the names occurring in these genealogies are either blatantly
geographical or connected with place-names; while others are definitely personal names"
(1971, 11; De Geus 1993, 74-5). De Vaux goes into much detail on the origins of the different
tribes mentioned in the genealogies of the Bible (1978).

The best explanation of this seems to be that Israel is a confederation of Hapiru tribes in the hill
country of Canaan, that formed the nation of Israel in the Iron Age. Originally Abraham was part
of an Amorite migration south into Canaan from Mesopotamia which continued down to Egypt
climaxing in the Hyksos rule. In Deuteronomy 26:5 Jacob is called a "wandering Aramean"
which is a late term for Amorite (De Vaux 1978, 200). The exodus is to be identified with the
expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by Ahmose (1570 BC). Then they wandered in the
wilderness being included among the Shasu, and caused the fall of MBIIIC cities in Canaan (the
conquest). The Conquest was not total but just in the highlands for Egypt controlled the lower
lands and coast. They were called Hapiru (from which the name Hebrew originates) in the
Amarna period (time of the judges) until their league was consolidated into 12 tribes which
became the nation of Israel in the Iron Age.

Conclusion
It seems clear after looking at a number of ancient writers that all the ancient Jewish writers took
the 430 or 400 years to cover the time in Egypt as well as Canaan. The Book of Jubilees
counted 400 years from Abraham's entry into Canaan. Most of the Jewish writers counted the
400 years from Isaac's birth to the exodus. The actual time in Egypt was only 185 to 215 years
according to most writers; however, Midrash Abkhir specifically states 86 years in Egypt
(Rappoport 1966, Vol.2, 286-7). Another important note is that most of the Jewish writers
pushed the date of the exodus back to about the time of the expulsion of the Hyksos. Joseph
would have rose to power just before or during the time of the Hyksos.

Josephus says there are 592 years from the Exodus to the founding of Solomon's Temple (960
BC), while Sedar Olan Zutta says 480 years. The best explanation of this discrepancy is the
omission of the oppressions in the Book of Judges (111 years). This was a common ancient
practice as seen in ancient Egyptian king lists.

Josephus goes into detail quoting Manetho showing that the Jews were in Egypt. He equates
the Jews with the Hyksos, and the Exodus with the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by
Ahmose who founded the 18th dynasty (1570-50 BC). Manetho had access to the original
Egyptian hieroglyphics that modern scholars do not have. Yet modern scholars today, both
liberal and conservative place the Exodus much later, and claim there is no evidence of the
Exodus in Egyptian writings. The best explanation is to identify the Exodus from Egypt with the
expulsion of the Hyksos for there is no other mass exit from Egypt.

A number of secular writers tell about the origin of the Jews with disdain. Some picture the Jews
as leprous. They identify the Jews with the Hyksos who were expelled from Egypt by Ahmose.
This expulsion is seen as a great defeat and humiliation, yet the Jews claim a great victory. This
scenario is seen in other ancient writings like Ramses II and the war with the Hittites. Each side
claims victory. Sennachrib destroyed 46 cities in Judah, yet Hezekiah claims a victory because
he did not take Jerusalem.

The early Church Fathers all equated the Hyksos with the Jews, and the Exodus with the
expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by Ahmose. The only exception is Eusebius who did not
account for overlap of reigns, and omits the years of oppression.

A look at the New Testament gives convincing proof that Paul in Galatians 3:17-18 saw the 430
years starting with the promise to Abraham. The Jews were not in Egypt for 400 years, but the
400 years applied to their sojourn in Canaan as well which was controlled by Egypt. The LXX
interprets it this way in Exodus 12:40. In Acts 13:20 it is clear that there are 450 years for the
time of the judges, but this does not seem to square with the 480 years from Solomon's Temple
to the Exodus, because the years of oppression are omitted. This would place the exodus back
to the time of the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt.

A look at all the archaeological evidence shows that the best fit of the data is to identify the
Exodus with the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt around 1570-50 BC The most important
discovery is the Merneptah stele that mentions Israel which forced the revision of a number of
liberal theories. Before the discovery of this stele scholars placed the date of the exodus and
entry into Canaan much later. They were now forced to admit that Israel was already in Canaan
at the time of Merneptah. This puts a terminus ante quem date of 1210 BC for the exodus.

The execration texts which date back to at least 1630 BC mention city-states like Jerusalem,
Shechem, and Hazor, but no mention of Israel. Another inscription of Khu-Sebek mentions
Shechem, but not Israel.

Most scholars will place the Jews, pro-Israelites, or even Jacobites in Egypt at the time of the
Hyksos. There are many scarabs with the name "Jacob-El." This seems most likely to refer
either directly or indirectly to Jacob of the Old Testament.

The expulsion of the Hyksos seems to fit well with the story of the Exodus. Not all Hyksos were
pro-Israelites. It says in Exodus that a "mixed multitude" left Egypt. Although the Egyptians saw
the expulsion of the Hyksos as a great military victory, the Israelites viewed this as a great
salvation victory for them. This seems similar to other events recorded in ancient history where
both sides claim a great victory.

The evidence from the Sinai shows little occupation during the Late Bronze Age which is
probably due to the expulsion of the Hyksos, and when Ahmose marched to Sharuhen, and
besieged it for three years. The Middle Bronze Age destructions seem to fit well with the
conquest of Canaan by Joshua.

Egyptian topographical lists are key in showing who and where people lived. The oldest list is
from Tuthmosis III which names "Jacob-El" and "Joseph-El" as cities in Canaan. It is paramount
to understand that cities were named after an important person or god. This seems to be clear
evidence that pro-Israelites were in Canaan at this time (1481 BC).

During Amenhotep II's reign (1453-1419 BC) there is a list of prisoners that mentions 3600
'apiru, and 15,200 living Shasu that were taken as prisoners from Canaan. Some of these were
probably Hebrews.

In the temple of Amon in Soleb (Nubia) there is a topographical list from the time of Amenhotep
III (1408-1372 BC) That gives the name "Yahweh of the land of the Shasu" (Giveon 1964, 244;
Redford 1992, 272; Astour 1979, 17-34). In the ancient Near East a divine name was also given
to a geographical place where the god was worshipped (Axelsson 1987, 60). This is the first
clear extra-biblical evidence of the name "Yahweh." Also named are "Asher" and "Joseph-El"
which indicates that the Hebrews were in Canaan at this time.

In Seti's first campaign (1291 BC) There is a battle with the Shasu which is pictured on the
Karnak reliefs (ANEP 1969, fig. 323-9). The tribal chiefs of the Shasu are gathered on the
mountains of kharu (upper Galilee) to fight the Egyptians. It seems that this general term
"Shasu" is referring to the Hebrews who lived in the mountain ranges of upper Galilee at this
time.

In Ramses II's topographical list (ca.1275 BC) the place-name "Jacob-El" (#9) appears again
(ANET 1969, 242; Simons 1937). The first appearance was in Thutmose III's list. This means
that this city of Jacob has been around for two hundred years. Another interesting name that
was found is yhw which is "Yahweh" in Hebrew (Horn 1953, 201; Giveon 1964, 244).

It seems abundantly clear from all these topographical lists concerning Canaan that the
Hebrews were in Canaan at this time, but they did not use the name "Israel" until there league
of tribes was well formed by the time of Merneptah.

The El Amarna letters describe the troublesome Hapiru that were taking over the land of
Canaan. This seems to fit well with the Hebrews during the time of the judges. The word
"Hebrew" probably came from the word "Hapiru."

In Ugaritic texts one of the most interesting personal names is ysril which equals "Israel" in
Hebrew (Gordon 1965, Text 2069:3; Glossary #1164). While this is not referring to Israel as a
nation it does show the use of this personal name in the Late Bronze Age. Another interesting
name is yw (CTA 1 IV:14; Herdner 1963, 4) which may be identified with "Yahweh" in Hebrew.
While one of these names alone is not conclusive, yet when all of the personal names and
place names are considered, there seems to be abundant evidence for the Hebrews living in
Canaan during the Late Bronze Age.

Therefore the best explanation for all of the archaeological evidence seems to be that Israel is a
confederation of Hapiru tribes in the hill country of Canaan, that formed the nation of Israel in
the Iron Age. Originally, Abraham was part of an Amorite migration south into Canaan from
Mesopotamia which continued down to Egypt climaxing in the Hyksos rule. The exodus is to be
identified with the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by Ahmose (1570-50 BC; Frerichs and
Lesko, 1997, 82, 96). Then they wandered in the wilderness being included among the Shasu,
and caused the fall of MBIIIC cities in Canaan (the conquest). The Conquest was not total but
just in the highlands for Egypt controlled the lower lands and coast. They were called Hapiru
(from which the name Hebrew originates) in the Amarna period (time of the judges) until their
league was consolidated into 12 tribes which became the nation of Israel in the Iron Age.
This paper has shown that most of the ancient writers equated the Exodus with the expulsion of
the Hyksos from Egypt around 1570-50 BC Most ancient writers put the Jews in Egypt for 215
years or less. According to most ancient writers the 430 years in Egypt was taken to start with
the promise to Abraham, and the 400 years from the birth of Isaac. Others begin these years
with Abraham's entry into Canaan. All of the ancient Jewish and Christian writers considered in
this paper took the 430 or 400 years to cover the time in Egypt as well as Canaan. Biblical
writers also agree with these ancient traditions, and the archaeological evidence reinforces
these views.

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Lemche, Niels Peter. 1991. The Canaanites and Their Land. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Lichtheim, Miriam. 1975. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. 1.Berkeley: University of California
Press.

Lightfoot, John. 1979. A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica:
Matthew-I Corinthians. rpt.1859. 4 Vols. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.

Manetho. 1940. Manetho. Translation by W. G. Waddell. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Martinez, Florentino. 1996. The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated.2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Mazar, Benjamin. 1963. "The Military Elite of King David." Vetus Testamentum 13:310-20.

........ 1986. The Early Biblical Period. Ed. by Ahituv and Levine. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration
Society.

McCarter, P. Kyle. 1992. "The Origins of Israelite Religion."In The Rise of Ancient Israel.
Washington DC:Biblical Archaeology Society.

....... 1996. Ancient Inscriptions. Washington DC:Biblical Archaeology Society.

Mendenhall, G.E. 1958. "The Census Lists of Numbers 1 and 26."Journal of Biblical Literature
77.

....... 1962. "The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine." Biblical Archaeology 25.

....... 1973. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Traditions. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press.

Meyers, Eric M. ed. 1997. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 5 Vols.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Millard, Alan. 1985. Treasures From Bible Times. Oxford: Lion Publishing.

Miller, J. Maxwell. 1976. The Old Testament and the Historian. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

Moran, William. Ed. 1992. The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Murtonen, A. 1951. The Appearance of the Name YHWH Outside of Israel. Helsinki: Studia
Orientalia.

Na'aman, Nadav. 1979. "The Origin and Historical Background of Several Amarna Letters."
Ugarit-Forschungen 11.

....... 1981. "Hebron was Built Seven Years Before Zoan in Egypt." Vetus Testamentum 31.

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Na'aman and Aviv. 1988. "Biryawaza of Damascus and the Date of the Kamid El-Loz 'Apiru
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....... 1992. "Canaanite Jerusalem and its Central Hill Country Neighbours in the Second
Millennium BCE"Ugarit-Forschungen 24.

....... 1994. "The Canaanites and Their Land: A Rejoinder."Ugarit-Forschungen 26.

Neusner, Jacob. 1985. Genesis Rabbah. 3 Vols. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

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Nicholson, E.W. 1973. Exodus and Sinai in History and Tradition. Richmond: John Knox Press.

Oren, Eliezer. 1981. "How Not to Create a History of the Exodus-A Critique of Professor
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Rainey, Anson F. 1963. "A Canaanite at Ugarit." Israel Exploration Journal 13.

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Redford, Donald. 1970. A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph.Leiden: E.J. Brill.

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Renfrew, Colin. 1996. "Kings, tree rings and the Old World." Nature 381 (June 27).

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Rohl, David M. 1995. Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical Quest.New York: Crown Publishers.

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Rowton, M.B. 1950. "The Date of the Founding of Solomon's Temple." Bulletin of the Society of
Oriental Research 119 (October).

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Studies 35.

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Eerdmans.

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(November/December).

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Exploration Journal 29:1.

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Publishers.

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Velikovshy, Immanuel. 1950. Worlds in Collision. New York:Dell Publishing.

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the Society of Oriental Research 241.

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ed. by Millard, Hoffmeier, and Baker. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

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Archaeologisch Instituut in HetNabije Oosten.

Young, Edward J. 1969. The Book of Isaiah. 3 Vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Younger, K. Lawson. 1990. Ancient Conquest Accounts: A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and
Biblical History Writing. JSOTSup 98. Sheffield: JSOT Press.
Yurco, F.J. 1990. "3,200-Year-Old Picture of Israelites Found in Egypt." Biblical Archaeology
Review 16/5.

....... 1991. "Yurco's Response." Biblical Archaeology Review 17/6.

Zevit, Ziony 1985. "The Problem of AI" Biblical Archaeology Review 11:2 (March/April).

Zobel, Hans-Jurgen. 1990. "Jacob," and "Israel." Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament.
Vol. 6 ed. by Botterweck and Ringgren. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Resources
The Bible is History by Ian Wilson. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 1999. This is a very
interesting book that has a similar view as mine.

Biblical plagues and parting of Red Sea 'caused by volcano' So says new BBC documentary
(The Daily Telegraph, London). Moses, which will be broadcast on BBC1 on Dec 1, 2002 will
suggest that much of the Bible story can be explained by a single natural disaster, a huge
volcanic eruption on the Greek island of Santorini in the 16th century BC.

Biblical plagues and parting of Red Sea 'caused by volcano'

By Jonathan Petre, Religion Correspondent
(Filed: 11/11/2002)

Fresh evidence that the Biblical plagues and the parting of the Red Sea were natural events
rather than myths or miracles is to be presented in a new BBC documentary.

Moses, which will be broadcast next month, will suggest that much of the Bible story can be
explained by a single natural disaster, a huge volcanic eruption on the Greek island of Santorini
in the 16th century BC.

Using computer-generated imagery pioneered in Walking With Dinosaurs, the programme tells
the story of how Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt after a series of plagues had devastated
the country. But it also uses new scientific research to argue that many of the events
surrounding the exodus could have been triggered by the eruption, which would have been a
thousand times more powerful than a nuclear bomb.

Dr Daniel Stanley, an oceanographer who has found volcanic shards in Egypt that he believes
are linked to the explosion, tells the programme: "I think it would have been a frightening
experience. It would have been heard. The blast ash would have been felt."

Computer simulations by Mike Rampino, a climate modeller from New York University, show
that the resulting ash cloud could have plunged the area into darkness, as well as generating
lightning and hail, two of the 10 plagues.

The cloud could have also reduced the rainfall, causing a drought. If the Nile had then been
poisoned by the effects of the eruption, pollution could have turned it red, as happened in a
recent environmental disaster in America.
The same pollution could have driven millions of frogs on to the land, the second plague. On
land the frogs would die, removing the only obstacle to an explosion of flies and lice - the third
and fourth plagues.

The flies could have transmitted fatal diseases to cattle (the fifth plague) and boils and blisters
to humans (the sixth plague).

The hour-long documentary argues that even the story of the parting of the Red Sea, which
allowed Moses to lead the Hebrews to safety while the pursuing Egyptian army was drowned,
may have its origins in the eruption.

It repeats the theory that "Red Sea" is a mistranslation of the Sea of Reeds, a much shallower
swamp.

Computer simulations show that the Santorini eruption could have triggered a 600ft-high tidal
wave, travelling at about 400 miles an hour, which would have been 6ft high and a hundred
miles long when it reached the Egyptian delta.

Such an event would have been remembered for generations, and may have provided the
inspiration for the story.

Jean-Claude Bragard, the director, said: "Sifting through the latest historical research and
utilising new archaeological tools, we have been able to find a surprising amount of
circumstantial evidence for the Biblical tales."

Moses, which is presented by Jeremy Bowen, the former Middle East correspondent, will be
broadcast on BBC1 on Dec 1.

THE EXODUS IN EGYPTIAN SOURCES

http://dwij.org/forum/amarna/1_exodus.html

[This paper was read at the Annual Meeting of the American Schools of Oriental
Research, held in Boston November 17-20, 1999.]

At the center of the Bible account there is the story of a Semitic Hebrew tribe
descending to Egypt at the time of Joseph, then returning to Canaan some time
later at the time of Moses. Biblical scholars and Egyptologists had, up to the
mid-20th century, accepted the Exodus narration as representing a true
historical account. Following the Second World War, however, the situation
changed dramatically. Thanks to archaeological excavations, more light was
thrown on the ancient history of both Egypt and Canaan; nevertheless, no
evidence was found to support the Exodus account of the Bible. Negative
evidence from historical sources led many scholars to dismiss the Exodus
narration as a mere fiction, and ten years ago, Professor Donald Redford
concluded that the story of the Exodus is, in fact, based on the expulsion of
the Hyksos from Egypt, therefore much of its detail is fictitious.

I do not agree, however, with this conclusion. I believe that the biblical
account of the Exodus does represent true historical events. The lack of
historical evidence, in my view, is due to the fact that scholars have, so far,
been looking in the wrong historical period.

The search for the Exodus has been toponymic in nature, related to the names
of geographical locations mentioned in the Bible, such as the area of Goshen
and the store-cities of Ramses and Pithom. When Eduard Henri Naville
arrived at Tell el-Maskhita in the eastern Delta in the winter of 1883, he was
looking for the store-city of Pithom. Six months later, Naville confirmed to
the first annual meeting of the Egypt Exploration Fund in London that this
location in the Wadi Tumilat was in fact the store-city of Pithom built by
Ramses II. Naville then proceeded to show that the biblical word Goshen is
equivalent to Egyptian Gesem, which is the name of the area of Faqus in the
eastern Delta. Having found Pithom and Goshen, the next step was to try and
locate the city of Ramses, where the Exodus is believed to have started.
Looking for Ramses, however, proved to be more elusive. Different locations
were suggested by different scholars for that city—from Tanis, modern San
el-Hagar at the bottom of Lake Manzalah at the start of this century, to Tell-el
Dabaa Qantir in the eastern Delta at the present time.

The fact that all these locations are related to Ramses II persuaded scholars to
regard this king as being the Pharaoh of the Oppression; Merenptah his
successor being the Pharaoh of the Exodus. But when, in 1896, Flinders Petrie
found the stele of Merenptah's 5th year which mentioned the Israelites already
in Canaan, the date of the Exodus had to be re-fixed to the end of Ramses II's
rule. Ramses II has now become the Pharaoh of both the Oppression and the
Exodus.

The following step was to find the date of the Descent. This step proved to be
an easy task. Following the Book of Exodus, which states that the Israelites'
Sojourn in Egypt lasted for 430 years (Exodus 12:40-41), they counted 430
years back from the end of Ramses II's reign and arrived at the very beginning
of the Hyksos period for the arrival of Joseph into Egypt. In this way the time
of both the Descent and the Exodus was fixed, not on chronological, but on
geographical evidence. Looking for historical confirmation of a Semitic
Exodus from Egypt at the end of Ramses II's reign, however, they found only
negative evidence. To rely mainly on philological and geographical
similarities, in my view, was the main reason behind the failure to reach a
positive conclusion. Chronology is the backbone of history, and it is for the
time of both the Descent and the Exodus that we should start looking.

One of the main reasons which persuaded early scholars that the Hyksos
period was the right time for Joseph in Egypt, was their belief, following
William Albright, that it was the Hyksos rulers who first introduced the war
chariot into Egypt. As the biblical story of Joseph has three references to
chariots, this meant that this war machine was already used in Egypt at the
time of Joseph. Recent archaeological excavations in Hyksos locations,
however, failed to produce any single evidence to show that they ever used
this advanced war machine. Almost all Hyksos locations in Egypt have now
been excavated. Neither at Tell el-Dabaa, Tel el-Yahudia, Tell el-Heboia, or at
any other Hyksos location at the eastern Delta, has any evidence come to
show the existence of chariots.

Moreover, Egyptian accounts of their war against the Hyksos, as found in the
Kamose Stele and the tomb of Ahmos Son of Abana, or Manetho's history,
have no mention of chariots taking place in the fighting. Before the time of
Amenhotep I of the 18th dynasty, no archaeological evidence has been found
in Egypt to support Albright's view of the introduction of the war chariot by
the Hyksos.

Accordingly, Joseph's arrival in Egypt could not have taken place before the
18th dynasty. But at which part of the 18th dynasty was his arrival?

Again the Bible account does offer a clue that could help us coming closer to
the time of Joseph. While Genesis 41:43 states that Pharaoh gave Joseph a
chariot at the ceremony of his appointment to his position, Genesis 50:9
mentions that Joseph took with him "both chariots and horsemen" when he
went up to bury his father in Canaan. This account indicates two things: that
Joseph was appointed to be responsible for the chariots, and that the chariots
had already been separated from infantry to become a separate entity. This
situation could not have been possible, as Alan Schulman was able to show,
before the time of Amenhotep III at the beginning of the 14th century BC. The
first man appointed at the head of the Chariotry was Yuya, therefore we
should be looking for Joseph and the Israelites in Egypt starting only from the
time of Amenhotep III.

Here we find some interesting archaeological information. As Professor

Raphael Giveon has shown, a fragmentary list of toponyms of the Shasu
Bedouins of Sinai included the name Ta-Shasw-Yahw, (Giveon 1971:26f.)
which suggests that Semites worshipping Yahweh were found in Egypt during
the time of Amenhotep III. Another significant archaeological evidence of this
period comes from Sakkara. In 1989 Dr. Alain-Pierre Zivie discovered the
tomb of Aper-el, a chief minister of both Amenhotep III and Akhenaten. His
name indicates a Hebrew origin, possibly also related to Elohim.

When, on the other hand, we attempt to look for the date of the Exodus, we
find that the only archaeological evidence in Egypt that mentions Israel by
name confirms that they were in Canaan in the 5th year of Merenptah, during
the last quarter of the 13th century BC. This evidence indicates clearly that the
Israelites must have left Egypt at a considerable time before that date, in
which case the 430 years of the Exodus account could not be representing the
actual length of the Sojourn. In fact, the Book of Genesis gives us a
contradictory account regarding the length of the Sojourn.

According to the Book of Geneses (15: 13, 16), it was the fourth Israelite
generation since their Descent to Egypt who left in the Exodus. The time of
four generations between Joseph and Moses could not possibly be 430 years.
A close examination of the biblical narration shows that the figure of 430
years represents the total ages of these four generation, for if we add the ages
of Levi (137), Kohath (133), Amram (137) and Moses (120), the total would
be 527 years. Of this, 57 years were deducted as representing the age Levi
reached at the time of the Descent, as well as 40 years which Moses is said to
have lived after the Exodus, which leaves us with 430 years. As the first two
generations, Levi and Kohath, had already been born in Canaan and arrived in
Egypt with Jacob at the time of the Descent (Genesis 46:11), only two
generations could have been born in Egypt: Amram and Moses. If we allow
25 years for every generation to beget his firstborn, we should be looking for a
period of only about fifty years plus for the length of the Sojourn. In this case,
we should be looking for the historical evidence for the Exodus starting from
the mid-14th century BC, fifty years from the beginning of the reign of
Amenhotep III.

As the Exodus account implies an attempt by some Semitic tribes to leave

Egyptian Sinai to enter into Canaan, we soon find the evidence for the one and
only such attempt. This only recorded exodus attempt by Bedouin tribes from
Sinai trying to enter Canaan took place at the end of the short reign of Ramses
I. Immediately after the death of Ramses I c.1333 BC, we find evidence of
some Semitic Bedouin tribes of Sinai, called Shasu by the Egyptians,
attempting to cross the Egyptian borders to Canaan.

On the east side of the northern wall of the great Hypostyle Hall in Amun's
temple at Karnak we find two series of scenes, which are distributed
symmetrically on either side of the entrance to the temple, representing the
wars of Seti I who succeeded Ramses I on the throne. The first of these wars,
chronologically, is found at the bottom row of the east wall and represent the
war against the Shasu. After setting out on the route between the fortified city
of Zarw and Gaza—known in the Bible as 'the way of the land of the
Philistines' (Exodus 13:17), and passing the fortified water stations, "pushing
along the road in the Negeb, the king scatters the Shasu, who from time to
time gather in sufficient numbers to meet him." One of these actions is
depicted in this relief as taking place on the desert road. Over the battle scene
stands the inscription: "The Good God, Sun of Egypt, Moon of all land,
Montu in the foreign countries ... like Baal, ... The rebels, they know not how
they shall (flee); the vanquished of the Shasu (becoming like) that which
existed not."
In this campaign it seems that Seti pursued the Shasu into the northern Sinai
area and Edom, which includes 'the waters of Meribah,' as well as the land of
Moab at the borders between Sinai and Canaan/Jordan—before returning to
continue his march along the northern Sinai road between Zarw and Gaza
until he reached Canaan itself. Just across the Egyptian border he arrived at a
fortified town whose name is given as Pe-Kanan, which is believed to be the
city of Gaza.

Another scene has the following inscription over the defeated Shasu: "Year 1.
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Menma-re. The destruction which the
mighty sword of Pharaoh . . . made among the vanquished of the Shasu from
the fortress of Zarw to Pe-Kanan, when His Majesty marched against them
like a fierce-eyed lion, making them carcasses in their valleys, overturned in
their blood like those that exist not.

Pa-Ramses, who later became Ramses I and established the Ramesside 19th
dynasty, was the vizier and Commander of the army during the reign of
Horemheb. He was also appointed as the governor of the fortified border city
of Zarw, which supervised the whole border area of northern Sinai, including
the land of Goshen, and which had been turned into a big prison by
Horemheb. Ramses himself belonged to a local family coming from this area,
and it is this Ramses who must have been remembered by the Hebrew scribes
putting down the biblical account. Ramses I was already a very old man at the
time of his accession and did not survive the end of his second year on the
throne. His son Seti I followed him, and it seems that the Shasu attempt to
leave Egypt began before the death of his father. At the very beginning of
Seti's reign a messenger arrived with the news: "The Shasu enemies are
plotting rebellion. Their tribal leaders are gathered in one place, standing on
the foothills of Khor (Palestine) and are engaged in turmoil and uproar." And
although Seti I was able to stop the Shasu leaving Sinai, forty years later,
during the 20th year of Ramses II, we find them already in Canaan.

Shasu was the name given by the Egyptians to the Beduin of Sinai, known in
both the Bible and the Quran as the Midianites, allies of Moses. It seems that
the Israelites were only a small part of a large Semitic attempt to leave Egypt
for Canaan.

Thus Horemheb becomes the Pharaoh of the Oppression and Ramses I the
Pharaoh of the Exodus.

Ahmed Osman
 Dating the Exodus, The Hyksos Expulsion of 1540/1530 BCE ?

http://www.bibleorigins.net/Exodus1540BCHyksos.html

I highly reccomend to the reader, "Dating the Exodus," a PhD dissertation by Dr.
Stephen C. Meyers, which discusses various proposals for the Exodus' date using
Jewish and Non-Jewish sources in addition to the biblical evidence. He favors the
Hyksos Expulsion as being behind the Exodus traditions, and notes this was the
common understanding of the Early Christian period. cf. the following url
http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm

***15 May 2005 UPDATE: Please be advised that I _now_ understand that a "conflation
and fusion" exists of events appearing in the Bible's Exodus narratives: first, the Hyksos
expulsion of 1540-1530 BCE, secondly, Ramesside Era events in the Sinai and Arabah,
and thirdly, of places existing only in Late Iron II, 640-562 BCE. Mainstream scholarship
understands Israel's settling of the Hill Country is Iron I, ca. 1200-1000 BCE based on
archaeological findings. Why then does the Bible's chronology have an Exodus "hundreds
of years" earlier ?

The answer is very surprising and has been preserved for almost 2000 years in the writings
of an Egyptian priest/historian called Manetho. He wrote a history of Egypt in the 3rd
century BCE for his Hellenistic Greek overlord Ptolemy II. He noted that TWO
EXPULSIONS occurred in Egypt's history, of Asiatics. The first was of the Hyksos of the
mid 16th century and then another in the Ramesside era. He understood that the Hyksos
fled to and settled at Jerusalem, but that 500 years later (Josephus' reckoning) "their
descendants" reinvaded Egypt, resettling at the town they had been expelled from earlier
called Avaris. After 13 years of "lording it" over the eastern delta, the Ramessides expelled
the Hyksos' descendants a SECOND TIME, and they eventually again settled at
Jerusalem. The Jewish historian Josephus (1st century CE) was adamant that the 16th
century expulsion was the Exodus based on _his calculations_ of the Bible's chronology
and furious that Manetho had said the Exodus was preserved in a Ramesside expulsion!
Modern archaeology has established the Israelite settlement of the Canaanite Hill Country
from Galilee to the Negev as portrayed in the Bible, was in Ramesside times. Please click
here for my article on Manetho vs. Josephus on the dating of the Exodus. If Manetho is
correct, that Avaris was resettled by Canaanites in Ramesside times, and expelled again in
that era, perhaps this answers the "great mystery" as to why the pottery of the IRON IA
settlements is _Canaanite_ in appearance and _not_ Egyptian ? The answer: 13 years was
apparently too short a period of time for the "reinvading" Canaanite descendants of the
Hyksos to adopt Egyptian potting techniques. They probably cast their Canaanite pots in
Egypt and still were casting them in the "Canaanite manner" when they settled AGAIN near
Jerusalem in the Hill Country. Not until Egypt abandoned Canaan circa 1130 BCE under
Ramesses VI was the land wide-open for conquest, by Philistines and Israelites. The
"original" article, below, will remain intact, but is _superceded_ by the above observations
of Josephus and Manetho.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Anyone who has studied the chronology issues and problems arising in Biblical as well as
Egyptological studies is well aware that a consensus does not exist for any *hard dates* in
regards to when the Exodus occured (if it occured) or just when the Hyksos Expulsion
happened. For the Exodus we have two major proposals 1446 BCE (based on statements
made in 1 Kings 6:1) favored by many Conservatives, and 1250 BCE championed by
numerous Liberals. There are other dates, but they have far fewer adherents.
In 1985 R. Krauss argued that the 9th year of Amenhotep I, noting a rising of the Sothis
star, if viewed from Aswan (ancient Elephantine) would indicate that the 18th Dynasty was
founded ca. 1539 BCE (Sothis und Monddaten, HAB 20. Hildesheim). Other Scholars have
argued the viewing might have been from Thebes, which was then the capital (cf. Vol. 2. p.
329, K.A. Kitchen, "Egypt, History of (Chronology)." David Noel Freedman, Editor. The
Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York. Doubleday. 1992). In favor of Aswan, is that the Sothis
is associated with predictions of Nile floods, and Aswan has Nilometers to predict the
degree of flooding in the Delta. Those favoring a Thebean sighting of Sothis, argue for
1550 BCE being the founding date of the 18th Dynasty.

Some have associated the foundation date of the New Dynasty with the expulsion of the
Hyksos from the Delta. Before 1985 (when Krauss made his proposal) earlier dates for the
18th Dynasty's founding were in favor, 1580 or 1570 BCE. Now, 1550 or 1540/39 BCE
appear in scholarly articles as founding dates alongside 1570 BCE (its all rather confusing).

Manfred Bietak, the excavator of Tell el-Daba (believed to be the Hyksos capital called
Avaris in Egypt), has suggested the city came to end ca. 1530 BCE -

"An enormous increase in Cypriot pottery...can be observed in strata D/3-2 (ca. 1600-1530
BC)." (p.85, Manfred Bietak. Avaris, The Capital of the Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell
el-Dab`a. London. British Museum Press. 1996. ISBN 0-7141-0968-1 pbk).

This date is favored by William G. Dever-

"Tell el-Dab`a was, in fact the Hyksos capital of Avaris, destroyed ca. 1530 BCE with the
expulsion of the Hyksos at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty."
(p.71, William G. Dever, "Is There Any Archaeological Evidence For The Exodus ?" Ernest
S. Frerichs & Leonard H. Lesko, editors. Exodus, The Egyptian Evidence. Winona Lake,
Indiana. Eisenbrauns. 1997. ISBN 1-57506-025-6 hdbk).

Bietak posits that Avaris fell in Ahmoses' 15th or 18th year as he has the city falling 1530
BCE, he evidently dates Ahmose's first regnal year as circa 1548 or 1545 BCE-

"...Ahmose. He had conquered Avaris most probably after the fifteenth or even eighteenth
year of his reign." (p.81. Bietak, citing in footnote 144, Franke, 1988, p. 264 )

Kenneth Kitchen and James Hoffmeier favor Ahmose's reign as ca. 1550-1525 BCE
(placing the end of the Hyksos dynasty as either 1550 or 1540 BCE), Krauss prefers 1539-
1514 BCE for Ahmoses' reign (cf. Vol. 2. p. 329, K.A. Kitchen, "Egypt, History of
(Chronology)." David Noel Freedman, Editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York.
Doubleday. 1992).

Another complication is disagreement about Solomon's fourth year, when the Temple was
begun (1 Kings 6:1 claiming 480 years elapsed from the Exodus to the Temple's founding).
Two dates are currently favored for the start of Solomon's reign, 970 or 960 BCE, his reign
ending 930 or 920 BCE-

"...chronological notes in the biblical sources, lead scholars to assume the beginning of
Solomon's reign around 970-960 and its end around 930-920 BC." (Vol. 6, p. 105, Tomoo
Ishida, "Solomon." David Noel Freedman, Editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York.
Doubleday. 1992)

Utilizing these currently popular dates, Solomon's fourth year is either 966 or 956 BCE.
To recapitulate, prior to 1985, 1580 BCE or 1570 BCE were popular founding dates for the
18th Dynasty under Pharoah Ahmose I. Since the 1985 proposal by Krauss either 1550 or
1540/39 BCE seem to be favored-

My research has revealed that the sacred writings of the

Jews and Early Christians preserve a date of 1540 BCE for the Exodus which just happens
to match co-incidentally, the 1540 BCE currently held "alternate-end-date" of the Hyksos
15th Dynasty (the Hyksos Expulsion by Paharoh Ahmoses I) favored by Egyptologists
Kenneth A. Kitchen and James K. Hoffmeier (cf. p. xviiii, "Chronological Charts." James K.
Hoffmeier. Israel in Egypt, The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition. New
York. Oxford University Press. 1996. ISBN 0-19-513088-X pbk).

I note that Amihai Mazar seems to also favor a Hyksos expulsion ca. 1540 BCE :

"It appears to me that a general division of the entire MBII period into three phases (A, B,
C) is well documented on the basis of stratigraphy, pottery typology, and development of
other artifacts...the third phase- MBIIC correlates with the Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty (until
1540)." (p.195, Amihai Mazar. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000- 586 BCE. New
York. Doubleday. 1990. ISBN 0-385-23970-X hdbk.)

We will now explore in greater depth the complexities and contradictions to be faced and
overcome in establishing the date of the Exodus.

Hoffmeier, in reviewing a history of attempts to pinpoint the date of the Exodus, mentions
the work of Jack (James W. Jack. The Date of the Exodus in the Light of External
Evidence. Edinburgh. T & T Clark. 1925) :

"...James Jack argued for a mid-fifteenth century date based on biblical data and what he
believed to corroborating Egyptian evidence. Based on the Masoretic text of 1 Kings 6:1,
which dates the departure from Egypt at 480 years before Solomon's fourth regnal year,
Jack concluded that 1445 BC was the Exodus date since Solomon's acession date, 970 BC
could be securely fixed (his fourth year being 966/967), thanks to synchronisms between
Biblical and Assyrian texts." (p.124, Hoffmeier)

Hoffmeier noted that the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible) gives 440
years instead of 480 years. (p.124, Hoffmeier)

Hoffmeier also observed that Jack was aware that a careful reading of the Masoretic texts
revealed an elapsed period exceeding 480 years :

"However, as Jack showed, if all the periods are added together, such as the forty years in
Sinai, the lengths of the Judges, and periods of peace between the Judges, plus the length
of David's reign, the total is 534 years. On top of this figure, the duration of Joshua's
leadership in Canaan and the length of Saul's kingship, which are not preserved,
bring the total close to six hundred years." (p.125, Hoffmeier)

Later scholars, like Jack, have noted that 1 Kings 6:1 states that 480 years elapsed from
the Exodus to the fourth year of Solomon's reign and the building of the Temple. Some
scholars date Solomon's fourth year to circa 966 BCE, by adding 480 years to this date and
come up with an Exodus circa 1446 BCE. Kitchen has sounded a note of warning though
about the above equation, pointing out, like Jack, that a period in excess of 553 years
appears to be warranted instead of 480 years:

Kitchen:
"The lazy man's solution is simply to cite the 480 years ostensibly given in 1 Kings 6:1 from
the Exodus to the 4th year of Solomon (ca. 966 BC). However, this too simple solution is
ruled out by the combined weight of all the other biblical dadta plus additional information
from external data. So the interval of time from the Exodus comes out not at 480 years
but as over 553 years (BY THREE UNKNOWN AMOUNTS), if we trouble to go carefully
through all the known biblical figures for this period. It is evident that the 480 years
cannot cover fully the 553 years + X years. At the best, it could be a selection from them,
or else it is a schematic figure (12 x 40 yrs., or similar)." (p.702 Vol.2, K.A. Kitchen, "The
Exodus," David Noel Freedman, Editor, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, NY, Doubleday, 1992)

Still later, Kitchen suggested that a period of 591/596 years elapsed between the Exodus
and Solomon's 4th year according to chronologies preserved in the book of Judges, that is,
when the different reigns are added up sequentially (but he favors that some of the reigns
are concurrent not sequential) :

"This possibility becomes in effect a certainty if one goes through the date lines between
the Exodus and the fourth year of Solomon, the year he began to build his temple, "in the
480th year" since the Exodus (1 Kings 6:1), we are told. Thus, if that year fell circa 967 (cf.
dates in chapters 2 and 4 above), a literal adding up would set the Exodus in 1447. But if
we take the trouble to actually tote up all the individual figures known from Exodus to Kings
in that period, they do NOT add up to 480 years. But rather to 544+x+y+z years, where x=
unknown length by Joshua and the elders (minimum, 5/10 years ?), y= rule by Samuel
above his stated 20 years (possibly zero), and z= the full reign of Saul (minimum, [3]2
years). The total comes to between 35 and 42 years at least, bringing the 554 years to a
minimal 591/596 years. This is certainly not identical with the 480 years of 1 Kings
6:1." (pp.202-203. Kenneth Andrew Kitchen. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. 2003.
Grand Rapids, Michigan. William B. Eedmans Publishing Company)

Note: Because Professor Kitchen prefers to see some of the reigns in the book of
Judges as not sequential but concurrent and thus "lowering the interval of time"
between the Exodus and Solomon's 4th year, he NEVER makes the observation that
Solomon's 4th year of ca. 967 BCE + 591/596 years = an Exodus ca. 1558/1563 BCE,
falling in the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose I (ca. 1570-1546 BCE) who expelled the
Hyksos (the first century CE Jewish historian Flavius Josephus claiming that the
Hyksos expulsion is the Exodus).

Another scholar, De Vries had made earlier, similar, observations:

"It should be pointed out, moreover, that the chronology demanded by the
books of the Judges and Samuel actually far exceeds the figure of 480 years.
As will be seen from Table 3, a total of 554 years plus two periods of
unknown length occupy the interval from the Exodus to the founding of
Solomon's temple. Josephus evidently based his estimate of 592 (Antiq.
8.3.1) or 612 (Apion 2.2) years for this period upon this observation (cf.
Acts 13:18-21)." (p.584, Vol.1. S.J. De Vries. "Chronology of the Old Testament."
G.A.Buttrick, Editor. The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. Nashville. Abingdon Press.
1962)

De Vries noted two periods of unaccounted length, the period of Joshua and the Elders
(Judg. 2:7) and the length of King Saul's reign, noting a "full number" was lacking ( 1 Sam.
13:1). He renders these two anomalies as "X" and "Y" in his formula thusly:

554 yrs. + X + Y + 966 BCE (Solomon's 4th yr) = 1520 BCE and "EARLIER" for the
Exodus.

De Vries, in passing, alluded to another important "dating marker" but did not directly
employ it in his article, the historical schema preserved in Acts 13:18-21.
Acts 13:18-21 provides us with the length of Saul's reign, missing from De Vries' "Table 3",
equation "Y" and the missing data on Joshua and the Judges, equation "X" :

"And for about 40 years he bore with them in the wilderness. And when he had destroyed
seven nations in the land of Canaan, he gave them their land as an inheritance, for about
450 years. And after that he gave judges until Samuel the prophet. Then they asked for a
king; and God gave them Saul the son of Kish...for 40 years...he raised up
David..."(Revised Standard Version. Bruce M. Metzger & Herbert G. May, editors. The New
Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha 1977)

Lamsa's English translation of the Aramaic bible renders Acts 13:17-22 thusly :

"The God of this people of Israel chose our fathers and exalted and multiplied them when
they dwelt as strangers in the land of Egypt, and with a strong arm he brought them out of
it. And hed fed them in the wilderness for forty years, And he destroyed seven nations in
the land of Canaan, and he gave them their land for an inheritance. And for a period of
four hundred and fifty years he gave them judges until the time of the prophet
Samuel. Then they asked for a king, and God gave them Saul the son of Kish, a man of
the tribe of Benjamin, for a period of forty years. And when in time God took Saul away he
raised up to them David to be their king..." (George M. Lamsa. Translation of the Aramaic
Text of the Peshitta. Holy Bible From the Ancient Eastern Text. Harper & Row San
Francisco. [1933], 1968)

The above statement is suppossedly from Paul, who claimed to possess Jewish priestly
training and knowledge. Evidently there existed in Paul's times Jewish notions of a
chronology at variance with 1 Kings 6:1 and its 480 years.

I note that according to 1 Kings 2:10-11, David reigned 40 years:

"So David rested with his forefathers and was buried in the city of David, having reigned
over Israel for forty years..."

We are told that in the fourth year of Solomon the Temple was begun (1 Kings 6:1)

So, when we add up the totals from Acts 13:18-21, 1 Kings 2:10-11, and 1 Kings 6:1 we
have 40 yrs in the Wilderness, 450 years to Saul, 40 yrs for Saul's reign, 40 yrs for David's
reign, 4 yrs for Solomon and the temple, for a grand total of 574 years between the Exodus
and the Temple's founding. Add this to 966 BCE when the Temple was begun, and we
have 1540 BCE for the Exodus date, on the "testimony of the sacred writings" of the Jews
and Early Christians.

Although the above establishes a "possible" Exodus date of ca. 1540 BCE and connects
this date with the Hyksos Expulsion, there are other dates which need to be considered.

Josephus gives two different number of years for the period between the Exodus and the
Temple of Solomon (ca. 966 BCE), 592 years (Antiquities 8.3.1) or 612 years (Against
Apion 2.2). When these dates are added, 612 + 966 = 1578 BCE whereas 592 + 966=
1558 BCE.

So, we have for possible Exodus dates, 1540, 1558 and 1578 BCE.

Another problem in establishing a date for the Exodus is that Egyptologists are not in
agreement amongst themselves about the dates for the reign of Pharaoh Ahmoses I
(Ahmosis/Ahmose I) who expelled the Hyksos.
In Albright's article, he alludes to Parker preferring 1557-1532 BCE, while Helck prefers
1552-1527 BCE (Cf. p. 56, William F. Albright, "Some Remarks on the Archaeological
Chronology of Palestine before about 1500 B.C," in Robert W. Ehrich, Editor, Chronologies
in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1954, 1965, reprint
1971, ISBN 0-226-19443-4).

Other dates are championed for Ahmoses I reign- James Breasted (1912, A History of
Egypt) argues for 1580-1557 BCE. Alan Gardiner prefers 1575-1550 BCE (p.443, Egypt of
the Pharaohs, Oxford Univ. Press, 1961), Krauss favors 1539-1514 BCE.

So, we have dates ranging from 1580 to 1514 BCE depending upon the authority
being cited (Egyptologists sometimes refer to these varying theories under the term
of "High, Middle and Low Egyptian Chronologies").

Conclusions :

Acts 13:18-21 in conjunction with 1 Kings 2:10-11 and 1 Kings 6:1, gives an Exodus in
1540 BCE, Josephus provides us with 1558 BCE or 1578 BCE all of which fall within the
1580 to 1514 BCE dating range for Pharaoh Ahmoses I's reign.

I have attempted to argue that a careful reading of the internal chronology of the Hebrew
Bible when combined with, evidently, 1st century CE Jewish traditions preserved by the
Early Christians (Acts 13:18-21), pinpoint the Exodus as being a phenomena of the mid-
16th century BCE, the same century that witnessed the Hyksos Expulsion.

How does one account for Jewish traditions preserving a chronology placing the Exodus in
the reign of Pharaoh Ahmoses I, who expelled the Hyksos?

I suspect that the Expulsion of the Hyksos and the conquest of Canaan by Ahmoses and
his successors was such a traumatic event, that this date became a "cornerstone" marker
for subsequent histories or chronologies. Canaan after 1540 BCE became the vassal of
Egypt, subject to tribute, and her peoples were hauled off to Egypt to serve as slaves
building the mighty monuments of the glorious New Kingdom Era. Evidently later
generations broke up this block of time (from 1540 BCE) into artifical segments, 4th year
(Solomon's building of the Temple), 40 years (David's reign), 40 years (Saul's reign), 40
years (Wanderings), 480 years (1 Kings 6:1), perhaps due to some kind of religious
fascination with "numerical mysticism" ?

It is my understanding that the fictionalized Pentateuchal narratives have creatively re-

interpreted, transformed and modified the Hyksos Expulsion into a new story, "the Exodus,"
telling how a merciful God saved his people and brought them to their Promised Land.

If the above suppositions are correct, it follows that Israel was not in bondage for 400 years
in Egypt, that is fiction. The Hyksos ruled Egypt for approximately 200 years until defeated
and expelled. They fled along the Way of the Philistines, back to Canaan with the
Egyptians in pursuit. There was no crossing of the Red Sea, or journey to Mt. Sinai (Horeb)
or invasion of Canaan from Trans-Jordan.

Excavations at Heshbon reveal it didn't exist before 1200 BCE, which doesn't surprise me
as I hold the account to fictional of the war with Sihon the Amorite. The excavations of
course, serve as a marker that the Pentateuchal account was written some time after 1200
BCE and the settlement of Heshbon.

I understand that Liberal scholars rejected the Pentateuch's 1540 BCE or 1446 BCE dating
schema because they believed that the mention of the town of "Ramses" in the Exodus
account (Ex. 12:37) must be a "historical marker," dating the event to the reign of Rameses
II 1290-1224 BCE) who founded Per-Rameses, which they believed was the biblical
Ramses. The presence of the town Ramses was a "marker" allright, a marker that the text
was composed after 1290-1224 BCE, not that the Exodus event must be in the 13th
century BCE !

I have argued elsewhere that the Pentateuch is a late composition, ca. 562 BCE, full of
historical errors, fictious dialogues, and fictional events.

Redford's investigations led him to conclude there was one event only in the whole of
Egyptian history that could account for a "historical kernal" behind the Exodus and that was
the Hyksos expulsion under Pharaoh Ahmoses I and I concur with his analysis:

"...no one can deny that the tradition of Israel's coming out of Egypt was one of long
standing...There is only one chain of historical events that can accomodate this late
tradition, that is the Hyksos descent and occupation of Egypt...And in fact it is in the Exodus
account that we are confronted with the Canaanite version of this event..." (Donald B.
Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, Princeton University Press, 1992)

Hoffmeier refuted Redford's above analysis :

Hoffmeier, who argues for a Ramesside Exodus in the days of Rameses II, rejected
Redford's above analysis :

"I cannot disagree with any one of these points, except that Redford thinks these events
derived from the Hyksos experience in Egypt- their migration, period of dominance,
followed by their forced exodus. For him a particular group of Shasu (Bedouin) who lived in
Sinai and the Negev are the forebearers of Israel. This tribe embraced the story of the
exodus as their own. The problem with this interpretation, like that of Halpern, is that the
Israelites recall little or nothing of their own origin but know about the Hyksos from a
thousand years before. The essentials of the Hyksos story are recalled, Redford
speculates, and then they were combined with Persian-period data from Egypt to create the
biblical narratives. I find this model to explain how the story of Genesis 39 to Exodus 14
was formed requires a greater leap of faith than to believe the narratives are historical in
nature and were preserved by Hebrew scribes, beginning toward the end of the Late
Bronze Age." (p. 226. "Concluding Remarks." James K. Hoffmeier. Israel in Egypt, The
Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition. New York. Oxford University Press.
1996)

Solomon's fourth year utilizing the currently favored first year of 970 or 960 BCE, is either
966 or 956 BCE (Vol. 6, p. 105, Tomoo Ishida, "Solomon." David Noel Freedman, Editor.
The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York. Doubleday. 1992).

The current proposals for the Hyksos Expulsion are 1550 or 1540/39 BCE (Kitchen and
Hoffmeier) or as late as 1530 BCE (Bietak and Dever). My "discovery" of 574 years
elapsing between the Exodus and Solomon's fourth year (Acts 13:18-21, 1 Kings 2:10-11, 1
kings 6:1), gives the following *possiblilities* for an Exodus date:

966 BCE + 574 yrs = 1540 BCE, or 956 BCE + 574 yrs = 1530 BCE.

13 February 2003 Important Update and Clarification of my views:

The above article may suggest to viewers that the Exodus Date has been established as
being either 1540 or 1530 BCE, aligning with the Hyksos Expulsion. I must add a note of
caution, in reality, it is _impossible_ to fix a "single date" for the Exodus. Why ?
Because the Exodus as presented in the Hebrew Bible is a conflating, telescoping,
and fusing of events from differing eras, the Early Bronze Age to the end of Iron II
times. So, it would perhaps be better if I said, that although some internal chronologies of
the OT and NT align the Exodus with ca. the mid-16th century BCE and the Hyksos
Expulsion, there are events within the biblical scenarios surrounding the Exodus that are
from Ramesside Times (13th-12 centuries BCE) as well as the END of Iron II (ca. 640-560
BCE), the ONLY period when "MOST" of the sites mentioned in the Exodus narratives, are
in existence at the same time, as noted by Professor Burton MacDonald (cf. my article on
Exodus Memories of the Southern Sinai, Linking the Archaeological Evidence to the Biblical
Narratives for the details)

*********************************************************

16 February 2003 Update:

One of the "mysteries" of the Exodus narratives is the assertion that Israel's Hebrew
forefathers served in an Egyptian bondage lasting approximately 400 or 430 years
(Genesis 15:13; Exodus 12:40). Scholars understand that the Hyksos, in Egypt, were never
under Egyptian domination in Egypt for 400 years, they were expelled after ruling for
approximately 120 years, according to the Egyptian historian Manetho, who wrote an
account of Egypt's history in the 3rd century BCE, preserved in part by the Jewish historian
called Josephus (ca. 80 CE).

I suspect, however, that the 400+ years oppression by Egypt is recalling a real event, a
"historical kernel," if you will, that event is the 400+ year oppression of Canaan by the
Egyptians from ca. 1540/1530 BCE and the Hysksos Expulsion by Pharaoh Ahmose I to
the withdrawal from Canaan ca. 1140/1130 BCE under Ramesses VI.. During this 400+
year oppression, the Egyptian annals of the warrior Pharaohs make mention of `Apiru
whom they have defeated in Syria-Palestine, and who have been brought to Egypt as
slaves to build the mighty monuments and store cities of the glorious New Kingdom. I
suspect that the `Apiru/Habiru of the New Kingdom annals are the "historical kernel" behind
the Hebrews being enslaved 400 years by Egypt. So, via an INVERSION, the 400+ year
oppression of `Apiru in Canaan by Egyptians, along with `Apiru as slaves in Egypt, became
"Hebrews" oppressed in Egypt.

Scholars understand that Egypt withdrew from the Sinai and Canaan ca. 1140/1130 BCE
under Pharaoh Ramesses VI. The resulting politcal vaccum in this area permitted the rise
of new states, Philista, Israel, Ammon, Moab and Edom in the Iron I era.

Nakhai (emphasis mine) :

"Once again, a statue of an Egyptian monarch (in this caae, the mid-twelfth century king
Ramesses VI) stood in the Megiddo sanctuary (Singer 1988/80; 106-8, n.12; Ussishkin
1997b:464)...When Megiddo's traditional configuration of royal, sacred and secular
architecture was destroyed ca. 1130 BCE, ending centuries of Egyptian domination
at Megiddo and in Canaan (Ussishkin 1997b: 464), it was soon replaced by the poorly
constructed houses of the Israelite Iron Age. Like Beth Shean (see below), Megiddo
was continuously occupied by Egypt throughout the Late Bronze Age and into the Iron
Age." (p.135. "The Late Bronze Age." Beth Alpert Nakhai. Archaeology and the Religions of
Canaan and Israel. Boston, Mass. American Schools of Oriental Research. 2001)

The Bible is adamant that the promise to Abraham had a "PRECONDITION FROM GOD,"
that Israel or the Hebrews would FIRST serve 400 (Ge 15:13) or 430 years (Ex 12:40) in
an Egyptian bondage, ONLY then, would God intervene and break Egypt's resolve and
power, allowing his people to "take by conquest" the Promised Land of Canaan. Most
scholars understand the rise of Israel occured AFTER Egypt withdrew ca. 1140/1130 BCE,
and that Iron I is the settling of the Hill Country with hundreds of unfortified villages and
hamlets. If we add 400 or 430 years of bondage to the ca. 1140/1130 BCE date that Egypt
left the scene, and the rise of Israel began, we arrive at a bondage date of ca. 1540/1530 or
1570/1560 BCE, falling in the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose I who expelled the Hyksos and
who enslaved ALL of Canaan to the Euphrates, including the `Apiru occupants of the land,
some of whom later Pharaohs captured and took into captivity, to Egypt. I am arguing that
the 400+ year bondage is of Canaan, not Hebrews in Egypt, although there is a corollary in
that `Apiru are slaves in Egypt during this period. So it is my understanding that VIA AN
INVERSION, the 400+ year bondage of Canaan became a bondage in Egypt.

Redmount, in her article on the Exodus, noted that some scholars associated the Hyksos
expulsion of the 16th century BCE with the Exodus. She noted a problem though, in that a
period of roughly some 400+ years would have elapsed between the rise of the Monarchy
under Saul David and Solomon, and the Hyksos Expulsion. What Redmount is apparently
unaware of is that the New Testament book of Acts understands that a period of 400+
years elapsed from the Exodus to Saul's being made Israel's first king.

Redmount (emphasis mine) :

"The hypothesis dating the Exodus to the mid-sixteenth century BCE puts paramount
importance on historical data and relies least on biblical narrative. Since the expulsion of
the Hyksos from Egypt is the only recorded historical occurence of a collective
movement of Asiatics out of Egypt prior to the first millennium, it is also the only
occurence that could be equated with the Exodus. A date at the beginning of the New
Kingdom is only about a century earlier than that mandated by strict biblical chronology.
Moreover, the ousting of the Hyksos follows an equally historical Asiatic descent into and
sojourn in Egypt. Accordingly, as Josephus suggested nearly two thousand years ago
(Against Apion 1.16), the Exodus should be equated with the Hyksos' expulsion from Egypt.
Destruction levels in Palestinian sites dating t the transition period between the Middle and
Late Bronze Ages, often attributed to Egyptian military campaigns, could, according to this
view, have resulted from an Israelite conquest and settlement of Cannan.

There are, however, a number of problems with this date for the Exodus. If the
Conquest/Settlement occurred at the end of the 16th or beginning of the 15th century
BCE, almost 400 years must elapse before the Israelite state takes form under the
monarchies of Saul and David at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 10th
centuries. Besides being too long a time span for the period of the Judges, the
putative 400 years between conquest and kingship would occur during a period of
known Egyptian hegemony over Syria-Palestine. Yet not a hint of Egyptian imperial might
appears anywhere in the relevant biblical narrative." (pp.104-105. Carol A. Redmount.
"Bitter Lives, Israel in and out of Egypt." Michael D. Coogan, Editor. The Oxford History of
the Biblical World. New York and Oxford. Oxford University Press. 1998)

The book of Acts "mirrors" Redmount's above observation of 400+ years elapsing for the
Judges before Saul's kingship :

Acts 13:17-22 (RSV)

"And for about 40 years he bore with them in the wilderness. And when he had
destroyed seven nations in the land of Canaan, he gave them their land as an
inheritance, for about 450 years. And after that he gave judges until Samuel the
prophet. Then they asked for a king; and God gave them Saul the son of Kish...for 40
years...he raised up David..."

Jephthah the Gileadite, alludes to Israel's dwelling in Heshbon for over 300 years, which is
probably being factored in on Acts 13:17-22, notion of 450 years for the Judges - Judges
11:26 (RSV)
"While Israel dwelt in Heshbon and its villages, and in Aroer and its villages,and in
all the cities that are on the banks of the Arnon, three hundred years, why did you
not recover them within that time ?"

It is my understanding that the Bible's 400+ year "iniquity of the Amorites" or "oppression of
Hebrews" is preserving a real historical event, New Kingdom Egypt's 400+ years
oppression of Syria-Palestine (ca. 1540/1530-1140/1130 BCE).

The biblical narrator understands that God has set a "precondition" to the Abrahamic
promise, a 400/430 year wait before Israel claims the land. God will FIRST BREAK
EGYPT"S POWER, setting free his people. THEN, after breaking Egypt's power, Israel is to
settle the Promised Land. Mainstream scholars, understand that Egypt's POWER
REMAINED UNBROKEN until ca. 1140 BCE when under the reign of Phraoh Ramesses
VI, Egypt withdrew from Canaan and the Sinai. As CORRECTLY observed by Redmount,
the Bible KNOWS NOTHING of Israel fighting Egyptians for control of Canaan, Israel fights
Amorites, Hittites, Canaanites and Philistines, NOT Egyptians. The ONLY "Sitz im
Leben" or "historical setting" for Israel to begin the Conquest of Canaan, without
Egyptian interference is AFTER 1140-1130 BCE when Ramesses VI withdraws from
Canaan. Now, lets add the 400/430+ MANDATORY WAIT of the Bible, for the end of the
"Amorite iniquity" and we have 1140/1130 BCE plus 430/400 years, which suggests an
Exodus in 1570/1540/1530 BCE, aligning with the Hyksos expulsion.

The American scholar, Professor William Foxwell Albright, understood that the
"Egyptian oppression" of the Hebrews _began_ under Pharaoh Ahmose I (Greek:
Amosis), ca.1540/1530 BCE. The Bible claims that Abraham's descendants will be
oppressed 400/430 years, subtract this from 1540/1530 and we have 1140/1130 BCE
for the deliverance of Canaan into Israel's hands by God, which "matches" the
Israelite destruction of Megiddo ca. 1130 BCE as noted earlier (see above) by Nakhai.

Albright (Emphasis mine) :

"Elsewhere I will survey the new data which have become available in recent years
for the period between the settlement of Jacob and his followers in the early Hyksos
times through the bitter years of slavery which followed the triumph of Amosis over
the Hyksos..." (pp. 153-154. William Foxwell Albright. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, a
Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths. Winona Lake, Indiana. Eisenbrauns. [1965
Jordan Lectures at Univ. of London], 1968, 1994)

Albright speaking of the end of the Hyksos empire in Egypt :

"They established an empire of considerable magnitude and held sway over all or
most of Egypt for more than a century, until they were driven out about 1540-1530
BC." (p. 57. Albright)

Some scholars date the Hyksos Expulsion as circa 1580-1560, subtracting 400 (Ge 15:13)
or 430 years (Ex 12:40) of Egyptian oppression, we get Exodus dates of ca. 1180-1160 or
1150-1130 BCE, subtracting 40 years in the Wilderness renders a Conquest ca. 1140-1120
BCE or 1110-1090 BCE.

It is my understanding that the Hebrews, via an INVERSION, took Egypt's 400+

oppresssion of Canaan and transformed it into Israel "in" Egypt being oppressed. They also
used this SAME 400+ year oppression to portray their ancestors IN CANAAN AS JUDGES,
before Saul came to the throne (Acts 13:17-22). In other words, historical events occuring
in Canaan ca. 1540-1140 BCE are ENMESHED and fused with the Iron I post-Ramesside
settlements of Canaan.

The Iron II Israelites and Juaeans were not the only individuals COLLAPSING, FUSING,
AND ENMESHING events of the New Kingdom, the Hyksos Expulsion and 400 year
Oppression with Ramesside events; the same CONFUSION existed in the writings of
Manetho, an Egyptian historian who wrote an account (in the 3rd century BCE) of the
Hyksos expulsion preserved by Josephus. Manetho's GARBLED ACCOUNT, preserves
real historical events associated with the 1540 BCE Hyksos Expulsion and he has
RAMESSIDE ERA Pharoahs fighting the Hyksos ! So, the Iron II Israelites were NO
BETTER than this Egyptian priest, BOTH GARBLED, COLLAPSED AND FUSED events
from different eras into Ramesside times !

Bietak noted that the Hyksos settlement at Tell ed-Daba -believed to be Avaris, the capital
of the Hyksos in Egypt- possessed items suggesting that some of them were from Northern
Syria and others from Southern Palestine. The Bible suggests that Israel's ancestors, the
Patriarchs were from Northern Syria (Haran and Trans-Euphrates), Damascus, and also of
Southern Palestine (Beersheba, Hebron, etc.). Perhaps the biblical narratives are
"recalling" the Northern Syrian and Southern Canaanite peoples who came to be expelled
in the Hyksos Exodus of 1540 BCE ?

Bietak:

"The sites, in particular Tell ed-Dab`a, show that long before the Hyksos, Near Easterners
lived in the Nile Delta. The camp sites at Wadi Tumilat show that they were nomads
pasturing their flocks. The stable settlement at Tell ed-Dab`a, with its Syrian middle-room
houses (dated to the Middle Bronze IIA period), as well as house burials and temple
constructions, demonstrate that an urban population of a different background was in
residence there. Some of the ceramic and architectural features point toward northern Syria
as their origin. This source is also indicated by a locally made cylinder seal, with a
representation of the northern Syrian storm god. Another part of the population may have
originated from southern Palestine, from where the majority of trade originated." (p.142.
Vol. 2. Manfred Bietak. "Hyksos." Donald B. Redford, Editor. The Oxford Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. 2001)

*************************************************************

01 March 2003 Update

I have always been amazed that a number Devout Conservative Christian scholars have
championed 1 Kings 6:1 statement that 480 years elapsed from the Exodus to Solomon's
4th year (ca. 966 BCE) suggesting an Exodus ca. 1446 BCE. I say, "amazed," because
having been a former Devout, Conservative, Fundamentalist and Literalist Christian, I was
taught that the New Testament superceded the Old Testament. These scholars FAIL to
acknowledge the Holy Spirit's "correction" of 1 Kings 6:1 and its 480 years, with Acts' 574
years, aligning the Exodus with the Hyksos expulsion. It would appear that either these
scholars are unaware of Acts 13:17-22 Exodus Chronology, or that they are reluctant and
hesitant to employ the Holy Spirit's Acts chronology over the chronology preserved in the
Old Testament. I wonder why this is ? If the New Testament supercedes the Old
Testament, why doesn't Acts chronology for the Exodus supercede 1 Kings 6;1 ?

*******************************************************************
Update 05 March 2003 on Acts 13:24

My thanks to two scholars (David Poling and John Lupia) who recently called my attention
to some "ambiguity" concerning Acts 13:24. I have learned from them that ancient
manuscripts disagree amongst themselves as to whether Paul is saying 450 years elapsed
from the Egyptian oppression to the deliverance of the Promised Land to Israel, or whether
450 years lapsed AFTER the land had been delivered to the days of Samuel.

Here's what Magill has to say about the "disputed" readings :

Acts 13:24,
"Paul seems to mean that Israel received the land as their inheritance about 450 years after
they left Egypt -400 years in Egypt (verse 17, Acts 7:6), plus 40 in the desert (verse 18),
plus the time of Joshua's conquest (5 years by Joshua 14:6, 10). In some manuscripts,
this phrase comes later in the verse {C}, "And after these things he gave them
Judges about for 450 years." Consult the Commentaries." (p.441. Acts 13:24. Michael
Magill. New Testament Transline, A Literal Translation in Outline Format. Grand Rapids,
Michigan. Zondervan. 2002)

If 450 years is elapsing from the Egyptian oppression to the deliverance of the land
to Israel, then my dating of the Exodus to 1540 BCE is INVALID.

If Albright is correct in identifying the "beginning of the Egyptian oppression of Abraham's

descendants" as under Pharaoh Ahmose I, ca. 1540-1530 BCE (cf. earlier, above
comments), less 400 years of oppression (Ge 15:13) gives us an Exodus ca. 1140/1130
BCE, with a Conquest ca. 1100/1090 BCE. Nakhai noted the fall of Megiddo was ca. 1130
BCE to Israel (cf. earlier, above comments).

Ramesses VI reigned ca. 1141-1133 BCE, and he is the last Pharaoh attested as
occupying Canaan. Megiddo's destruction, if occuring after this abandonment could be any
time after 1133 BCE. To the degree that the Bible is unaware of any Egyptians defending
Canaan, the post 1133 BCE era suggests when the "enmasse" principal invasion occured
(Although Merneptah defeated Israel in Canaan ca. 1208 BCE, the Bible is apparently
unaware of this event).

If, however, the "other" ancient manuscripts (Acts 13:17-24) are to be followed,
suggesting 450 years for the Judges, my 1540 BCE Exodus would be supported. The
choice has to be the reader's I guess. Nevertheless, Josephus' years elapsing of 612
or 592 STILL associate the Exodus with the mid-Sixteenth Century BCE and the
Hyksos Expulsion.

**********************************************************

Update 24 June 2004

I suspect that two events are being recalled, the 1540/1530 Hyksos expulsion and the
1140/1130 BCE fall of Canaan to the invading Arameans of northern Syria, both events
being collapsed and fused together in late Iron II by the descendants of the Iron I
intermarriages between Canaanites and Arameans, their Iron II descendants being
desirous of preserving the origins traditions of both their forefathers, Late Bronze Age
Canaanites and Iron I Arameans (cf. Judges 3:5-7 which mentions the intermarriages of
Israel with the Canaanites, Israelite sons marrying Canaanite women, and Israelite
daughters marrying Canaanite men).

Judges 3:5-7 (RSV)

"So the people of Israel dwelt among the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the
Perizzites, the Hivites, and the _Jebusites_; and they took their daughters to
themselves for wives, and their own daughters they gave to their sons; and they
served their gods. And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord,
forgetting the Lord ther God, and serving the Baals and the Asheroth."

By what "mechanism" did the Bible preserve a Hyksos expulsion, chronologically (cf.
comments above by Josephus, Kitchen and Hoffmeier of almost 600 years elapsing from
the Exodus to Solomon) ? The "Mechanism" is perhaps the _Jebusites_ of Jerusalem
whom Israel intermarried with (cf. Judges 3:5-7 above) ? David captured Jerusalem and
later purchased of Ornan the Jebusite a threshing floor which would become under his
son Solomon, the site of the Temple ((1 Chron 21:18-28; 2 Chron 3:1).

According to Manetho there were TWO expulsions of Asiatics from Avaris, the first was of
the Hyksos and then hundreds of years later under a pharaoh called Amenophis and his
son Ramesses. Manetho has these two individuals coming to power after pharaoh Armais,
identified by some scholars with Horemhab of the late 18th Dynasty. This suggests a
Ramesside era Exodus was favored by Manetho, which Josephus strenuously objected to,
he preferring the earlier Hyksos expulsion as its chronology was more in align with the
Bible's chronology, Josephus claiming 612 years elapsed between the Exodus and
Solomon. For the details cf. my article titled "Josephus' Hyksos Expulsion vs. Manetho's
Ramesside Expulsion." According to Manetho BOTH Exoduses ended up at the same
place, JERUSALEM. If Manetho is correct about Jerusalem being settled by the expelled
Hyksos then the Jebusites at Jerusalem may have recalled in their oral traditions the
expulsion of their Hyksos ancestors and thus Jebusite mothers taught their Israelite sons
about the Late Bronze Age Hyksos and Ramesside Exoduses of their Canaanite
forefathers in Iron I (1220-1000 BCE) and by Late Iron II (640-587 BCE) these _two_
Exoduses became the Exodus of the Bible when written down ca. 562 in the Exile. Many
scholars understand that the Bible as we have it was put together by priests AT
JERUSALEM, why wouldn't these Jerusalemite priests NOT preserve the traditions of a
Hyksos and Ramesside expulsion from their Iron I "Jebusite" great-great-great
grandmothers/fathers (cf. Judges 3:5-7 above) ?

Update 21 July 2004

Manetho understood that the Hebrew Exodus was a Ramesside expulsion. Josephus
disagreed, and using Manetho's data, claimed it was the expulsion of the Hyksos.
Archaeologists understand that in Ramesside times, between ca. 1230-1000 BCE, Canaan
is being settled in Iron I by Israel, based on the sudden appearance of 250 settlements in
the Hill Country.

Today many understand that Avaris, the site of the Hyksos expulsion according Manetho, is
to be identified with Tell el-Dab'a. Can excavations at this site clarify the situation? Bietak,
who is charge of the excavations, has noted the site has evidence of a large Asiatic
community from 13th Dynasty times and this site is suddenly abandoned in early 18th
Dynasty, aligning somewhat with Manetho's account of the expulsion of the Hyksos. Bietak,
has noted however, that apparently Ahmose I had a fortress erected and near it exists a
settlement of "middle-class" Egyptian homes. These homes appear to have been occupied
from ca. 1530 BCE until the time of Pharaoh Amenhotep II who reigned ca. 1453-1419
BCE, based on scarabs found nearby.

Bietak (1996) found no later scarabs, suggesting to him that the site may have been
abandoned no later than the days of this pharaoh. What is "remarkable" here, is that the
480 years between Solomon's fourth year, ca. 966 BCE and the Exodus suggests it
occured ca. 1446 BCE, which falls in the reign of Amenhotep II and "aligns" somewhat with
the final abandonment (?) of Avaris.

Did Israel "build" the Egyptian fortress and its middle-class houses between ca. 1530-1446
BCE? Later on (cf. below) Bietak suggests that Avaris was still in existence and served as
a port for Pi-Ramesses (biblical Rameses). So, _if_ I am understanding Bietak correctly,
Avaris was occupied right up to Ramesside times (?). I am not sure that I understand
Bietak on this correctly as nowhere does he show evidence of an occupation at Tell el-
Dab'a from Amenhotep II to Ramesses II. Does he mean Avaris was re-occupied in
Ramesside times to serve as Pi-Ramesses' port ?

If Tell el-Dab'a is Avaris, and if Josephus and Manetho are correct in this site being the
location from which the Exodus began, we have a "problem." The Iron I settlements in the
Hill Country of Canaan, assumed to be Israel's, would suggest that Tell el-Dab'a "ought" to
have evidence of a _continuous occupation_ by Egyptians and Israelites until Ramesside
times if this is where the settlers came from who settlled the Hill Country in Iron I. Yet,
Bietak does not have any evidence of an occupation at Tell el-Dab'a from after Amenhotep
II ca. 1453-1419 BCE until the days of Horemhab who reigned ca. 1321-1293 BCE. At Tell
el-Dab'a he found a cartouche of Horemhab on a lintel within the debris of a temple erected
to honor the Egyptian god Seth (cf. pp. 72, 82, & fig. 61 on p. 77. Manfred Bietak. Avaris,
The Capital of the Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. London. British Museum
Press. 1996)

Did Horemhab and the Ramessides who succeeded him to the throne, renovate Seth's
temple, it being in existence since the days of Ahmose I ? Or was it in ruins and abandoned
for a period of time, between Amenhotep II and Horemhab ? If Israel was involved in
making mud-bricks for the huge mud-brick platform of the temple, where were the Israelites
and Egyptians living at from 1419 to 1321 BCE ? Bietak's excavations cover only a small
area, so one might argue it is "premature" to argue there was no occupation. But proposals
must be on the basis of what is documentable.

Bietak:

"We may now consider the question of how we should envision the condition of Avaris after
its fall. The latest stratum of the Middle Bronze Age settlement at Tell el-Dab'a suggests
that the town was abandoned. We have a little evidence for a conflagration...For the most
part, the settlement appears to have simply ceased...It is now a major surprise to have firm
evidence that the Hyksos citadel was re-occupied in the early 18th Dynasty with palatial
installations, forming a new royal citadel.

Of special significance is an enormous platform, made of mud-brick walls, about 70.5

meters long and 47 meters wide...About 150 meters to the south-east of platform H/I the
remains of a huge building compound, dating also to the early 18th Dynasty, have now
been discovered...To the east of the platform H/I, there was a middle-class settlement,
which seems to have incorporated workshops. It reveals distinct stratigraphy. The houses
were constantly changed and renewed...Within the settlement numerous scarabs have
been found, among them a series of royal scarabs. Their relative position is consistent with
the succession of the named Pharaohs and covers the time from Ahmose to Amenhotep
II...the beginning of this settlement should date to after Ahmose. Because of recent
agricultural leveling we do not know if the settlement continued beyond the time of
Amenhotep II." (pp.67-72. Bietak)

"Finally the question arises: what was the function of this early 18th Dynasty occupation on
top of the former Hyksos citadel which was restricted to the area about Ezbet Helmi?
....Ahmose...may well have needed a base and residence for his campaigns in southern
Palestine near Egypt's north-eastern border. The extremely favorable and strategically
important location of Tell el-Dab'a/Avaris on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, within the
doorway to the north-eastern Nile Delta, gives reason to conclude that again in the early
18th Dynasty, as at the end of the 12th and early 13th Dynasties, the place was put to use
as a military base and probably as a dockyard for the preparation of expeditions to the Near
East." (p.81.Bietak)

Bietak suggests that Avaris existed as a seaport called Peru-nefer in 18th Dynasty times,
but he acknowledges that he does not have the archaeological proof for this theory :

"In this regard, I would like to draw attention to a suggestion made by French Egyptologists
and by Labib Habachi that the famous 18th Dynasty harbour and dockyard Peru-nefer (=
'happy journey') was not situated at Memphis, as previously supposed, but at Tell el-Dab'a.
Such an interpretation would explain the presence in Peru-nefer of Canaanite cults, which
had a long tradition in ancient Avaris. We are lacking, however, the epigraphic and
archaeological evidence to prove this identification, though we hope to find it in the near
future." (p. 82. Bietak)

"The region of Avaris was also involved in another important chapter of ancient Egyptian
history. The royal residence of Piramesse, which is being studied at present...is located to
the north of Tell el-Dab'a at Qantir...In the immediate vicinity of this famous residence of
Ramesses II, excavations directed by Edgar Pusch have uncovered barracks for
charioteers, stables of royal dimensions and military workshops of the 19th Dynasty.
Avaris was still in existence at this time. In keeping with its maritime traditions it was the
harbour for Piramesse, and it continued to house the god Seth, who had retained his
Asiatic image up to the Ramesside period. The 19th Dynasty most probably originated
here. The god Seth, who is the personification of the continuum, again became a dynastic
god, 'the god of the fathers' of the 19th Dynasty. The area became once more the capital of
Egypt, not only for reasons of sentiment connected with the origin of the dynasty, but
because of its enormous strategic importance for international policy." (pp. 82-83. Bietak)

If the Iron I settlers of Canaan are Israelites and if they are coming from Egypt, where is the
archaeological evidence of Israel at Avaris from 1530 to 1130 BCE ? We have an early
18th Dynasty occupation from Ahmose I ca.1530 to ca. 1453-1419 BCE in Amenhotep II's
days then an "apparent hiatus" until Horemhab's days, ca. 1321-1293 BCE.

Update 25 August 2004

One encounters in the scholarly literature at times the oft stated assertion that the Exodus
is apparently _unrecorded_ in Egyptian annals. One of the "rationalizations (AKA
"arguments from silence") which some scholars resort to, is to the effect that Egyptian
pharaohs did _not_ record the "defeats" of Egypt ONLY the victories, thus it is not to be
wondered that Egypt would remain silent on such an humiliating event.

K. A. Kitchen (an Egyptologist) speaking of the "absence" of the Exodus in Egyptian annals
:

"And as the pharaohs _never_ monumentalize _defeats_ on temple walls, no

record of the successful exit of a large bunch of foreign slaves (with loss of a full chariot
squadron) would ever have been memorialized by an king in the temples in the Delta or
anywhere else." (p. 246. K.A. Kitchen. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand
Rapids. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 2003)

Then there are the war-reliefs of Ramesses II carved on his temple facades celebrating his
"great victory" at Kadesh on the Orontes over the Hittites, but when the Hittite archives
were excavated, they suggested a "stalemate," as the Egyptian border was NOT pushed
north of the city. So the Egyptians engaged in a _little_ "spin," making a defeat or "draw"
into a resounding victory !

Another Egyptologist, Donald B. Redford, sees things quite differently from Kitchen, he
understands that the Hebrews did what Ramesses II did, that is to say, he understands that
the defeat and expulsion of the Hyksos under pharaoh Ahmose I was "re-spun" into a
mighty vicory for Yahweh, setting his people free:

"In sum, therefore, we may state that the memory of the Hyksos expulsion did indeed live
on in the folklore of the Canaanite population of the southern Levant. The exact details
were understandably blurred and subconsciously modified over time, for the purpose of
'face-saving.' It became not a conquest but a peaceful descent of a group with pastoral
associations who rapidly arrived at a position of political control. Their departure came not
as a result of an ignominious defeat, but either voluntarily or as a flight from a feud, or yet
again as salvation from bondage." (p. 413. "Four Great Origin Traditions." Donald B.
Redford. Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton
University Press. 1992)

Redford's analysis, is not a "new" one though, he was preceded by some 2000 years, by
the Egyptian priest-historian Manetho and the Jewish historian Josephus, who associated
the Hebrew Exodus with the defeat and expulsion of the Hebrews under two events, the
Hyksos expulsion and a later expulsion under Amenophis and son Rameses.

If _"IF"_, Manetho and Redford are correct, then the Exodus _IS INDEED_ recalled in
Egyptian annals, but as a VICTORY not a _defeat_ for Egypt ! It was, then an "earth-
shaking event" for both nations, Egypt was LIBERATED and the enemy defeated and
chased back to Canaan, while the Israelite version had the Egyptians as oppressors who
were defeated. That is to say both versions, Egyptian and Israelite are somewhat "mirror-
images" of each other (rather like two sides to the same coin).

Although the Egyptian annals which have been unearthed suggest that the Hyksos did not
reign over Egypt for 400 years, they do reveal that after the Hyksos expulsion Egypt ruled
over her former oppressors for 400 years (again another "mirror-image" or
inversion/reversal).

Did Yahweh "defeat" Egypt after a period of 400 years of bondage for his people ? Yes, the
Hyksos and their descendants in Canaan were "ruled/oppressed" by Egypt from ca. 1530
to 1130 BCE when Ramesses VI withdrew from Canaan, and Israel begins to surface in
hundreds of suddenly appearing Iron I villages of stone, wresting the land away from
Canaanites who earlier had Egypt's protection against Israel (Merneptah having claimed he
defeated a rebellious Israel ca. 1207 BCE).

By what "mechanism" did the Israelites obtain the notion of an Exodus ? Redford thainks
they are nomadic Shasu wandering the Negev and Edom who conquer and settle in
Canaan with the Egyptian withdrawl, noting the Exodus stories of Yahweh dawning from
Sinai, Seir, Paran and Edom and Egyptian Rameside annals referring to the Yaw Shasu of
Seir.

From a biblical point of view, the "mechanism" might be preserved as Canaanite mothers
and fathers teaching their Israelite sons and daughters their Canaanite-Hyksos Origins
traditions as noted by Redford. The Bible does suggest that the Israelites DID marry the
Canaanites and worship their gods and goddesses.
Judges 3:5-7 RSV

"So the people of Israel dwelt among the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the
Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites; and they took their daughters to themselves for
wives, and their own daughters they gave to their sons; and they served their gods."

Thus, if the Bible is right (Judges 3:5-7) Israel of Iron II (ca. 1000-587 BCE) is an
AMALGUM of Canaanites and Hebrews; Why wouldn't these Canaanites NOT pass on to
their "Israelite sons and daughters" THEIR Hyksos Expulsion origins, and Egypt's 400 year
oppression of their ancestors ?

Well, that's _my_ "Spin" on the notion that Egypt NEVER made any mention of the Exodus.

Dating the Exodus (Josephus' Hyksos Expulsion vs. Manetho's

Ramesside Expulsion)
Walter Reinhold Warttig Mattfeld y d e la Torre, M.A. Ed.

31 May 2004

Updates: 01, 09, 29 June 2004 at end of article

http://www.bibleorigins.net/ExodusJosephusVSManetho.html

The below are "slightly edited" postings to several lists regarding the dating of the Exodus
as preserved by the Jewish Historian Flavius Josephus in the 1st century CE (AD).
Josephus quotes at some length, from the 3rd century BCE Egyptian historian Manetho,
who wrote a History of Egypt in Greek for his Ptolemaic overlords, evidence of the antiquity
of his people from Egyptian records. Josephus took issue with Manetho's claim that the
Exodus occured in Ramesside times, a king called "Sethos/Ramesses" and his father
"Amenophis" being held responsible for expelling some leperous quarrymen from Avaris.
Josephus, however, approved of Manetho's preservation of an earlier expulsion in Hyksos
times, and thought this was the biblical Exodus, primarily because of the biblical
chronology. Please click here for more information on Manetho, Avaris (biblical Rameses of
Exodus 12:37), and the Exodus.

So, for nearly 2000 years two "extra-biblical" identifications for the Exodus existed to
bedevil scholars, Josephus' Hyksos expulsion vs. Manetho's Ramesside expulsion. What
sayeth archaeology ? Most Liberal scholars understand that the Bible's Exodus date of
1446 BCE and Conquest of 1406 BCE (1 Kings 6:1) preferred by Conservative biblical
scholars to be unsubstaniated. The Bible suggests Joshua successfully seized the "Hill
Country" of Canaan from Galilee to the Negev. Extensive on-foot archaeological surveys of
this area by professionaly trained archaeologists under the aegis of the Israeli Department
of Antiquities carried out field surveys collecting pottery shards from the top soil at
hundreds of sites (1970's through the 1980's), and the collated and published results
showed a "near-void" of sedentary and non-sedentary peoples in this area in the Late
Bronze Age (ca. 1540-1200 BCE) which would include the Conservatives' Israelite
Conquest of ca. 1406 BCE. However, this area in Ramesside Iron I (1230-1100 BCE)
EXPLODED with over 300+ stone farms, hamlets and villages as compared to the
preceding Late Bronze Age period. It would appear that Manetho's Ramesside Exodus has
been _vindicated_ by the findings of archaeology. The problem ? The pottery in these sites
was not Egyptian, it was Canaanite in form. The solution ? Manetho had stated that the
Hyksos' descendants had "reinvaded the Delta" and resettled at Avaris which had been
reoccupied in Ramesside times. They lorded it over the Egyptians for 13 years before being
expelled. It just might be that the 13 years in Egypt was too brief a time for the Hyksos'
descendants to abandon their Canaanite pottery styles and adopt Egyptian forms. Thus,
perhaps upon their expulsion and resettlement in Canaan, they were still casting their pots
in a Canaanite manner rather than Egyptian ? This anomaly, Iron I villages full of Canaanite
pots rather than Egyptian would then also "appear to align" with Manetho's statements
about a Ramesside expulsion being the Hebrews' Exodus (please scroll down to the "19
June 2005 Update" at the end of this article for more details).

My conclusion from reading Manetho's account (_if_ Manetho is correctly relaying Egyptian
events) is that TWO EXODUSES occurred, one in Hyksos times and the other in
Ramesside times, and that these came to be fused into ONE via oral traditions by Late Iron
II times when I understand the Primary History, Genesis-Kings to have been composed ca.
562 BCE in the Exile.

I understand that the fusing "mechanism" is preserved in the Bible. We are told that Israel
did not obey God, _she intermarried with the Jebusites of Jerusalem_ and worshipped their
gods.

According to Manetho BOTH expulsions from Egypt, Hyksos and Ramesside ended up AT
JERUSALEM. So, it is my proposal that two Late Bronze Age expulsions from Egypt,
ending at Jerusalem, came to passed on in oral traditions by the Jerusalemite-Jebusite-
Canaanite Mothers to their Iron IA Israelite/Judahite sons. Many scholars have noted the
Bible appears to be a product of the priests located at Jerusalem, and according to
Manetho this city is where both Exoduses came to a conclusion.

My earlier articles posted at this website noted that the Bible's chronology appeared to be
preserving a Hyksos Expulsion, but the details of the Exodus in the Bible appeared to be
Ramesside. I eventually concluded that both must have been fused together into one
Exodus at some point in time.

It was only recently, 28 May 2004, that I "re-read" Manetho, and realized that he had noted
TWO Expulsions from Avaris to Jerusalem. Here, for me, was the _missing_ "golden key"
explaining why the Bible's Exodus is date "so early" (1 Kings 6:1), yet possessing
Ramesside details.

Please scroll down for the "modified and expanded" posts.

*****************************
28 May 2004

I have been doing research on the Exodus for over 30 years, and am well aware of _all_
the conflicting proposals, Conservative and Liberal. The problem? No period has the
archaeological support, as noted by Professors William G. Dever, Israel Finkelstein, Burton
MacDonald, etc.

Putting aside for the moment, _the lack of archaeological evidence_, I have of late (the past
24 hours) been "playing with, what is for me, "a new brain-child" or "idea." That the biblical
account is a fusion of two events preserved in the writings of the 1st century CE (AD)
Jewish Historian
Flavius Josephus.

As most on this list are aware (that is to say, those who have studied the Exodus and its
dating problems), Josephus argued that the Exodus was recalling the mid 16th century
BCE Hyksos Expulsion as presented by the 3rd century BCE Egyptian historian Manetho in
his History of Egypt, written in Greek for his Ptolemaic overlords.
What is NOT so well known is that Josephus in citing Manetho's work, notes with great
displeasure, that Manetho does NOT associate the Exodus with the Hyksos Expulsion!
Instead, Manetho claims the Exodus was in the days of the Ramessides!

I have been carefully "re-reading" Josephus' quotations from Manetho regarding the
Ramesside Exodus which so incensed the Jewish scholar for "clues."

It is _my_ conclusion, after having studied Josephus' account of Manetho and having
studied archaeology findings and having read innumerable Exodus dating proposals, that
_TWO EXODUS EVENTS_ are being recalled in the Bible. The "first" is the mid 16th
century BCE Hyksos Expulsion and the "second" is the Ramesside expulsion "narrated" by
Manetho !

My query to the audience have other scholars made this proposal? If so, could someone
direct me to a published presentation, either on the Internet or Book or Periodical?

Regards, Walter

Walter Reinhold Warttig Mattfeld y de la Torre, M.A. Ed.

***********************
28 May 2004

My recent re-reading of Manetho _of the past 24 hrs._ has me suspecting that his
"Amenophis and son Ramesses" is none other than Seti I and Ramesses II, co-reigning
together. And they, according to Manetho, expel the "Leperous Quarrymen of Avaris and
their Asiatic brethren" who invaded Egypt from south Canaan (Jerusalem), the
Jerusalemites being invited to invade Egypt by Osar-Seph (Manetho's name for Moses).

What strikes me is certain parallels in Manetho's account with motifs found in the Hebrew
Bible.

Many Liberal scholars understand that the sudden appearance of 200+ Iron IA villages in
the Hill Country of Canaan from Galilee to Arad is Israel settling the land under Joshua-
and I agree. This is a Ramesside era event, which aligns "somewhat" with Israel having
built Ramesses in the eastern
delta before her Exodus.

In the biblical account, once in the wilderness, Moses orders all the lepers to be expelled
from the camp (Nu 5:2), and he also becomes a leper, but is healed by God (Ex 4:6).
Manetho relates that Amenophis (whom I believe is Seti I) gathered together all the Lepers
of Egypt and sent them to work in the stone quarries. Later they request to be relocated to
an abandoned site called
Avaris (modern day Tell ed-Daba ?). He allows their settlement there. I note that nearby is
Pi-Ramesses (modern day Qantir ?), which is Ramesses of the Bible, according to some
scholars. So, Israel "dwelling apart from the Egyptians" in the biblical account, and building
Ramesses may recall Seti's forcing leperous peoples (Egyptian and Foreigners ?) to
separate from the Egyptian people and work the quarries as corvee laborers or slaves and
build his many monumental temples. Perhaps Seti, co-reigning with his son, Ramesses II,
named the city Pi-Ramesses in honor of his father Ramesses I (he named his son
Ramesses II in honor of his father why not the town too ?) ?

In Manetho's account, the ungrateful leper-quarrymen of Avaris under their leader Osar-
Seph (Moses) invite their kinsmen in south Canaan (Jerusalem) to invade Egypt and
liberate them from their Egyptian oppressors. They do so, and Amenophis (Seti I) and his 5
year old son Ramesses retire with their army to a 13 year exile near Ethiopia. Then
Amenophis returns with his son,
Ramesses and they expell the leperous quarrymen and their South Canaanite brethren.

Osar-seph (Moses) in inviting the Jerusalemites to invade Egypt, offered to guide them to
Avaris and help reclaim the city which had _belonged to their ancestors_, apparently
referring to the Hyksos Expulsion of 1560/1530 BCE.

This explains for me why the Bible preserves chronologically the Hyksos expulsion of the
mid 16th century BCE as the Exodus, but speaks of the Exodus as occuring after the
building of Ramesses (cf. "below," Kenneth A. Kitchen & James K. Hoffmeir's note that the
elapsing time from the Exodus to Solomon's 4th year was almost 600 years, NOT 480
years, 966 BCE + 600 = 1566 BCE).
That is to say, I suspect that two different events are fused together in the Bible.

Some scholars have thought that the Amenophis who expelled the leperous quarrymen of
Avaris is one of the warrior Amenhoteps (I, II or III), because Amenophis _is_ the Greek
rendering of Egyptian Amenhotep.

Why do I think Seti I is Manetho's "Amenophis" and not Amenhotep I, II or III? The _CLUE_
is that Manetho states that 1) Amenophis named his son Ramesses/Rampes "after his
father", this suggests for me Ramesses II being named after his grandfather, Ramesses I.
2) When Amenophis expells the Leperous Quarrymen of Avaris it is with his 18 year old
son Rameses/Rampes
at his side (his son being 5 years old when he retired to near Ethiopia 13 years earlier),
suggesting co-rulership, and Ramesses II in inscriptions refers to his _co-rule_ with his
father. 3) Seti I and Ramesses were famed for the plethora of monuments and temples and
palaces erected in their
reigns and the stone quarries of Egypt were "kept busy" under their reigns, this aligns for
me with Manetho's comments about Leperous quarrymen being settled at Avaris, probably
to use the site as a work camp while they built Pi-Rameses under the joint reign of Seti
I/Rameses (Ramesside incriptions mention Apiru work gangs hauling quarry blocks to erect
Pylons, perhaps
Apiru=Abiru=Hebrews ?). 4) The 13 year withdrawal of Seti and Ramesses -if correctly
recalled by Manetho- would explain why Israel leaves Egypt with the plunder of the
Egyptians, Manetho claiming that the south Canaanites and Quarrymen are plundering
Egypt for 13 years when they are expelled.

Now for the BIG MYSTERY, why is Seti I being called Amenophis (Amenhotep)? Clayton
noted that Seti I wanted to restore Egypt to her former glory in the days of Amenhotep III
(Greek Amenophis). I suspect that Seti "may have" been likened to a "reborn Amenhotep"
in his restoring Egypt's power and glory- I can't prove this- its only a guess or hunch.

What of Manetho's notion of an invasion of Egypt in Seti I's days, if Seti is "Amenophis"?
Seti does state he led several campaigns to put down _rebellions_ and he even captured
Kadesh on the Orontes. Was there an "internal revolt" of quarrymen at Avaris and an
invasion from south Canaan? Nothing has survived in official annals (papyri and stone
monuments), only Manetho's account of Amenophis and son Ramesses expelling lepers
from Avaris by Pi-Ramesses and Egypt, who were plundering her, and the Exodus story of
lepers in the wilderness with Egyptian gold (Ex 12:35-36), being expelled from the Israelite
camp by Moses (Nu 5:2).

I have wondered about Manetho's Osar-Seph, whom he calims is Moses, and formerly a
priest at Heliopolis. Osar of course is Greek Osiris, Egyptian wsr, meaning "strong, mighty,
powerful", it appears in Ramesses II's tites as User-Maat-Re Setep-enre, "the justice of Re
is powerful, chosen of Re." Could Osar-Seph [user-seph] then mean "powerful is Seph"???
If so, who is Seph ? The Exodus notes that Moses' God is a "firey" God, and he also sends
plague upon Egypt and upon his own people in the Wilderness. I wonder, could Osar-Seph
be the Syrian-Canaanite plague god, Resheph/Reshef? The problem of couse is the
missing Re- as rsp means in Semitic "burning", an appropriate epithet for the Hebrew God
that is described as firey, and a sender of plague. Of interest is that the Hyksos assimilated
their god Baal-Hadad or Baal-Saphon with the Egyptian god Set/Seth. The 400 year
anniversary stela set up to honor Seth by the Ramessides, shows him in Asiatic warrior
garb usually reserved for the Canaanite fire, plague and war god, Resheph/Reshef. Could
Osar-Seph [User-Seph?], if Moses, be the adorer of "mighty Resheph," god of plague, fire,
and war, associations that the Bible makes with Yahweh-Elohim?

If Amenophis and son Ramesses/Rampses is Seti I and Ramesses, and if Manetho is

"correct" in dating the Hebrew expulsion or Exodus to the Ramesside era, then the Bible's
mention of Ramesses being built by a people who dwelt apart from the Egyptians, and who
had lepers dwelling amongst them, begins to make some sense.

Of course, we have a problem. To what degree did Manetho know of Hebrew traditions
about lepers in the Wilderness of Sinai camp and a leperous Moses, and their leaving a
place in Egypt called Rameses and then work these motifs into the "Amenophis/Ramesses"
expulsion of the leperous quarrymen ? The embalmed body of Ramesses V has smallpox
lesions on the body, noticeable on the face particularly- were smallpox epidemics afflicting
the Ramesside era? Did Seti and Ramesses "isolate" all the "scabby-lepers" ("scabby-
lepers" is Manetho's terminology which might reflect smallpox scabs?) as an act of self
preservation, to quarries, away from the Egyptian populace, and then later expell them as a
hygiene effort?

I am not attempting to claim the Exodus happened as portrayed in the Bible -I regard that
account as fictional- but I am trying to uncover "possible events" that came to be
transformed into that event. If I am correct about Manetho arguing for a Ramesside Exodus
and Josephus for a 16th century BCE Hyksos Exodus, then the "dance, round and round
the mulberry bush" has been going on with scholars for over 2000 years ! If the events are
a _FUSION_ perhaps the end of the dance is in sight ?

Regards, Walter
Walter Reinhold Warttig Mattfeld y de la Torre, M.A. Ed.

P.S.
The above data from Manetho's account is taken from the following source: W.G. Waddell.
Manetho. Loeb Classical Library. 1930. Reprint.1980. Harvard University Press.
Cambridge, Massachusetts)

********************
30 May 2004

Below is some info I have put together from Josephus' citations of Manetho and my humble
attempt to come to grips with Manetho's statements and see if there is any verification or
support for a Ramesside Exodus as he claimed.

As noted in earlier posts I do acknowledge two Exoduses being fused here and garbled,
the Hyksos expulsion of the mid 16th century BCE and the late 13th early 12th century
settlement of Canaan in Iron IA, of the Ramesside era. Below are some transcribed notes
from Josephus which are germane to the arguments which follow, identifying Manetho's
Amenophis with Seti I and his son,co-ruling with him, Rameses II :
The Source:

W.G. Waddell. Manetho. Loeb Classical Library. 1930, reprint 1980. Harvard University
Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts.

18th Dynasty :

14. Armesis, for 5 years.

15. Ramesses, for 1 year.

16. Amenophath (Amenoph), for 19 years.

Total, 263 years (18th Dynasty. p. 113. Waddell)

12. Armais (Danaus) for 5 years, banished from Egypt, fleeing brother
Aegyptus, settles at Argos, Greece.

13. Ramesses, also called Aegyptus, for 68 years.

14. Ammenophis, for 40 years.

Total, 348 years (18th Dynasty. p. 117. Waddell)

12. Armais, also called Danaus, for 5 years, banished from Egypt, flees
brother Egyptus to Argos, Greece.

13. Ramesses, also called Aegyptus, for 68 years.

14. Amenophis, for 40 years.

Total for the 18th dynasty, 348 years ( 18th Dynasty. p. 119. Waddell)

Amenophis'... 5 year old son Sethos, also called Ramesses after his
grandfather...(p. 12. Waddell)

19th Dynasty (from Syncellus) :

1. Sethos, for 51 years

2. Rapsaces, for 61 (66) years

3. Ammenephthes, for20 years

4.Ramesses, for 60 years

5. Ammenemnes, for 5 years

6. Thuoris (Homer's Polybus, wife is Alcandra, Troy falls), for 7 years

Total 209 years (19th Dynasty. p. 149. Waddell)

1. Sethos, 55 years
2. Rampses, 66 yrs.

3. Ammenephthis, 40 yrs

4. Ammenemes 26 yrs

5. Thuoris (Polybus, wife Alcandra, Troy falls), 7 yrs

Total 194 yrs (19th Dynasty. p. 151. Waddell)

Armenian Version of Eusebius

1. Sethos 55 yrs

2. Rampses 66 yrs

3. Amenephthis 8 yrs

4. Ammenemes 26 yrs

5.Thuoris (Polybus, Troy falls), 7 yrs

Total 194 yrs (19th Dynasty. pp. 151,153. Waddell)

Dynasty 18 (Peter A. Clayton. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, the Reign-by-Reign Record of the
Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. 1994. London. Thames & Hudson)) :

Amen-hotep III, 1386-1349 BCE (37 yr reign)

Amen-hotep IV (Akh-en-aten), Nefer-kheperu-re, 1350-1334 BCE (16 yr reign)

Smenkh-ka-re (Ankh-kheperu-re), 1336-1334 BCE (2 yr reign)

Tut-ankh-amun (Heqa-iunu-shema) Neb-kheperu-re, 1334-1325 BCE (9 yr reign)

Ay (it-netjer) Kheper-kheperu-re, 1325-1321 BCE (4 yr reign)

Hor-em-heb (mery-amun) Djeser-kheperu-re Setep-en-re, 1321-1293 BCE (28 yr

reign)

Dynasty 19 (Clayton) :

Ra-messes I Men-pehty-re, 1293-1291 BCE (2 yr reign)

Seti I (mery-en-ptah) Men-maat-re, 1291-1278 BCE (13 yr reign)

Ra-messes II (mery-amun) User-maat-re Setep-en-re, 1279-1212 BCE (67 yr

reign)

Mer-ne-ptah, (hetep-her-maat) Ba-en-re-mery-netjeru, 1212-1202 BCE (10 yr

reign)

Amen-messes (heqa-waset), Men-mi-re-Setep-en-Re, 1202-1199 BCE (3 yr reign)

Seti II (mer-en-ptah) User-kheperu-re-setep-en-re, 1199-1193 BCE (6 yr
reign)

Siptah (mer-en-ptah), Akh-en-re-setep-en-re, 1193-1187 BCE (6 yr reign)

Queen Twosret (setep-en-mut), Sitre-mery-amub, 1187-1185 BCE (2 yr reign)

Dynasty 20 (Clayton) :

Set-nakhte (merer-amun-re) User-khau-re-Setep-en-re, 1185-1182 BCE

Ra-messes III (heqa-iunu) User-maat-re Mery-amun, 1182-1151 BCE

Ra-messes IV (heqa-maat-re) 1151-1145 BCE

Ra-messes V User-maat-re, 1145-1141 BCE

Ra-messes VI Neb-maat-re-Mery-amun, 1141-1133 BCE

Ra-messes VII User-maat-re Mery-amun Setep-en-re, 1133-1126 BCE

Ra-messes VIII User-maat-re Akh-en-amun, 1133-1126 BCE

Ra-messes IX Nefer-kha-re Setep-en-re 1126-1108 BCE

Ra-messes X Kheper-maat-re, 1108-1098 BCE

Ra-messes XI Men-maat-re Setep-en-ptah, 1098-1070 BCE

Josephus refutes Manetho's claim that the Exodus was under a king called
Sethos/Ramesses and his father Amenophis, claiming the Exodus was much earlier when
the Hyksos shepherds were expelled to found Jerusalem under Pharaoh Tuthmosis:

"After citing a king Amenophis, a fictious person...Manetho attaches to him certain legends,
having doubtless forgotten that according to his own chronicle the exodus of the Shepherds
to Jerusalem took place 518 years earlier. For Tethmois was king when they set out; and
according to Manetho, the intervening reigns thereafter occupied 393 years down to the
two brothers Sethos and Hermaeus, the former of whom, he says, took the new name of
Egyptus, the latter that of Danaus. Sethos drove out Hermaeus and reigned 59 years; then
Rampses, the elder of his sons, for 66 years. Thus, after admitting that so many years had
elapsed since our forefathers left Egypt, Manetho now interpolates this intruding
Amenophis." (p. 121. Waddell)

Waddell notes various proposals for Manetho's Amenophis and 5 year old son Ramesses
also called Sethos, and 'the polluted' Egyptians who have settled at Avaris and invited the
Jerusalemites to invade Egypt and reclaim their ancestral home:

"This namesake [Amenophis son of Paapis], then replied that he would be able to see the
gods if he cleansed the whole land of lepers and other polluted persons. The king was
delighted, and assembled all those in Egypt whose bodies were wasted by disease: they
numbered 80,000 persons. These he cast into stone-quarries to the east of the Nikle, there
to work segregated from the rest of the Egyptians. Among them, Manetho adds, there were
some learned priests, who had been attacked by leprosy. Then this wise seer ...added a
prediction that certain allies would join the polluted people and would take possession of
Egypt for 13 years..." (pp.123-125. Waddell)
"...king Amenophis is at one time Merneptah, son of Ramesses II; at another time,
Amenophis IV (Akhnaten), some 200 years earlier. The doings of the polluted, the
persecution of the gods, and the slaughter of the holy animals, clearly portray the fury of
Akhnaten and his followers against Egyptian religion...For a theory about the identity of 'the
polluted' (they are the troops of Sethos I, sent to Tanis by his father Ramesses I during the
ascendancy of Horemhab) see P. Montet, "La Stele de l'An 400 Retrouvee," in Kemi, iii.
1935, pp. 191-215." (p. 123. note 1. Waddell)

"...Amenophis...As for his five-year-old son Sethos, also called Ramesses after his
grandfather Rapses, he sent him safely away to his friend. He then crossed the Nile with
as many as 300,000 of the bravest warriors of Egypt, and met the enemy. But, instead of
joining battle...he made a hasty retreat to Memphis..." (p. 129. Waddell)

All who have studied Manetho and the various recensions have noted garbled and
confusing statements about lengths of reigns and sequences of the reigns of the Pharaohs.
But they also have recognized in the garbled information, bits and pieces of real history
being preserved. The task is to winnow the chaff (misinformation) from the historical
kernels, using the surviving records of Egypt (papyri and monuments carved in stone).

Manetho's Armais has been identified by some scholars as being Pharaoh Horemhab:

"...Armesis (Armais) is probably Haremhab: Ramesses, vizier of Haremhab and afterwards

Ramesses I..." (p. 113. Note 2. Waddell)

The 18th Dynasty (see above) has Armesis (Horemhab ?) reigning 5 years (p.113 Waddell)
followed by Ramesses I for 1 year, THEN _AMENOPHATH (Amenoph) for 19 years (p.
113. Waddell).

This suggests for me, that AMENOPHATH is none other than Seti I, who follows to the
throne after his father, Ramesses I, who is given a reign of 2 years according to Clayton
instead of 1 year according to Manetho.

This aligns somewhat with Josephus citing Manetho, that Amenophis' 18 year-old son
Rameses (also called Sethos) is the grandson of Ramesses/Rhapses (p. 129 Waddell),
who joins him in expelling the Leperous Quarrymen of Avaris and the Jerusalemite
invaders who have despoiled Egypt for 13 years.

The problems?

If Seti I is Manetho's Amenophis (18th Dynasty ruler number 16. Amenophath (Amenoph),
for 19 years. p. 113 Waddell, following number 15 Ramesses, for 1year), then Manetho is
associating the Exodus with the beginnings of the19th Dynasty, and claiming that Seti I and
son Ramesses II are behind the expulsion of the polluted Egyptians and Quarrymen of
Avaris and their south Canaanite allies from Jerusalem.

Some scholars claim an Exodus in the days of a Pharaoh Thutmoses. Why? Apparently
they accept Josephus' citing Manetho that the Exodus was under a Tethmosis (p. 121.
Waddell's Manetho). Some also apparently accept the biblical statement of 1 Kings 6:1 that
480 years elapsed from the Exodus to Solomon's 4th year and building of the temple in
Jerusalem, Solomon's 4th year as ca. 966 BCE giving an Exodus ca, 1446 BCE.

The problem ? Clayton dates Tuthmosis III, 1504-1450 BCE (p.104), and Amenhotep II,
1453-1419 BCE (cf. Peter A. Clayton. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London. Thames &
Hudson. 1994). But here does exist disagreement amongst Egyptologists on the dating of
the reigns (the so-called high-middle-low chronology) so, Thuthmoses II can be dated
1501-1447 BCE (cf. p. 599. James Henry Breasted. A History of Egypt. 1912. New York.
Scribner's & Sons). However Aling, a noted conservative Christian scholar, opts for a 1446
BCE Exodus in the days of Amenhotep II, whom he dates ca. 1453-1415 BCE (p. 97. "The
Exodus." Charles F. Aling. Egypt and Bible History from the earliest times to 1000 BC.
1981. Baker Book House. Grand Rapids, Michigan).

Do Egyptian annals mention _ANY_ of "the players" that appear in the Pentateuch,the first
five books of the Bible allegedly written by Moses ca. 1446 BCE ? That is to say, do we find
on the monuments or papyri of Egypt, ca. 1446 BCE, ANY mention of Moab, Seir, Edom,
the Philistines all of whom appear in the Exodus account ? The answer is NO !

What about the Ramesside era, favored by Manetho, he having a Sethos/Ramesses

expelling Leperous Quarrymen ? The Anastasi VI papyrus from the days of Merneptah
mention nomads from EDOM seeking to enter Egypt to water their flocks. Ramesses II
mentions raiding the tent camps of the Seirites to plunder them of their cattle. Ramesside
inscriptions also mention Moab and allegedly DIBON, a town in Moab according to the
Egyptologist, Kenneth A. Kitchen. Ramesses III ca. 1175 BCE mentions the Pelest
(Egyptian prst) understood to be the PHILISTINES invading Egypt in his reign and settling
them in cities bound in his name and their Aegean pottery appears in his reign in what we
call Philista.

Archaeologists have discovered the Hill Country of Canaan where Israel settles is almost
void of settlement in the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1560-1200 BCE), when the Exodus is
believed to have ocurred (ca. 1446 BCE, cf. 1 Kings 6:1), but in Iron IA suddenly 300+
stone villages appear out of no where, with a population approaching 20,000+ and Hazor is
destroyed and burned along with Megiddo and Lachish- all these places are mentioned in
Joshua's account. From these Iron IA villages Israel in Iron II evolves into the Monarchy of
Saul, David and Solomon.

It would appear that the _attestation_ from Egyptian records, papyri, and monuments
supports a Ramesside event as espoused 2000 years ago by the much maligned Manetho!

Regards, Walter

Walter Reinhold Warttig Mattfeld y de la Torre, M.A. Ed.

*********************
31 May 2004

We are told Judah captured Jerusalem and set it on fire, then attacked Hebron and the
Negeb.

Judges 1:8-10 RSV

"And the men of Judah fought against Jerusalem, and took it, and smote it with the edge of
the sword, and set the city on fire. And afterward the men of Judah went down to fight
against the Canaanites who dwelt in the hill country, in the Negeb and in the lowland. And
Judah went against the Canaanites who dwelt in Hebron..."

Joshua 6:24) RSV

"And they burned the city [Jericho] with fire and all within it..."

Joshua 11:13 RSV

"But none of the cities that stood on mounds did Israel burn, except Hazor only; that
Joshua burned."

The first generation after the Conquest, remained apart from the Canaanites, but we are
told following generations intermarried with them and came to worship their gods :

Judges 2:6-13 RSV

"When Joshua dismissed the people, the people of Israel went each to his nheritance to
take possession of the land. And the people served the LORD ll the days of Joshua, and all
the days of the elders who outlived Joshua, ho had seen all the great work which the LORD
had done for Israel...And all hat generation also were gathered to their fathers; and there
arose another eneration after them, who did not know the LORD or the work which he had
one for Israel. And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of he LORD and
served the Baals; and they forsook the LORD, the God of their fathers, who brought them
out of the land of Egypt; they went after other gods, from among the gods of the peoples
who were around them, and bowed down to them; and they provoked the LORD to anger.
They forsook the LORD, and served the Baals and the Ashtaroth."

The Bible explained that God "left the Jebusites" to test whether or not Israel would be
faithful to him (Judges 3:1).The Bible states that Israel (that is Judah) "failed" God's testing
and _intermarried with the Jebusites_, the descendants of the Late Bronze Age Canaanite
inhabitants of Jerusalem:

Judges 3:5 RSV

"So the people of Israel dwelt among the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the
Perizzites, the Hivites; and the _JEBUSITES_; and they took their daughters to themselves
for wives, and their own daughters they gave to their sons; and they served their gods. And
the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the LORD, forgetting the LORD their
God, and serving the Baals and the Asheroth."

If Manetho has correctly preserved from Egyptian records two Exoduses from Egypt, the
first being the Hyksos Expulsion of the mid-sixteenth century BCE and the second of the
Ramesside era, the late 13th Dynasty under Seti I/Amenophis and his co-reigning son
Sethos/Ramesses II, then perhaps the the Bible provides the "mechanism" whereby the the
two Exoduses came fused into one. That is to say, we are told by Manetho that _both_
expulsions had the people headed for the same place, JERUSALEM. Perhaps the Late
Bronze Age traditions of two Exoduses from Egypt (Hyksos and Ramesside) were passed
on by Jerusalemite-Jebusite-Canaanite mothers to their Israelite/Judahite sons, and by late
Iron II times these two Late Bronze Age events were fused into
one ?

Some scholars understand that the Bible as we have it today, was compiled AT
JERUSALEM, and it is AT JERUSALEM that two Late Bronze Age Exodus expulsions
come to a conclusion according to Manetho.

I have argued in earlier posts to this list that perhaps the invasion of Hill Country of Canaan
from Galilee to the Negev may be of Arameans driven from their marginal pasture lands by
famine and war, they capturing first Transjordan then Canaan's Hill Country. If this proposal
is correct, then
two Late Bronze Age Exoduses, (if correctly preserved by Manetho ?) from Egypt were
fused with an Iron IA invasion from Aram (North Syria) via intermarriages with the Late
Bronze Canaanite descendants of Jerusalem (the Jebusites), and by Late Iron II the fusion
had been accomplished in oral traditions.
All of the above is of course _pure speculation_. Only an "extensive petrographic analysis
of the clays" found in the small portable cooking pots of the many Iron IA villages of Hill
Country Canaan (from Galilee to Tel Masos by Arad) and of Transjordan will settle the
mystery if these people
came from Egypt via the Sinai, Negev and Arabah and Transjordan, or if they came from
Syria. The technology, petrographic analysis exists and has been used in the study of
Philistine pottery, now it needs to be applied to the Iron IA Hill Country and Transjordan
cooking pots (invaders _need to eat_, and they would bring their portable clay cooking pots
with them- the Iron IA villages _do have_ clay cooking pots).

The "old timers" on this list may recall that several years ago I posted my findings that a
careful study of the chronologies preserved in the Old and New Testaments caused me to
realize that the Bible had preserved a mid-sixteenth Hyksos expulsion for the Exodus, and I
attempted to argue this was in fact the Exodus. But, with the passage of time and more
study I came to realize the evidence for a Ramesside Exodus as argued by Kitchen and
Albright was too compelling and could not be ignored. I eventually concluded that the two
events must have been _fused together_. It was ONLY just two days ago that a "re-read" of
Manetho caused me to realize that he had
posited two expulsions, Hyksos and Ramesside and that he had provided the details from
his understanding of the Egyptian records. If Manetho iscorrect and if I am correct then "the
strange early dating" of the Exodus to the Hyksos period by the bible's chronology is at last
resolved and
reconciled with the Ramesside details. CF. the following url for my earlier article arguing for
a Hyksos Exodus incorporating the chronologies of the Bible, which has not been updated
yet with my recent findings (http://www.bibleorigins.net/Exodus1540BCHyksos.html).

Professor Hoffmeier discusses the history of the various Exodus dates (he has excavated
in Egypt and is currently excavating in the NW Sinai at New Kingdom sites near Pelusium).
He argues for an Exodus in Ramesside times and agrees pretty much with his older
colleague, Kenneth A. Kitchen, who is now recently retired.

Hoffmeier :

"...James Jack [The Date of the Exodus in the Light of External Evidence. Edinburgh. T & T
Clark. 1925], who argued for a mid-fifteenth-century date based on biblical data and what
he believed to be corroborating Egyptian evidence. Based on the Masoretic text of 1 Kings
6:1, which dates the departure from Egypt at 480 years before Solomon's 4th regnal year,
Jack concluded that 1445 BC was the Exodus date since Solomon's accession date, 970
BC, 970 BC, could be securely fixed (his 4th year being 966/7), thanks to synchronisms
between biblical and Assyrian texts." (p. 124. James K. Hoffmeier.
Israel in Egypt, The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition. Oxford University
Press. New York. 1996)

"How then is the 480 year figure treated by scholars who reject it as a literal number ?
Petrie suggested that thfe number might have resulted from tallying up the duration of the
Israelite kings from Saul back to Joshua. However, as Jack showed, if all the periods are
added together, such as the 40 years in Sinai, the lengths of the Judges, and periods of
peace between judges, plus the length of David's reign, the total is 534 years. On top of
this figure, the duration of Joshua's leadership in Canaan and the length of saul's kingship,
which are not preserved, bring the total close to 600 years." (p. 125.Hoffmeier)

"Another solution, which is widely held by biblical scholars, is to regard the 480 figure as a
number that symbolizes 12 x 40 with 40 representing a generation. With a generation being
closer to 25 years, 12 x 25 gives 300 years; when added to Solomon's 4th year, the
Exodus falls within the reign of Ramesses II around 1267. The reference to the store-city of
Ramesses in Exodus 1:11 is viewed as additional support for placing the oppression in
Egypt's 19th Dynasty. Furthermore, the 13th century dating squared nicely with the so-
called "archaeological date" (ca. 1230-1220 BC) of the Conquest of the Albright-Wright
school. The archaeological evidence of the settlement of Israel in Canaan, according to
Isreal Finkelstein, dates to the late 13th century or early 12th. Finkelstein's conclusions do
not necessarily contradict an exodus in the Ramesside period." (p. 125.Hoffmeier)

"It is clear that after over a century of academic inquiry into the date of the exodus, we are
no closer to a solution today...If there is a prevailing view among historians, biblical
scholars and archaeologists, an exodus in the Ramesside era (1279-1213 BC) is still
favored." (p. 126. Hoffmeier)

Professor Kenneth A. Kitchen, another Egyptologist who has written on dating the Exodus
in several books and articles notes the problems in accepting at face value 480 years
elapsing from the Exodus to Solomon's 4th year (1 Kings 6:1) :

"The Exodus: Time and Place. 1. Date. Much disputed for a century or more..."The lazy
man's solution" is simply to cite the 480 years ostensibly given in 1 Kings 6:1 from the
Exodus to the 4th year of Solomon (ca. 966 BC) and so to set the Exodus at ca. 1446 BC.
However, this too simple solution is ruled out by the combined weight of all the other
biblical data plus additional information from external data. So the interval from the Exodus
comes out not at 480 years but as over 553 years (by three unknown amounts), if we
trouble to go carefully through all the known biblical figures for this period. It‘s evident that
the 480 years cannot cover fully the 553 + X years. At best, it could be a selection from
them, or else it is a schematic figure (12 X 40 years, or similar). But again, on other
evidence to be considered, a date of ca. 1519 BC (966+553) and earlier is even less
realistic for the Exodus. In Exodus 1:11, the Hebrews are building Ramesses, whence also
they are said to have set out on the Exodus (Ex 12:37); "the land of Rameses" (Gen 47:11)
is a reflex of the same name and place. This place is Pi-Ramesses, the east-delta city built
by Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC). Thus the end of the oppression and the start of the
Exodus could not precede the accession of this king at the earliest, i.e., not before 1279 BC
on our present knowledge of Egyptian chronology. That is only a little more than 300 years
before Solomon, not 480 or 553. In Ancient Near Eastern terms, the solution is quite
straightforward. There were most probably consideraable overlaps between contemporary
groups of judges in Israel during the settlement period, hence 533 + X years totals up all
the years of such people, years which in reality were partly overlapping and fitted within an
absolute period of 300 years or so."
(p. 702. Vol.2. Kenneth A. Kitchen. "Exodus, The." David Noel Freedman, editor. The
Anchor BIble Dictionary. 1992. New York. Doubleday-Anchor. 6 Vols.)

In a later work, Kitchen mentions possibly 591/596 years elapsing between the Exodus and
Solomon's 4th year (I note that 967 + 591/596 = 1558/1563 BCE for the Exodus, aligning it
with the mid-16th century BCE Hyksos Expulsion) :

"This possibility becomes in effect a certainty if one goes through the date lines between
the Exodus and the fourth year of Solomon, the year he began to build his temple, "in the
480th year" since the Exodus (1 Kings 6:1), we are told. Thus, if that year fell circa 967 (cf.
dates in chapters 2 and 4 above), a literal adding up would set the Exodus in 1447. But if
we take the trouble to actually tote up all the individual figures known from Exodus to Kings
in that period, they do NOT add up to 480 years. But rather to 544+x+y+z years, where x=
unknown length by Joshua and the elders (minimum, 5/10 years ?), y= rule by Samuel
above his stated 20 years (possibly zero), and z= the full reign of Saul (minimum, [3]2
years). The total comes to between 35 and 42 years at least, bringing the 554 years to a
minimal 591/596 years. This is certainly not identical with the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1."
(pp.202-203. Kenneth Andrew Kitchen. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. 2003.
Grand Rapids, Michigan. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company)
As one can see from the above statements made by these two Egyptologists "possessing a
keen interest in correlating the Exodus with Egyptian events," although they acknowledged
that almost 600 years elapsed according to the bible's internal chronology, reckoned by
adding up the total reign years of the various judges, (600 + 966 = 1566 BCE and the
Hyksos Expulsion), they _rejected_ the bible's chronology, and opted for a Ramesside
Exodus.

My most recent posts have been to show that BOTH Josephus and Manetho were
"_right_and_wrong_" the Exodus in the Bible is for me a fusion of the Hyksos Expulsion of
the 16th century BCE, the biblical chronology preserving this event (Hoffmeier's nearly 600
years elapsing) and the Bible's preserving Ramesside details like the mention of Rameses,
Edom, Moab, Seir , names which appear no earlier than the 13th century BCE in
Ramesside documents and monuments.

Regards, Walter

Walter Reinhold Warttig Mattfeld y de la Torre, M.A. Ed.

*****************************************

Update 01 June 2004

The Papyrus Harris I was composed under the authority of Ramesses III, narrating his
deeds and that of his father Sethnakht, who brought an end to the anarchy in Egypt under
an Asiatic called Irsu.

The source for the "below" transcription of the Harris Papyrus I can be found at the
following url :
<http://www.specialtyinterests.net/harris.html>

"The text of the complete Papyrus Harris may be found in Breasted's, 'Records of Egypt',
Vol. IV, pages 87-206; Sec. 151-412.

"Former Anarchy

Hear ye, that I may inform you of my benefactions which I did while I was king of the
people. The land of Egypt was overthrown from without, and every man was (thrown out) of
his right; they had no chief mouth for many years formerly until other times. The land of
Egypt was in the hands of chiefs and of rulers of towns; one slew his neighbor, great and
small. Other times having come after it, with empty years, Yarsu, a certain Syrian (H-rw)
was with them as chief. He set the whole land tributary before him together; he united his
companions and plundered their possessions. They made the gods like men, and no
offerings were presented in the temples.

The Rule of Setnakht

But when the gods inclined themselves to peace, to set the land (in) its right according to its
accustomed manner, they established their son, who came forth from their limbs, to be
Ruler, L.H.P., [Life, Health, Prosperity] of every land, upon their great throne, (even)
Userkhare-Setepnere-Meriamon, L.H.P., Son of Re, Setnakht-Mererre-Meriamon, L.H.P.
He was Khepri-Set, when he is enraged; he set in order the entire land of Egypt; he
cleansed the great throne of Egypt; he was Ruler, L.H.P., of the Two Lands, on the throne
of Atum. He gave ready faces, which had been turned away. Every man knew his brother
who had been walled in. He established the temples in possession of divine offerings, to
offer to the gods (psd-t) according to their customary stipulations.
The Rise of Ramses III and Death of Setnakht

He appointed me to be hereditary prince in the place of Keb, I was the great chief mouth of
the lands of Egypt, and commander of the whole land united in one. He went to rest in his
horizon, like the gods; there was done for him that which was done for Osiris; he was
rowed in his king's-barge upon the river, and rested in his eternal house west of Thebes.

War with Northern Asiatics

I extended all the boundaries of Egypt; I overthrew those who invaded them from their
lands. I slew the Denyen in their isles, The Thekel and the Peleset were made ashes. The
Sherden and the Weshesh of the sea, they were made as those that exist not, taken
captive at one time, brought as captives to Egypt, like the sand of the shore. I settled them
in strongholds, bound in my name. Numerous were their classes like hundred-thousands. I
taxed them all, in clothing and grain from the storehouses and granaries each year.

Accession of Ramses III

Then my father Amon-Re, lord of gods, Re-Atum, and Ptah, beautiful of face, crowned me
as Lord of the Two Lands on the throne of him who begat me; I received the office of my
father with joy; the land rested and rejoiced in possession of peace, being joyful at seeing
me as ruler, L.H.P., of the Two Lands, like Horus when he was called to rule the Two Lands
on the throne of Osiris. I was crowned with the etef-crown bearing the ureaus; I assumed
the double-plumed diadem, like Tatenen. I sat upon the throne of Hrakhte. I was glad in the
regalia, like Atum." (end oftranscription from <http://www.specialtyinterests.net/harris.html>)

My interest here is that Manetho claimed that all people residing in Egypt, apparently
Egyptian and foreign, who were deemed Leperous, were consigned to service in the stone
quarries east of the Nile, but were later settled at Avaris by a Pharaoh Amenophis and son
Sethos/Ramesses. Later, they rebelled and invited Asiatics from Jerusalem to invade and
co-rule Egypt with them. Manetho tells us that Sethos/Ramesses at the age of 18
accompanied his father Amenophis in expelling the inhabitants of Avaris who fled to
Jerusalem, after having earlier plundered the land and its temples for 13 years.

The description of anarchy in Egypt under the Asiatic Irsu in the above Harris Papyrus I,
seems to mirror to some degree Manetho's account of "rebelling Egyptians" accompanied
by "invading Asiatics," seizing control of Egypt for a space of 13 years.

If this event _is_ what is behind Manetho's expulsion of Asiatics from Avaris, then the
expulsion of the Asiatics would be circa 1185 BCE, the first year of Sethnakhte (1185-1182
BCE, I am using Peter A. Clayton's Egyptian Chronology here). Adding 13 years to the
beginning of Setnakhte's reign ca. 1185 BCE, would give ca. 1198-1185 BCE for Asiatics to
be in some kind of control or influence over Egypt. The Asiatic control/influence of Egypt
would appear to embrace the reigns of Seti II (1199-1193 BCE), Siptah (1193-1187 BCE)
and Queen Twosret (1187-1185 BCE).

Egyptian records reveal that there was an Asiatic "vizier" called Beya, who served under
Seti II through Twosret, as noted by Abraham Malamat. He noted that some scholars have
proposed that Irsu is Beya, and that this individual is linked by others to Moses of the Bible.
That is to say, the biblical account of Asiatics (Israelites) despoiling the Egyptians of their
possessions and jewelry (Ex 12:35-36), and then being expelled in an Exodus, is recalling
Setnakhte's ending Asiatic influence over Egypt.
Exodus 6:1 RSV

"But the LORD said the Moses, "Now you shall see what I will do to Pharaoh; for with a
strong hand he will send them out, yea, with a strong hand he will drive them out of his
land."

Professor Malamat:

"The sequence and chronology of the last rulers of the 19th Dynasty is now believed to be
as follows: Seti II (1203-1197 BCE), during whose reign several of the papyri Anastasi were
composed, was followed by his son Siptah (1197-1192 BCE), after whose death Queen
Tausert (1192-1190 BCE), the widow of Seti II and regent during the reign of Siptah,
ascended the throne. Then, in the aftermath of bitter internal struggles, the future Pharaoh
Sethnakht (1190-188 BCE) became the founder of the 20th Dynasty.

It is within this period, especially during the later part, that we should place the Syrian-
Palestinian usurpation of Egypt as described in Papyrus Harris 1, which portrays the
desolate conditions prior to the reign of Ramesses III. The leader of the Asiatic intruders
was someone called Irsu. For our purpose, it does not matter whether we have here a
personal name or an Egyptian phrase meaning "he made himself," as held by many
Egyptologists. At any rate, the papyrus contains the determinative `3mw, designating a
Semitic Syrian or a Semitic Palestinian. On the assumption that we have here a personal
name, various identifications have been suggested. Some connection with the Asiatics of
the Elephantine Stele is not altogether implausible and certainly seems intriquing.

The common contemporary, albeit doubtful, belief identifies Irsu with Beya, a prominent
Egyptian official who was active from the reign of Seti II until Tausert, being a possibly
Semitic name and known in modern parlance as the "king maker." Should this identification
prove true, than a recently discovered letter (in Akkadian) sent by Beya to the last ruler of
Ugarit may enable us to date the Semitic usurpation of Egypt more precisely, i.e., about
1195-1190 BCE. Furthermore, there are now a few scholars who boldly maintain that
Beya/Irsu is in fact the biblical Moses, bringing us back to the very subject of our paper. But
such an assumption is hardly supported by any documentation, and so it remains highly
speculative." (pp. 24-25. Abraham Malamat. "The Exodus: Egyptian Analogies." pp. 15-26,
in: Ernest S. Frerichs & Leonard H. Lesko, editors. Exodus, the Egyptian Evidence. 1997.
Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake, Indiana).

Malamat cites the scholarship for Irsu/Beya being possibly Moses:

"On (Irsu-) Beya, see most recently (and there the earlier literature) M. Yon. In The Crisis
Years: The 12th Century BCE. Editors: W. A. Ward & M. Sharp Joukowsky (Dubuque,
Iowa. 1992) pp.119 ff; C. Maderna-Sieben. "Der historische Abschnitt des Papyrus Harris
I." Gottinger Miszellen 123 (1991), pp. 57-90, especially p. 87 (the equation of Isru-Beya,
suggested first, hesitantly, by C. Cerny and Gardiner, became here already "sicherlich" ["a
surety"]). (p. 26. Note 20. Malamat. 1997)

If Manetho's garbled (?) account of a "Sethos/Ramesses," son of Amenophis and

grandson of Ramesses (his name sake) is recalling Sethnakhte and son Ramesses III, then
Manetho's Moses or Osar-Seph would appear to be Irsu/Beya.

Of interest is that i-r-s-u if reversed to u-s-r-i, it resembles somewhat u-s-a-r (Osar-Seph),

but I realize this is "stretching it a bit" !

The biblical Exodus account mentions Joshua destroying and burning Hazor AFTER the
Exodus (Joshua 11:13).
The Israeli archaeologist Moshe Dothan stated that in his excavation at Hazor, which
preceeded those of Yigael Yadin, he found two Philistine sherds. Dothan understands the
Philistines settled in Canaan circa 1175 BCE, so if he has correctly identified the sherds
and if he has the right date for the Philistine settlement, then it would appear that Hazor
was destroyed sometime AFTER 1175 BCE, that is, 10 years, or more, AFTER
Sethnakhte had "removed" Asiatics from control/influence over Egypt. Aso of interest,
is that the biblical account understands that the Philistines were in Canaan when Hazor
was destroyed by Joshua, as he mentions that Israel had not yet conquered the lands of
the Philistines (Joshua 3:1-3), this statement appears to "align" somewhat with Dothan's
findings at Hazor, that is to say a presence of Philistines in the land at the time of Hazor's
demise by Israel.

Trude Dothan, a specialist in Philistine archaeology, noted that her husband Moshe had
found Philistine sherds at Hazor :

"The rise of Hazor's importance and its international trading connections throughout the
Middle and Late Bronze Ages were clear from the many fragments of imported Cypriot and
Mycenaean pottery found there. But Moshe also found two characteristic Philistine sherds.
True, two sherds out of hundreds were not much, but their very presence was provocative:
Hazor was, after all, 165 miles from the core of Philistine settlement." (p. 96. Trude Dothan
& Moshe Dothan. People of the Sea, the Search for the Philistines. 1992. New York.
Macmillan Publishing Company)

Moshe Dothan on his finding of the sherds :

"Just how far north their [the Philistine's] influence extended became clear to me soon after,
when I was called out on another emergency excavation, at Hazor, sometime before Trude
was to join Yigael Yadin's major dig there. It was there, as already noted, that we found two
Philistine sherds." (p. 105. "Along the Trade Routes." Trude Dothan & Moshe Dothan.
People of the Sea, the Search for the Philistines. 1992. New York. Macmillan Publishing
Company)

09 June 2004 Update :

According to Manetho there were TWO expulsions of Asiatics from Egypt, the first being
the Hyksos, later determined by archaeologists to have occurred in the mid-16th century
BCE and the second being a Ramesside event under a kng called "Amenophis" (Greek for
Amenhotep) and his son who is called by Manetho "Sethos/Ramesses." To the degree that
a number of scholars understand that Manetho's 18th Dynasty king Armais is probably
Pharaoh Horemhab, and Manetho has Ramesses following Armais, it appears to me that a
Ramesside expulsion is being implied.

Manetho was quite clear that both expulsions were from ONE location called Avaris. Do
archaeological findings substantiate _in any way_ Manetho's account which is considered
by some to be "somewhat garbled" -NO pharaoh called "Amenhotep" being known in
Ramesside times from existing ancient monuments or papyri ? That is to say, is there any
evidence of Avaris, associated today with Tell ed-Daba, being occupied in Hyksos times
and then being abandoned following the Hyksos expulsion ? The answer is yes. Is there
any evidence that Avaris (Tell ed-Daba) was occupied in Ramesside times, permitting a
"possible" Ramesside expulsion as noted by Manetho ? The answer is again, yes.

The following quote is from a url on the Internet regarding Avaris (Tell el-Daba) :

"Evidence of New Kingdom occupation of the site is also seen in building activity by
Horemheb and the Ramesside kings. The Delta residence of Rameses II was at Pi-
Ramesses (now known to be a little to the north at Qantir), but the settlement area
eventually spread across Tell el-Dab'a and a large temple probably dedicated to the god
Seth was built in the centre of the area. The modern village of Tell el-Daba is situated about
6 kilometers to the north of Faqus in the north-eastern Delta. The site is on the east bank of
a Nile tributary."

(Egyptian Monuments, Tell el Daba

<http://www.egyptsites.co.uk/lower/delta/eastern/daba/daba.htm>)

Professor Bietak, who is in charge of the on-going excavations revealing a "Ramesside"

Tell ed-Daba/Avaris :

"The region of Avaris was also involved in another important chapter of ancient Egyptian
history. The royal residence of Piramesse, which is being studied at present in close co-
operation with the Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim, is located to the north of Tell el-Daba at
Qantir. In the immediate vicinity of this famous residence of Ramesses II, excavations
directed by Edgar Pusch have uncovered barracks for charioteers, stables of royal
dimensions and military workshops of the 19th Dynasty. Avaris was still in existence at this
time. In keeping with its maritime traditions it was the harbour of Piramesse, and it
continued to house the god Seth, who had retained his Asiatic image up to the Ramesside
period. The 19th Dynasty probably originated here. The god Seth, who is the
personification of the continuum, again became a dynastic god, 'the father of the fathers' of
the 19th Dynasty. The area became once more the capital of Egypt, not only for reasons of
sentiment connected with the origin of the dynasty, but because of its enormous strategic
importance for international policy." (pp. 82-83. Manfred Bietak. Avaris, the Capital of the
Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell el-Daba. 1996. The British Museum Press. London)

Manetho claims the expulsion site was Avaris, while Josephus, following the biblical
account, avers that the Hebrew Exodus was from a location called Rameses. Who's right ?
I suspect that both are right. The above Internet quote notes that in Ramesside times Tell
ed-Daba was reoccupied and that nearby Qantir, which is understood to be the site of Pi-
Ramesses, grew in size and came to absorb Tell ed-Daba. That is to say, Avaris/Daba
became a part of Pi-Ramesses, rather like a modern suburb. So it is my understanding that
Manetho and Josephus are both correct. Manetho has preserved the ancient 16th century
BCE name of the site, and the Bible has correctly understood that the site's name was
Rameses (after 13th century BCE Pi-Ramesses).

We are also informed that the Hebrews dwelt in the land of Goshen. Perhaps this name is
preserved today at Faqus which lies just 6 kilometers south of Tell ed-Daba ? Could "Fa-"
recall ancient Egyptian "Pi-" as in Pi-Ramesses, that is to say, did the ancient Egyptians
know Goshen as Pi-Qus?

According to Manetho the Ramessides expelled "scabby-lepers" who had rebelled and who
had invited in formerly expelled Asiatics from Jerusalem. Manetho also related that an
oracle had told Pharaoh that he should expell all the polluted peoples in Egypt. The
embalmed body of Ramesses V (reigned ca. 1145-1141 BCE) has small-pox pustules.
Could Manetho's sources be recalling a small-pox epidemic in Ramesside Egypt and the
"expulsion" of lepers is of people suspected to have small-pox ? If the Pharaohs first
gathered together all the diseased to one location, Avaris, and then later expelled them as
a hygenic precaution to stem the further outbreak of the epidemic, is this what the Bible
transformed into the Angel of Death that strikes down Egyptians of all ranks from the Royal
House (Ramesses V dying of small pox) to the humblest field worker ?

Clayton on Ramesses V's Smallpox:

"Ramesses V's mummy was found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35)...Lesions on the
face suggest that the king suffered from smallpox." (p. 167. Peter A. Clayton. Chronicle of
the Pharaohs, the Reign-by-Reigm Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt.
London. Thames & Hudson. 1994)

The biblical account speaks of a "plague" being sent by Yahweh-Elohim. Manetho speaks
of an outbreak of leprosy, a type of skin disease. By today's medical standards Small Pox is
not reckoned as Leprosy, but ancient man may not have been so sophisticated in his
diagnosis, and thus _any disease of the skin_ may have been lumped under the umbrella
of "Leprosy."

Manetho claimed that the Asiatic descendants of the formerly expelled Hyksos re-invaded
Egypt from Jerusalem, and re-settled at Avaris. If, _IF_ he is right, then it is of some
importance to ask who was the god worshipped by the Hyksos of the 16th century BCE and
their Jerusalemite descendants in the 13th century BCE.

Archaeologists have found a cylinder seal at Tell ed-Daba showing the North Syrian
weather-god, Baal Hadad or Baal-Saphon, standing over two mountains near the sea. A
boat is shown, he has a bull accompanying him, and a serpent beneath the mountains. In
Syrian myths Baal defeats the serpent of the Sea, called Lotan. He also defeats his brother,
Yam ("Sea") for dominion of the earth. So he had power over the unruly sea and was
prayed to for deliverance from sea storms. In Ugaritic myths he takes on the form of a Bull
and mounts his sister Anat, who is transformed into a lusty Heifer and impregnates her.
She bears him a bull-calf. Storm clouds in Ugaritic imagery were called "Hadad's Calves."

The Hyksos assimilated their storm god to the Egyptian god Seth. Seth is famed as a
warrior, so is Baal. Dark storm clouds with thunder and lightning were associated with Baal
and Seth. I "suspect" that Yahweh-Elohim of the Exodus is none-other than Seth/Baal, the
Weather-god.

The Bible speaks of a 400 year oppression of Hebrews in Egypt. Of interest is that a stela
was found erected by Ramesses II, celebrating the 400th anniversary of the god Seth.
Ramesses father bore the name Seti, after this god. I "suspect" that the 400th anniversary
of Seth's power celebrated by the Ramessides has become the 400 years of Hebrew
oppression in Goshen (Ge 15:13). According to the above Internet quote, a temple to Seth
was built in Tell ed-Daba when it became a part of Pi-Ramesses. Perhaps the local Asiatic
laborers, witnessing the rise of this temple and honoring of Seth, came to see the festivities
as an "inversion," that is to say, Seth's power and that of the Ramessides is at the expense
of the "leperous" quarrymen, who have been segregated from Egyptian society because of
their illnesses and forced to be laborers in building Pi-Ramesses, which has expanded,
making Avaris a suburb ?

Of interest is that Seth on the 400 year anniversary stele dedicated by Ramesses II is
portrayed in Asiatic costume usually associated with the North Syrian war god
Reshef/Reshep. Some scholars understand that his name comes from rsp meaning
"burning," as he is associated also with the burning fever or plague that kills men. I suspect
that Seth has been assimilated not only to Baal-Saphon-Hadad but also to Reshep, and
that Yahweh-Elohim in the biblical account has assimilated all these gods. Yahweh is a
dark thundercloud that descends upon Mount Sinai like Baal-Hadad, he has mastery over
the sea like Baal-Sephon, he has a Golden Calf dedicated to him by Jeroboam recalling
Ugaritic stormclouds being called Hadad's Calves (young bronze bulls with a gold leaf
covering dedicated to Baal have been found in Phoenicia and Ugarit), and he has power of
plague over his enemies like Reshep. Seth rides the solar bark of Re the sun-god, and
stands at the prow the boat with a mighty spear to smile the evil serpent Apep of the
celestial Nile, who seeks to devour Re and the righteous dead who accompany him. Baal
Saphon defeats the serpent of the sea Lotan in Ugaritic myths and Yahweh defeats the sea
serpent Leviathan. On scarabs Seth appears spearing a great serpent, someytime he has
wings, sometimes not; on other scarabs the serpent is speared by a winged Reshep, who
also appears sometimes without wings. In biblical texts Yahweh's wings are metaphorically
alluded to.

In the biblical account Israel after leaving Egypt heads for Mount Sinai in the southern Sinai
according to tradition. Does archaeology in any way substantiate Egyptian gods being
honored in the southern Sinai, a god like the Hyksos' Seth ? Is there any evidence of 16th
century BCE Hyksos in the southern Sinai ? Is there any evidence of 13th century BCE
Ramesside Egyptians and Asiatics honoring bovine gods in the southern Sinai ? The
answer is yes to all of the preceeding questions.

Bietak on Baal-Saphon as Seth being honored on the 400 year Ramesside stela :

"Within the northern wing of the palace, a haematite cylinder seal was found. It bears one
of the oldest representations of the northern Syrian weather-god portrayed as a protector
of sailors and as overlord of the sea, which is represented by the snake, Yam, on a
pedestal; behind the god is his companion the weather-bull...This seal is an important
discovery, as it shows that Baal Zephon, the northern Syrian weather-god, was established
in Egypt as early as the first half of the 18th century BC. Within the community of Canaanite
settlers he was probably the most important local deity and understandably he was soon
identified with his Egyptian counterpart, the god Sutekh or Seth, who was also a weather-
god. Thus we can explain why Seth, the ancient god of Ombos in Upper Egypt and of the
desert, was established at Avaris in the Delta and secured a cultic place there which
endured for over 400 years to the end of the Ramesside period." (pp.26-29. Bietak)

I would hazard a "guess" here, that the Bible's notion of Yahweh "opening a path in the
sea" and "saving his people," may be an "allusion" to Baal Saphon as possessing power
over the unruly sea and being invoked by the Hykos as a type of "saviour-god" who
_protects them in sea-crossings, "to and _FROM Egypt_," to ports in Canaan, Phoenicia
and North Syria (Ugarit). In the later Iron II (9th-6th century BCE) "re-working" of this
Hyksos concept, the the going "forth from Egypt" from the port of Avaris to Levantine ports,
has been _transferred_ to Yam Suph, "the sea of Reeds," Professor Kitchen and
Hoffmeier's Lake Timsah or Ballah, to the east of the Delta.

Scripture speaks of a "return to Egypt via the sea" to be sold as slaves but no-one will buy
Israel. God saying I would not return you via the way you escaped. Could this verse be
recalling the Hyksos expulsion via ships to Levantine ports, like Gaza and Tell el Ajjul ?

De 28:68 RSV

"And the LORD will bring you back in ships to Egypt, a journey which I promised that you
should never make again; and there you shall offer yourselves for sale to your enemies as
male and female slaves, but no man will buy you."

If I am correct in assuming that the Primary History, Genesis-Kings was written ca. 562
NCE in the Exile, what event is the narrator alluding to ? Were Isarelites sold as slaves by
the Edomites ca. 587 BCE and shipped out to Egypt via Phoenician ports ?

Jerusalem's Canaanite origins, God being portrayed as taking pity on the cast-off child and
adopting it for his own daughter :

Ezekiel 16:3, 8 RSV

"Thus says the Lord God to Jerusalem: Your origin and your birth are of the land of the
Canaanites; your father was an Amorite and your mother a Hittite... I plighted my troth to
you and entered into a covenant with you...and you became mine."
Professor Redford suggested that the Hyksos expulsion was being recalled in the Bible.
Professor Hoffmeier disagreed, arguing the event was Ramesside, not Hyksos. If I am
correct in proposing that two events are being fused together, then both scholars have
made worthwhile observations and contributions.

A number of scholars have suggested that a form of monotheism appears in Egypt as

Atenism, the worship of the sun by Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten). How did Late Bronze Age
Canaanites, descendants of Manetho's expelled Hyksos come to be exposed to
monotheism as Jebusites ? The 14th century BCE Armana Letters from the Egyptain
appointed Canaanite mayor of Jerusalem mention that he is alone in holding the city
against Apiru in the Hill Country. Could monotheism have been introduced to Jerusalem via
a loyal Egyptian appointed mayor ? Did these monotheistic notions later come to be fused
by the Late Bronze Age Canaanites to an Iron II Yahweh of the Arameans in David's time?

Did Goshen and Avaris come to be called "the land of Rameses" because the returning
Ramesside era Jerusalemites (according to Manetho) entered a land under Ramesside
control, only to be expelled again after a brief rule of 13 years?

If Israel's being saved by Yahweh in the crossing of Yam Suph is an allusion to Baal
Saphon as a saviour god of Hyksos mariners, by what mechanism did the Sea wind up as
being enroute to the Southern Sinai instead of via the Mediterranean?

According to Bietak, a number of scholars have suggested that Avaris was a trade city or
port, that not only traded with the Mediterranean sea ports, but it also served as a "staging
ground" for overland expeditions via donkey caravans to the Turquoise and Copper mines
of the Southern Sinai.

"Tell el-Yehudiya ware seems to have originated in northern Palestine and the area around
Byblos, where the oldest specimens of this pottery have been found. This ware was
imported into Tell el-Daba from the early 13th Dynasty onwards..." (p. 55. Bietak)

"According to Kees, the site gained in importance as a result of Egyptian mining

expeditions to Sinai and of trade with the Levant." (p. 10. Bietak)

"What exactly was the role of these Asiatic settlers in the north-eastern Delta ? Military
service in this corner of Egypt was surely only one of their functions. We have evidence of
specialised Asiatic settlements around Middle Kingdom royal residence Itj-t3wy from texts
in the Illahun archives, especially from the reign of Amenemhat III, but we do not know very
much about the nature of these settlements and we must therefore, look elsewhere for help
in answering the question. Inscriptions on stelae placed in front of the temple of Hathor
near the turquoise mines at Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai tell us of the employment of Retenu
Asiatics in mining expeditions, again mostly from the reign of Amenemhat III. There are four
different representations of the brother of the prince of Retenu, who was a participant in
those expeditions. Retenu, a place name not normally associated with the Sinai, is
understood to be a very general term for the region of Syria-Palestine during the Middle
Kingdom. We think it not unlikely that such mining expeditions were organised from the
north0eastern Nile Delta, quite possibly from the settlement of Tell el-Daba, its pivotal role
reflected in its ancient name Hwt-Imn-m-h3t-m3-hrw-nt-R3-w3ty. A hwt is a planned royal
foundation as opposed to a general settlement. The settlement's name can be rendered as
"the (royal) settlement (of) Amenemhat (I), justified, of Rowaty (the door of the two roads)."
Its role as "the door of the two roads" would explain at least a part of the function of this
settlement during the late 12th Dynasty.
An obelisk-shaped stela found at Serabit el-Khadim depicts three Asiatic warriors equipped
with axes, most probabl duckbill-axes. They have distinctive mushroom-shaped coiffures
and Semitic names. Morover, there is evidence that in addition to such humble soldiers the
high-ranking Egyptian functionaires who led such expeditions during the late 12th Dynasty
were also of Aiatic descent. In the sanctuary of Serabit el-Khadim, a stela and an offering
table of a 'royal deputy chief steward' with the Egyptian name 'Imeny' were found. He was
not ashamed to record his Asiatic descent nor to have himself depicted on one section of
the lintel with an Asiatic beard. This indicates that people of Asiatic origin enjoyed royal
confidence during this period. As we shall see, we also have evidence from Tell el-Daba of
the presence of high Asiatic functionaires who were obviously in the service of the Egyptian
crown.

The nature of the settlement in the late 12th Dynasty and its rapid expansion during the
13th Dynasty cannot be explained in purely military terms, as its inhabitants clearly lived
together with their families in civilian fashion. Representations of ships in petroglyphs
together with the evidence of the stelae at Serabit el-Khadim reveal that the Sinai mining
expeditions were mixed land and sea operations." (pp.14-19. Bietak)

To the degree that ships may have been used to cross the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez), could
this have been recalled as Yahweh providing "a path in the sea" for Israel enroute to the
southern Sinai ? That is to say, an alternate scnario is that of miners from Avaris crossing
the Sea via boats as late as Ramesside times, a Ramesside seaport at being found at el-
Merkha just west of Serabit el Khadim and its mines ?

Professor Mumford has noted that Tell el Yehudiyeh ware which was popular in Hyksos
Avaris (it originating in Byblos), has been found in the southern Sinai near Serabit el
Khadim, suggesting some kind of presence there in Hyksos times. Perhaps the biblical
narratives are recalling these mining expeditions ? The presence of this ware would seem
to support Bietak's notion that Avaris was a staging area for Sinai mining expeditions.

Mumford :

"Ahmose then initiated the New Kingdom 'empire,' in the northern Sinai and in Syria-
Palestine, and renewed Egyptian turquoise mining and copper smelting in the southern
Sinai." (Vol.3, p.289, Gregory D. Mumford, "Sinai." Donald B. Redford. Editor. The Oxford
Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. 2001)

"During the Second Intermediate Period and early 18th dynasty, West Asian (Hyksos ?)
Activity in the southern Sinai may be attested through the presence of some sherds of Tell
el-Yehudiyya ware and some Hyksos-style scarab seals at Serabit el-Khadim. In addition,
Mughara, Wadi Nasb and Serabit el-Khadim have perhaps 35 undeciphered Proto-Sinatic
inscriptions, including one stela that depicts an Egyptian mummiform deity (Ptah)." (Vol.3,
p.289, Mumford. "Sinai.")

"New Kingdom activity concentrated at Wadi Nasb and Serabit el-Khadim, in contrast to
Mughara, which yielded one inscription dated to Queen Hatshepsut and Thuthmose
III...Wadi Nasb contained a copper mine...and an inscription of Ramesses II....The plateau
at Serabit el-Khadim yielded twenty turquoise mines with two inscriptions of Thuthmose
IV...The plateau also yielded a small shrine of Ptah (with three stelae dedicated to
Hathor)...New Kingdom expeditions repaired and embellished the Middle Kingdom shrines
of Hathor ("Lady of Turquoise") and Sopdu ("Lord of the East")...Many votives bore the
cartouches of most New Kingdom rulers from Ahmose through Ramesses VI...From the
19th dynasty to the 20th, expeditions initiated copper mining and smelting at Wadi Reqeita
(in southeastern Sinai) and in the southern Arabah. The Arabah contained a rock
inscription at Timna, from the time of Ramesses II and one from Ramesses III at site 582,
as well as a Hathor shrine at site 200, which provided votives with the cartouches of Sety I,
Ramesses II, Merneptah, Sety II, Queen Tawosret and Ramesses III, IV and V. Late in the
20th dynasty (in the time of Ramesses VII to XI) and in the 21st to 25th dynasty, evidence
of Egyptian activity disappeared from the southern Sinai, and declined in the northern Sinai,
which retained settlement at Retabeh, at some sites in northwestern Sinai, and at 30 Iron
Age sites between Wadi el-Arish and Wadi Ghazzeh." (Vol.3, p.289-290, Gregory D.
Mumford, "Sinai.")

I suspect that the biblical narratives are indeed recalling genuine events, but they have
been "transformed" and garbled via centuries of oral tradition, from the 16th century Hyksos
and the 13th Century Ramesside expulsions and on to the 6th century world of the Exile ca.
562 BCE (when I understand the Primary History was composed). Combined with the two
explusions are mining expeditions in the southern Sinai, the Negev, and Arabah, as well as
an invasion from Syria of Arameans in Iron IA.

CORRECTION of 26 Oct. 2004: Wadi Reqeita's copper deposits were NEVER exploited by
the Egyptians. The evidence suggests they were used ONLY during the period of the Early
Bronze I-II by peoples from the Negev near Early Bronze II Arad. Cf. the research by Beit-
Arieh :

"The results of our survey show clearly that the production of copper in Sinai in the
Protodynastic period was solely in the hands of an autochthonic and/or a Canaanite-
orientated population, and was unaffected by an Egyptian presence during any phase of
this period. In fact, the findings indicate that even during the later periods the Egyptians
displayed no interest in south-Sinai generally, or in the copper deposits, specifically. As for
the Late Bronze Age copper-production site in western Sinai around Wadi Baba and Bir
Nasb (Petrie 1906:27), to my knowledge there is as yet no ceramic evidence to date it
before the New Kingdom.

It appears that the earliest datable copper smelting which was found and studied by the
Ophir Expedition in Southern Sinai was based on the mine at Wadi Riqita [Reqeita] in
south-central Sinai. The associated population beside the local population was Canaanite-
orientated, not Egyptian. No archaeological evidence of earlier copper production has yet
been discovered in this area, although the suggestion that copper was already produced
here at the end of the Chalcolithic-beginning of the Early Bronze I period (Ilan and Sebbane
1989: 148-153) cannot be discounted entirely." (p. 204. Itzhaq Beit-Arieh. Archaeology of
Sinai, the Ophir Expedition. Tel Aviv, Israel. Tel Aviv University. ISBN 965-266-018-3. END
OF 26 October 2004 UPDATE)

29 June 2004 Update :

Manetho's Osar-Siph NOT Moses but Akhenaten?

My research suggests that Manetho's garbled account of Amenophis and his "son" Seth-
Ramesses expelling Asiatics may be fusing several personalities and events from
Amenhotep III to Ramesses II, and that Akhenaten is behind the personas of Amenophis
and the Asiatic rebel, Osar-Siph, a priest of Heliopolis.

Redford noted that the Ramessides admired Amenhotep III and portrayed their 19th
Dynasty as a successor to him, erasing the memory of the Atenists, Pharaohs Akhenaten
(Amenhotep IV) through Ay. So a confused Manetho had before him bits and pieces of a
"deliberately corrupted lineage" that he tried to make sense of. He apparently was
"unaware" that Horemhab and his Ramesside successors had conspired to create a false
lineage, eliminating the Atenists.

Because the Ramessides looked with favor on Amenhotep III (Greek Amenophis), and
portrayed themselves as his successors or "sons" -the pharaohs frequently spoke of their
successors as "their sons" in their monuments and annals- Manetho erroneously made
Seth-Ramesses "the "son" of Amenophis III. In reality Seth-Ramesses is two different
pharaohs garbled together by Manetho (Sety I and Ramesses II).
The 13 year retirement of Amenophis to Nubia is another confusion, recalling Amenhotep
IV (Akhenaten) withdrawing for some 11 or 12 years to his newly built city of Akhet-Aten
"Horizon of Aten." The source of the confusion for Manetho was probably that two
pharaohs, Amenhotep III and IV bore the same name and succeeded each other, but due
to the falsified Ramesside records, Manetho was unaware of the Atenist heretic.

Manetho does NOT mention Osar-Siph, (nor Amenophis) promulgating a belief in _one
god_, which is strange, only that Osar-Siph was responsible for closing the temples and
robbing them of their wealth. Akhenaten did close Egypt's temples, remove their gods, and
diverted the temple revenues to support Atenist temples. So, Manetho's Osar-Siph is
probably non-other than Akhenaten, and NOT Moses ! Why characterize Osar-Siph as an
Asiatic ? Akhenaten's mother Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III, was the daughter of a "foreigner"
called Yuya, so perhaps a tradition existed that Akhenaten possessed an Asiatic bloodline?

Osar-Siph is portrayed as an Asiatic priest of Heliopolis; according to Breasted Akenaten

declared himself "High Priest" of the Aten, a titular borrowed from the priests of Re at
Heliopolis, and he also claimed that Re -who was pre-immenintly associated with
Heliopolis- had revealed the Aten to him. Here, for me, is" the link" between Osar-Siph and
Akhenaten.

Breasted:

"Under the name of Aton, then, Amenhotep IV introduced the worship of the supreme god,
but he made no attempt to conceal the identity of his new deity with the old sun-god Re.
Instructing his vizier in the new faith, he said to him, "The words of Re are before thee...my
august father who taught me their essence...It was known in my heart, revealed to my face,
I understood..." He thus attributes the new faith to Re as its source, and claims to have
been himself the channel of its revelation. He [Akhenaten] immediately assumed the office
of High Priest of his new god with the same title, "Great Seer," as that of the High Priest of
Re at Heliopolis. But, however evident the Heliopolitan origin of the new state religion might
be, it was not merely sun-worship; the Aton was employed in place of the old word for god
(nuter) and the god is clearly distinguished from the material sun." (p.360. James Henry
Breasted. A History of Egypt, From the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. New York.
Charles Scribner's Sons. 1912)

Redford on Akhenaten's "links" with Heliopolis :

"Thebes had not been the only city to benefit from embellishments in the new style to the
cult: Heliopolis had received a new sun-temple, "(Amenophis is) the Exalter of the Disc."
and Memphis was the site of one of the newfangled shrines as well. Far away in Nubia a
Gm-itn began to arise..." (p. 139. Donald B. Redford. Akhenaten the Heretic King. Princeton
University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. 1984)

Professor Redford understood that the reign of Akhenaten and the Atenists who followed
him had been successfully expunged from the Egyptian memorybanks, and that all that
remained for Manetho to work with was garbled memories :

"All that lingered in the oral tradition of Egypt, the collective historical memory of the people,
was a confused recollection of people afflicted with plague, expelled to the quarries, their
temples closed, and subject to a renewed attempt by "foreign rulers" to get control of Egypt.
Akhenaten and his family had become non-persons." (p. 231. Donald B. Redford.
Akhenaten the Heretic King)

Redford does see a relationship between the Bible's Exodus and the Akhenaten interlude.
He also understands that the Hyksos expulsion has been fused with the Amarna events.
Redford:

"From what has been adduced to this point it is clear that the first half of Manetho's Osar-
siph tradition (the "A" pattern) descends from an etiological tale bearing upon the Amarna
period of Egyptian history. The story probably concluded with the 19th Dynasty kings Sety I
(Merneptah) and his son Ramesses II finally putting an end to the Amarna interlude; thus it
would conform to the revised king list of later Ramesside times, in which the four "Amarna
reigns" are excised and their years added to Horemheb, so that the 19th Dynasty follows
Amenhotep III immediately...The fate of the victims in the Osarsiph legend differs from that
of the Hyksos. The latter were expelled through war, whereas the lepers were enslaved. It
is from Osar-siph or its prototype that the "bondage" tradition of the Exodus originated." (p.
416. "Four Great Origins Traditions." Donald B. Redford. Egypt, Canan, and Israel in
Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. 1992)

Other scholars have also attempted to identify Moses with the Amarna period,
understanding that Moses' "monotheism" is in some way, borrowed from, or indebted to,
Atenism. Professor Assmann and earlier yet, the famed Jewish Psychologist Sigmund
Freud, are representative of this group, Assman agrees with Redford that the Hyksos
expulsion is being recalled in the biblical account and fused with Atenism :

Assman, an Egyptologist at Heidelberg University (Germany), remarks about Freud's

understanding that the Exodus is a Hebrew INVERSION of the Hyksos Expulsion
(Emphasis is mine):

"Freud's ingenious observation links up perfectly well with the relationship between the
biblical account of the Exodus and what was to be considered the historical evidence for it.
The historical evidence for a longer sojourn of Syro-Palestinian Semites in Egypt IS THE
HYKSOS OCCUPATION, when the foreign invaders reigned as kings over Egypt,
eventually to be expelled by an Egyptian dynasty. These events came by NARRATIVE
INVERSION to be shaped into the story of slaves that were able to escape slavery and
were elected by God to become a people and even have kings of their own." (p.150. Jan
Assmann. Moses the Egyptian, The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism. Cambridge,
Massachusetts. Harvard University Press. 1997)

Assmann on the Aten's influence on Judaism (Emphasis mine) :

"Whereas the Heliopolitan priests worshiped the sun god as the highest god and creator of
all, Akhenaten proclaimed him to be the ONE and ONLY god: 'YOU SOLE GOD BESIDE
WHOM THERE IS NO OTHER.' There is only one possible conclusion to draw: If Moses
was an Egyptian and if he communicated his religion to the Jews, IT MUST HAVE BEEN
AKHENATEN'S the ATEN RELIGION." (p. 153. Jan Assmann. Moses the Egyptian, The
Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University
Press. 1997)

Manetho claims that Moses was originally called Osar-Siph, a priest at Heliopolis and that
he later changed his name. Further it is alleged that Osar-Siph lead a rebellion against
Egypt's authority. What is interesting here is the possible connections to Amarna events.
According to Redford Osiris was a god who's worship was done away with by Akhenaten.
To the degree that Moses is portrayed originally worshipping Osiris, there is a curious
relationship with Osiris worshippers as enemies of Amenophis and his son Seti-Ramesses.

Redford on post-Amarna attempts to downplay the Aten has the sole god and associating
his sundisc with other gods and Akenaten's "enmity" toward Osiris :
"Again and again the doctrine is stressed that the sun-disc is nought but the body or visible
manifestation of a transcendent diety, be it Amun, Re, or Osiris...Osiris, the god damned to
extinction by Akhenaten...is now linked with Re. "Thou (Osiris) hast arisen as Re in the
horizon, his sun-disc is thy sun-disc, his form is thy form..." (p. 226. Redford. Akhenaten the
Heretic King)

Amenophis wanted to "see" the gods. Could this be an allusion to Amenophis IV having a
new vision "seeing" the gods as the Aten ? Is the "rebellion" by Osar-Siph in reality an
allusion to Akhenaten's "rebellion" against Egypt's polytheism and gods ?

Are the 12 years at Akhetaten what is behind Amenophis' 13 year retirement to the vicinity
of Nubia (he did build an Aten temple in Nubia) ? The "polluted and leperous" might refer to
Atenists who were assembled at a quarry east of the Nile ? In this case Akhetaten is being
recalled as a "quarry" under Horemhab and the Ramessides, it being dismantled and its
stones being used in Ramesside construction at other locations ? Because the Atenists
disavowed the gods of Egypt they are characterized as "polluted and leperous," and
disavowed by Egypt's gods ?

Redford on Akhenaten's stay at Akhetaten, modern Tell el-Amarna :

"In the present case it seems clear that the devotees of Akhenaten's sun cult are the
historical reality underlying the "lepers" and this is confirmed by the iconoclastic nature of
the lepers' legislation and the figure of 13 years for the occupation, which corresponds to
the period of occupation of Amarna." (footnote 106 obersves, 11 full years under
Akhenaten, 2 under Tutankhamun. p. 415. Redford. Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient
Times)

Could the taking back of control of Egypt from the Asiatics by Amenophis and Seth-
Ramesses be recalling the reconquest of the Asiatic empire under Horemhab and his
Ramesside successors and putting down the Apiru confederation which had arisen under
Akhenaten ? Additionally, Amenophis IV's (ineffectual) "attempts" to quell the Apiru
uprisings might be recalled "favorably" and fused with the successful attempts under the
Ramessides ?

The "bottom-line" however, is to what degree does archaeology support Manetho's account
? That is to say, what archaeological evidence exists from Avaris, identified today with Tell
el-Dab`a, of an Asiatic re-occupation of the site in Amarna times and an expulsion and
abandoment caused by Manetho's Seth-Ramesses son of Amenophis III (recalling
Redford's observation that the 19th Dynasty portrays itself as the successor or "son of"
Amenhotep III in king lists) ?

Bietak has written an account of his findings at Tell el-Dab'a which he understands to be
ancient Avaris, the problem is that no-where do I find mention of Ramesside dwellings or
homes _in_ Avaris. Bietak does show a lintel from a temple dedicated to Seth which bears
a cartouche of Horemhab (cf. figure 61, p. 77. Manfred Bietak. Avaris, the Capital of the
Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. London. British Museum Press. 1996), which
suggests somekind of a presence in post-Amarna times. He also mentions a massive mud-
brick platform for the temple. Could this mud-brick platform recall Israel's making mud-
bricks ? He also claims that Tell el-Daba was occupied in Ramesside times and served as
a port for nearby Pi-Ramesses (Qantir).

Bietak :

"The region of Avaris was also involved in another important chapter of ancient Egyptian
history. The royal residence of Piramesse, which is being studied at present in close co-
operation with the Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim, is located to the north of Tell el-Dab'a at
Qantir. In the immediate vicinty of this famous residence of Ramesses II, excavations
directed by Edgar Pusch have uncovered barracks for charioteers, stables of royal
dimensions and military workshops of the 19th Dynasty. Avaris was still in existence at this
time. In keeping with its maritime traditions it was the harbour for Piramesse, and it
continued to house the god Seth, who had retained his Asiatic heritage image up to the
Ramesside period. The 19th Dynasty most probably originated here. The god Seth, who is
the personification of the continuum, again became a dynastic god, 'the god of the fathers'
of the 19th Dynasty. The area became once more the capital of Egypt, not only for reasons
of sentiment connected with the origin of the dynasty, but because of its enormous strategic
importance for international policy." (pp. 82-83. Manfred Bietak. Avaris the Capital of the
Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. London. The British Museum Press. 1996)

Does archaeology support Manetho's notion that under the Ramessides Avaris was
abandoned, the leperous quarrymen being expelled ? Bietak noted that Tell el-Dab'a was
indeed "abandoned" circa 1060 BCE, when the Pelusiac branch of the Nile began silting
up. Attempts to dredge it failed and the Egyptians thereupon decided to move to Tanis
located on another branch of the Nile which had access to the Mediterranean Sea.

At Tanis have been found Ramesside items, suspected to have been transferred from Pi-
Ramesses (Qantir) and Avaris (Tell el-Daba), effectively making Qantir/Daba "a quarry" for
Zoan. Was the transformation of Qantir/Dab'a into a quarry for Zoan/Tanis recalled by
Manetho as leperous-quarrymen of Avaris ?

The Bible does speak of Moses confronting Pharaoh and his court in the "fields of Zoan"
understood to be Tanis. Could this biblical account be recalling the moving of the court from
Pi- Ramesses/Avaris to Zoan/Tanis ?

One of items found at Tanis was a stele dedicated by Ramesses II to the god Seth,
recalling 400 years of his power in the area. It has been suggested that perhaps this stela
originally had been set up in the Seth temple found at Tell el-Dab'a. If this presumption is
correct, perhaps the notion of Israel serving a 400 year bondage in Egypt and building
Rameses, recalls a Ramesside celebration of Seth's power over Asiatics ? If Israelite
slaves made the mudbricks for the platfrom of Seth's temple at Tell el-Dab'a, surely they
would have been aware of the occasion for the foundation of the temple, to honor 400
years of Seth's power in the eastern Delta, and perhaps recalling Hyksos era events, the
Hyksos honoring Seth and assimilating him to their god, Baal Saphon, who in myths had
defeated the great sea serpent Lotan (Perhaps Baal Saphon later becoming Yahweh who
defeats the Leviathan ?).

Of interest here, is that Bietak has determined that after the defeat of the Hyksos, there
was an 18th Dynasty occupation in the form of a fortress and nearby houses. He has
suggested that this occupation is attested from royal scarabs as late as the reign as
Amenhotep II (p. 72). At the present, no occupation is documentable after Amenhotep II,
was it abandoned in this pharoah's reign ? He ruled ca. 1453-1419 BCE, and 1 Kings 6:1
suggests for some scholars that the Exodus took place ca. 1446 BCE which falls in this
ruler's reign. Is the Bible recalling an abandonment of Avaris under Amenhotep II ? Also of
interest is that Breasted has Amenhotep II ca. 1447 BCE launching a massive invasion, to
put down rebellions in his Asiatic empire. The date, 1447 BCE is very close to 1446 BCE
when the Exodus is understood to have occured according to some scholars.

Breasted noting Asiatic princes rebelling upon the death of the previous Pharaoh,
Thuthmoses III :

"Leaving Egypt with his forces in April of his second year (1447 BC), Amenhotep [II] was in
touch with the enemy in northern Palestine early in May and immediately fought an action
at Shemesh-Edom against the princes of Lebanon." (p. 324. James Henry Breasted. A
History of Egypt. New York. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1912)

Bietak on a 18th Dynasty settlement at Tell el-Dab'a as late as Amenhotep II :

"To the east of the platform H/I, there was a middle-class settlement, which seems to have
incorporated workshops. It reveals distinct stratigraphy...Within the settlement numerous
scarabs have been found, among them a series of royal scarabs. Their relative position is
consistent with the succession of the named pharaohs and covers the time from Ahmose to
Amenhotep II...As it seems more persuasive now to date platform H/I and the frescoes to
the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, and no longer to the Hyksos period, the beginning of this
settlement should date after Ahmose. Because of recent agricultural leveling we do not
know if the settlement continued beyond the time of Amenhotep II." (p. 72. Manfred Bietak.
Avaris the Capital of the Hyksos, Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. London. The British
Museum Press. 1996)

Professor Aling, a Conservative scholar, on dating the Exodus to the reign of Amenhotep II:

"Accepting the early date for the exodus (ca. 1446 BC) as best satisfying the scriptural and
extrascriptural evidence, we find that this great event occurred in the early years of
Pharaoh Amenhotep II (1453-1415 BC)." (p. 97. "The Exodus, the People and the
Events."Charles Aling. Egypt and Bible History, From Earliest Times to 1000 BC. Grand
Rapids, Michigan. Baker Book House. 1981)

Professor Hoerth, another Conservative scholar, also identifies Amenhotep II as the

Pharaoh of the Exodus :

"Moses was less than eager to accept the commission but finally, in the company of Aaron
his older brother, he returned to Egypt. Amenhotep II succeeded Thutmose III to the throne
and he, therefore, can be identified as the "pharaoh of the Exodus." (p. 161. "Joseph and
Moses in Egypt." Alfred J. Hoerth. Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids,
Michigan. Baker Books. 1998)

Could the building of a city called Ramesses be an anachronism ? That is to say, the city of
Avaris was built either in Hyksos times or under Ahmose I through Amenhotep II, then
abandoned in the 15th century BCE ? Avaris being called Ramesses in the Bible is
because Pi-Ramesses was nearby at Qantir and Avaris came to be a suburb, the final
version of the story being crafted circa 562 BCE in the Exile ? The problem ? Biblical
traditions have Moses confronting the Pharaonic court not at Rameses but at Zoan, which
was not a Pharaonic capital until under Smendes ca. 1060 BCE. Clearly, the biblical
account is "muddled" like Manetho.

If an Exodus is correctly being recalled under Amenhotep II, who are the settlers of Iron I
Canaan and Transjordan, identified by many scholars with the Israelites? If the settlers are
Arameans from northern Syria, then the "Late Bronze Age" Exodus preserved in the Bible
is most likely a Canaanite tradition. The intermarriages which occurred later in Iron I
between Arameans and Canaanites (cf. Judges 3:1-6) fused two origins stories, one from
Egypt, the other from Transjordan, into one by Iron II times?

Update 19 June 2005:

Rosen on the "absence" of an Israelite Late Bronze Age presence in the Negev:

"The virtual absence of remains from the Middle Bronze or Late Bronze Ages in this area
[the Lower Negeb] and the rest of the Negeb contradict the 38 year Israelite settlement
recounted in Exodus. Similar problems attend virtually all attempts to identify specific sites
(especially Mt. Sinai) in the Central Negeb with places mentioned in Exodus." (Vol. 4.
p.1064. Steven A. Rosen. "Negeb."David Noel Freedman. Editor. The Anchor Bible
Dictionary. New York. Doubleday. 1992)

In addition to Rosen's above observation of an ABSENCE of a Late Bronze Age presence

(1540-1200 BCE) of Israel in the Negev is that field surveys undertaken by the Israeli
Department of Antiquities in the 1970's through 1980's FAILED to find a presence of Israel
in the Hill Country of Canaan from the Galilee to the Negev in the same time period. That is
to say, those scholars arguing for an Exodus circa 1446 BCE on the basis of 1 Kings 6:1
statement of 480 years elapsing from the Exodus to Solomon's 4th year have _no
archaeological proof_ of Israel's presence in these areas. The Galilee to the Negev is pretty
much DEVOID of any human occupation, sedentary or non-sedentary. If Israel settled in
this area under Joshua circa 1400 BCE as maintained by some Conservative Bible
scholars, where's the archaeological proof ?

This area -Galilee to the Negev- however, is extensively occupied beginning with Iron IA
(circa 1230-1150 BCE). Seeking "archaeological proof" of the Bible's portrayal of Israel
under Joshua, seizing and controling the Hill Country of Canaan from the Galilee to the
Negev, most archaeologists understand this occured in Iron IA, as suddenly over 300+
villages and hamlets of stone appear in this region and in Moab too.

Is there a "way out" for Conservative scholars ? Perhaps. They "might" argue that from
1400 to 1200 BCE Israel dwelt in tents which leave no traces of an occupation, and for
unknown reasons, circa 1200 BCE, Israel began building hamlets and villages of stone.
The problem ? Why would Israel wait almost 200 years before building villages ?

Professor Finkelstein on the ABSENCE of an extensive Late Bronze Age presence in the
Hill Country of Canaan from the Galilee to the Negev:

"However Late Bronze Age sites are virtually absent not only in my own southern Samaria
survey, but also in the surveys which have been carried out in the Galilee (Frankel 1994;
Gal 1992:56), in the the hill country north of Jerusalem (Finkelstein and Magen 1993) and
in the Judaean hills (Ofer 1994). In all these regions, which were surveyed by different
teams, hundreds of survey days have revealed very little evidence for sedentary sites of
this period, and almost no evidence for non-sedentary activity." (p. 25. "The Archaeology of
Nomads, Survey Methods." Israel Finkelstein. Living on the Fringe, the Archaeology and
History of the Negev, Sinai and Neighboring Regions in the Bronze and Iron Ages.
Sheffield, England. Sheffield Academic Press. 1995, 2001)

For a more detailed account of the "absence" of a Late Bronze Age presence in the lands
allotted the Tribe of Benjamin please click here.

Stager found fault with Finkelstein's notion that Nomads wandering the periphery of
Canaan settled down to become Israel in Iron I and become sedentary. His concern was
that the archaeological data suggested a massive influx of peoples and he couldn't accept
that such numbers could come from the impoverished Late Bronze Age Canaanite city-
states or Nomads wandering about on Canaan's periphery.

Stager provides more details on the number of Late Bronze Age vs. Iron Age sites and the
estimated populations:

"The Israeli archaeologist [Finkelstein] has adapted and updated Alt's nomadic hypothesis
to explain the hundreds of new settlements that have been recorded in archaeological
surveys. But it is difficult to believe that all of these new founded, early Iron I settlements
emanated from a single source, namely, sheep-goat pastoralism. In symbiotic relations the
pastoral component rarely exceeds 10 to 15 percent of the total population. Given the
decline of sedentarists in Canaan throughout the Late Bronze Age, it seems unlikely that
most of the Iron Age settlers came from indigenous pastoralist backgrounds." (p. 139.
Lawrence E. Stager. "Forging An Identity, The Emergence of Ancient Israel." M.D. Coogan,
editor. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. New York. 1998)

"In the nine areas surveyed, 88 Late bronze Age sites occupy a built-up area of more than
200 hectares (500 acres), for an estimated total population of about 50,000. In the same
areas there are 678 Iron Age I settlements, each site being a hectare or less, for a total of
about 600 hectares (nearly 1,500 acres), with an estimated 150,000 inhabitants...633 or
93% of these Iron Age I sites are new foundations, usually small, unwalled villages. Most of
these new settlements are located in the highlands or plateaus on both sides of the Jordan
river. Settlement is especially dense in the territories of Manesseh and Ephraim in the west
and in Gilead and Moab in the east, both "frontiers" having been sparsely settled in the
Late Bronze Age. This extra-ordinary increase in occupation during Iron I cannot be
explained only by natural population growth of the few Late Bronze Age city-states in the
region: there must have been a major influx of people into the highlands in the 12th and
11th centuries BCE." (p.134. Lawrence E. Stager. "Forging An Identity, The Emergence of
Ancient Israel." M.D. Coogan, editor. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. New York.
Oxford University Press. 1998)

Did the Exodus Never Happen?

How two Egyptologists are countering scholars who want to turn the Old
Testament into myth.

Kevin D. Miller

http://www.tby.org/tbyu/Miller_DidTheExedus.htm

T
" he actual evidence concerning the Exodus resembles the evidence for the unicorn,"
writes Baruch Halpern of Pennsylvania State University.

"The Book of Joshua is of no historical value as far as the process of settlement is

concerned," contends Volkmar Fritz, director of the German Protestant Institute of
Archaeology in Jerusalem.

"The period of the patriarchs, exodus, conquest, or judges as devised by the writers of
Scriptures…never existed," declares Robert Coote of San Francisco Theological
Seminary.

The Genesis and Exodus accounts are "a fiction written around the middle of the first
millennium," states Niels Peter Lemche at the University of Copenhagen, and, "The
David of the Bible, David the king, is not a historical figure."

Welcome to the intellectual world of the biblical minimalists, a new breed of radical
scholars who would turn Abraham, Joseph, Moses, and even King David into legends
and myths by the stroke of their pens. As far-out as their pronouncements may sound,
their work is filtering its way into our world through seminary textbooks and media
soundbites. The effect is a wholesale rejection of the Bible's accounts of Israel's
origins—a matter of no small concern to believing Jews and Christians.

Answering these skeptics, however, is not always so easy as one might expect. The fact
is that not one shred of direct archaeological evidence has been found for Abraham,
Isaac, or Jacob or the 400-plus years the children of Israel sojourned in Egypt. The same
is true for their miraculous exodus from slavery. And remember those reassuring
Sunday-school stories about archaeologists finding Jericho's walls lying outward just as
the Book of Joshua suggests they fell? It turns out that the most respected archaeologist
to dig at Jericho earlier this century, Kathleen Kenyon, differed.

But before anyone scribbles "Fiction" over the title page of the Old Testament, some
scholars want to tell another side to the story, one that Kenneth Kitchen, James
Hoffmeier, and a handful of others are meticulously piecing together. Through top
university presses and in academic conferences, they are exposing a fundamental
problem with the conclusions of the biblical minimalists: the skeptical, narrow lenses
through which they read the Bible serve them a bit too conveniently—allowing them
not only to dismiss uncritically the historical value of the Bible's texts but also to avoid
certain bothersome details that get in the way of their own accounts of the origin of
Israel.

Back to the future

In one respect, the current skepticism is nothing new. As early as the eighteenth century,
some scholars using the then-new methods of higher criticism had dismissed the early
biblical accounts as legends. By the end of the nineteenth century, Julius Wellhausen
had unified decades of theorizing about the authorship of the Pentateuch into his now-
famous (slightly modified) Jahwist-Elohist-Priestly-Deuteronomist grid. Known as the
Documentary Hypothesis, this theory claimed to detect four different authors or
documents behind the "Books of Moses." By distinguishing these various sources, one
could understand the development and progress of Jewish religion from its primitive
nomadic origins through the era of the Prophets onward to a religion of the Law. Thus,
instead of believing the Law was given to Moses on Mount Sinai in the second
millennium B.C., Wellhausen thought it was composed after the Jews had returned from
their exile in Babylon only 450 years before Jesus.

Though discounting the stories of early Israel is not new, the rise of the current
skepticism is surprising because of what came between the Wellhausens of the past
century and the Lemches of the present decade: the moderating influence of William
Foxwell Albright, the "dean of biblical archaeology."

When Albright was born in 1891, Wellhausen's theory had already become the reigning
orthodoxy in Old Testament studies. Later, as an established professor of Semitic
languages at Johns Hopkins University, Albright recalled that as a young student he had
absorbed the assumptions of higher critics like Wellhausen and had held to an "initially
rather skeptical attitude toward the accuracy of Israelite historical tradition." However,
while taking part in archaeological digs in Palestine as a graduate student, his
skepticism "suffered repeated jolts as discovery after discovery confirmed the historicity
of details which might reasonably have been considered legendary."
Albright came to suspect scholars like Wellhausen who built grand theories on textual
speculation. He saw little use in surmising, for example, whether the children of Israel
had conquered Canaan. To know, one needed to dig and see if there existed the layers of
destruction that would correspond to an Israelite conquest. Empirical facts, not abstract
theory, held the answers.

Perfecting modern excavation techniques, Albright and others discovered cities in Judah
whose destruction layers seemed to support the biblical accounts of the Babylonian
exile. Pottery inscriptions revealed the existence of a Sea People called the Philistines.
And thirteenth-century devastation layers at a site believed to be biblical Bethel were
interpreted by Albright's student G. Ernest Wright to be the work of Joshua's army.

Eventually, even many liberal scholars began to accept the general outline of biblical
history proposed by the "Albright-Wright synthesis." So influential in the middle years
of this century was their biblical archaeology, as it came to be called, that as recently as
1981 Old Testament scholar John Bright could state, "There can really be little doubt
that ancestors of Israel had been slaves in Egypt and had escaped in some marvelous
way. Almost no one today would question it."

"We've given up the patriarchs"

Open up the popular magazine Biblical Archaeology Review today and you will find
almost everyone questioning the Exodus account and a lot of the other biblical stories as
well. In the July-August 1997 issue, a curious exchange takes place between Niels Peter
Lemche and Thomas Thompson, on the biblical minimalist side, and two challengers to
the minimalist position, William Dever and P. Kyle McCarter. What is revealing in the
dialogue are the defensive tactics taken by one of the moderates, Dever, a professor at
the University of Arizona and a leading authority on Syro-Palestinian archaeology (he
long ago rejected the term "biblical archaeology").

"I agree with you that [the Book of] Joshua has little to do with any historical events,"
he says at one point. "If you guys think I—or the Israeli archaeologists—am looking for
the Israelite conquest archaeologically, you're wrong. We've given that up. We've given
up the patriarchs." After Dever has defended the likelihood of a united monarchy under
David and Solomon (which is part of what makes him a moderate) and is attacked by
Thompson for his motives in searching for and finding a gate at Gezer thought to have
been built by Solomon, Dever retorts: "Tom, I don't care in the least whether Solomon
ever existed. I'm probably more of a disbeliever than you. I don't really care about the
tradition. I don't believe any of the myths." Finally, after having endured Thompson's
innuendoes and attacks throughout the debate, Dever exclaims in sheer exasperation: "I
do resent being called a fundamentalist."

What is it that turns a William Dever into a "fundamentalist" for seeing an association
between a gate and the biblical account of Solomon? The answer, says James Hoffmeier
of Wheaton College in Illinois, is summed up in one phrase: the hermeneutics of
suspicion. If Albright had been able to convince a generation of scholars that the Bible's
account of Israel's origin could be matched in general terms to the evidence from the
digs, it was because the Bible was still considered "innocent until found guilty." The
undoing of the Albright antidote to Wellhausen skepticism came when people like
Lemche and Thompson began insisting that the Bible stories should be viewed as fables
until indisputable evidence proved them to be historical. The accounts were now seen as
fictional until proven factual, guilty until proven innocent.

This virulent neoskepticism has proven exceptionally resistant to anything smacking of

a "fundamentalist" interpretation, and its proponents have set about revising what they
believe was the Albright school's overeager attempts to identify discoveries as biblical
events when other events in Near Eastern history could account for them just as well or
better. For the minimalists, the paradigm shift has left the Bible largely irrelevant and
the fight over the Bible's historical value passé.

Answering the minimalists

But the battle for Jericho, the Exodus, and the other stories of Israel's origins isn't over
yet, say Hoffmeier, who has just published a monograph titled Israel in Egypt with
Oxford University Press, and Kenneth Kitchen, a veteran ancient-languages expert at
the University of Liverpool in England. It is just the beginning of round three.

In countering the revisionist history, these two bring something to the fight that Lemche
and Thompson and most of the radical minimalists (with the exception of D. B.
Redford) don't have: the credentials of being Egyptologists in addition to backgrounds
in biblical studies and Syro-Palestinian archaeology. Using their unusual expertise, they
are pointing to discoveries that, vis-à-vis the minimalist pronouncements, show the
historical plausibility of the following Bible stories:

Father Abraham. The Bible says God called Abraham out of Ur of the Chaldeans
(modern Iraq) and led him to the land of Canaan (modern Israel). From his descendants
arose the 12 tribes of Israel. These Semitic-speaking, Asiatic people migrated to Egypt,
returning only 400 years later to settle Canaan, the land promised to their forefather.

Not so, say the minimalists. One suggests the story is a myth written in the sixth century
B.C. to console the Jews being held in Babylon with the knowledge that they are really
"back home," since "Abraham" had originated from there. And just as God had led their
forefather to Canaan, they too would one day return to the land promised his seed. Seen
this way, the story reflects the circumstances of the middle of the first millennium B.C.,
not the first half of the second millennium B.C.

If so, asks Kitchen, how does one explain the following odd coincidences:

• Abraham—if he existed—would have lived sometime between 1800 and 1600

B.C. (using the late Exodus dating based on the death of Pharaoh Rameses II in
1213 B.C. and Exodus 1:11, which says that the children of Israel built the city
of Rameses). Why, then, does the Genesis 14 account of Abraham defeating a
coalition of kings from the east fit so well the geopolitical conditions of that—
and only that—era?

Before that time, the region of Mesopotamia was closely governed by the dynasties of
Ur, and after that time, the empires of Babylon and Assyria controlled the region. Only
during the first half of the second millennium could kings of small city-states have
roamed the countryside, as did the potentates Abraham encountered, looking to expand
their domains.
 • Abraham, and later Isaac, made a treaty with King Abimelech, and Jacob made a
treaty with Laban. "I have over 90 documents [of ancient treaties and covenants]
to compare from 2600 B.C. down to 600 B.C.," Kitchen told CT, "and so there's
no room for mistake here." The treaties, he explains, take distinctive forms over
the centuries, with oaths and curses and stipulations being presented in different
orders and being given different emphases. The ones with Abimelech and Laban
fit precisely the structure of treaties from the middle of the second millennium—
but neither later nor earlier ones.

• The names Yitzchak (Isaac), Ya'akov (Jacob), Yoseph (Joseph), and Yishmael
(Ishmael) all begin with something linguists call the "Amorite imperfective."
From studying lists of thousands of names found from the third millennium and
later, Kitchen shows that 55 percent of the names during the time of the
Patriarchs begin with an i/y sound, but already "by 1500 the whole thing drops to
a tiny percentage and never ceases dropping after that." Where, Kitchen asks,
did the fiction writers of the middle first millennium B.C. get these names if they
were composing their biblical novellas a thousand or more years after the names
had fallen from popular use?

• Kitchen asks the same question about Genesis 37:28, which states that Joseph
was sold by his brothers to slave traders on their way to Egypt for 20 silver
shekels. Tracking the price of slaves sold from 2400 B.C. to 400 B.C. using
extrabiblical sources, he finds that this amount matches exactly the going price
in the eighteenth century. Steady inflation had driven it up to 30 shekels by the
thirteenth century (which corresponds to Exod. 21:32), 50 shekels in the eighth
century (which corresponds to 2 Kings 15:20), and to nearly 100 shekels soon
after the Exile in the sixth century.

Joseph in Egypt. Is it realistic to think that a Semitic-speaking foreigner like Joseph,

and later Moses, could have risen to the highest levels of Egyptian government?
Hoffmeier answers by pointing to an Egyptian tomb discovered in Sakkara, Egypt, in
the late 1980s. It contains the coffin of a Semite named Aper-el along with the coffins
of his wife and children. His titles include "vizier," "mayor of the city," "judge," "father
of god," "child of the nursery."

Hoffmeier points out that Aper-el's name was the first of a high-ranking, Semite official
to be found there, even though Sakkara has been excavated and explored for more than
a century. "If such a high-ranking official as Vizier Aper-el was completely unknown to
modern scholarship until the late 1980s, despite the fact that he lived in one of the better
documented periods of Egyptian history [fourteenth century], and was buried in
arguably the most excavated site in Egypt, it is wrong to demand, as some have, that
direct archaeological evidence for Joseph should be available if he were in fact a
historical figure." This is even more the case, he says, because Joseph lived during a
period when surviving Egyptian documents of any kind are sparse and because Joseph
operated in the Nile Delta, an area that remains "underexcavated" to this day.

Joseph's high ranking becomes even more plausible when considering the regular
migrations and imperial transactions that occurred between Canaan and Egypt, as seen
in the following discoveries:
 • The Wisdom of Merikare and the Prophecy of Neferti, ancient Egyptian
documents, report influxes of thousands of Semites into the Nile Delta between
2200 and 2000 B.C. Similar patterns of settlement recurred over the next
thousand years, creating a "significant Asiatic population" in the Delta region,
says Hoffmeier. The Merikare document explains that these Asiatic, Semitic-
speaking peoples, like Jacob and his sons, had come to the fertile Delta area in
search of food during times of famine.

• For several periods in its history, Egypt's empire expanded into surrounding
regions, including Canaan. During these times, young men and boys from those
provinces were brought to Egypt to be trained in the pharaoh's ways and later
sent back home as regional rulers who were loyal to the pharaoh. Also, a study
on foreign children reared in the pharaoh's nurseries during the eighteenth
dynasty shows that some of these children became court officials, and that a few
eventually attained high government posts. The similarities to the stories of
Joseph and Moses (and Aper-el) are obvious.

• For two centuries ending in 1550 B.C., a foreign Asiatic people called the
Hyksos actually ruled Egypt. After their expulsion, the new pharaoh extended
his rule into Canaan and Syria, transporting back to Egypt many prisoners of
war. In an address to the meeting of the Institute for Biblical Research last year,
Hoffmeier explained that he believed that "after the expulsion of the Hyksos
ruling and military elite, Pharaoh Ahmose and his successors discovered large
numbers of Semitic-speaking peoples, including the Hebrews, in the Delta, who
were subsequently forced to work alongside the POWs. This shift in status from
being tolerated immigrants to an enslaved population described in Exodus 1:8
may represent the transition from the Hyksos period to the eighteenth Dynasty.
It is worth noting that the practice of using forced labor for building projects is
only documented for the period 1450 to 1200, the very time most biblical
historians place the Israelites in Egypt. The realization that there were others
enslaved along with the Hebrews may explain who the 'mixed multitude' of
Exodus 12:38 are who joined the 'freedom train.' "

Moses and the Exodus. It is simply too fantastic, say the minimalists. The ten plagues,
a million-plus runaway slaves traversing a desert, the miracles—all of these put the
story squarely in the realm of fable and legend. Furthermore, how could the children of
Israel escape from Egypt and the pharaoh's army be destroyed without getting recorded
in Egyptian annals?

In answer to the latter question, Hoffmeier agrees with his critics: such a momentous
event would not have transpired without being recorded. But recorded where?

"I don't know of any surviving papyrus documents from Egypt's Delta," says Hoffmeier.
"It's too wet. And papyrus [made from the reed-like plant of the same name] is where
most of the records were kept. The inscriptions that we see on statues and temple
fa ades tend to be propagandistic, what-we-want-you-to-know messages. And where
papyrus records have survived, they tend to be from the desert areas. So we have very
few of the day-to-day court records of 3,000 years of Egyptian history."
While direct evidence for the Exodus is missing, the following circumstantial evidence
supports viewing the Exodus as a historical event rather than a late, fictive legend:

• In a surviving Egyptian document called Leiden Papyrus 348, orders are given
to "distribute grain rations to the soldiers and to the 'Apiru who transport stones
to the great pylon of Rames[s]es." This brings to mind Exodus 1:11, which says
the Hebrews "built supply cities, Pithom and Rameses, for Pharaoh." While
hotly debated, 'Apiru is believed by some scholars to refer to the Hebrews, the
'Ibri. If a future discovery of an inscription could link this word to the Hebrews,
this document would prove to be our first direct extrabiblical reference to the
children of Israel in slavery in Egypt.

• Recent discoveries of military outposts on a road leading from Egypt into

Canaan, built by Pharaoh Seti I and earlier kings in the thirteenth century B.C.,
shed new light on why a northern route for the Exodus would have meant war
for the Israelites. Exodus 13:17 states: "When Pharaoh let the people go, God
did not lead them by way of the land of the Philistines, although that was nearer;
for God thought, 'If the people face war, they may change their minds and return
to Egypt.' " Instead, the Bible explains, "God led the people by the roundabout
way of the wilderness."

• While it is virtually impossible 3,000 years later to retrace the footsteps of a

people who escaped over a sand-swept wilderness, an Egyptian letter (Anastasi
III) from guards at a "border crossing" between Egypt and the Sinai helps
explain Moses' insistent cry, "Let my people go!" The text indicates that in the
thirteenth century the Egyptians maintained a tight border control, allowing no
one to pass without a permit. The letter describes two slaves who—in a striking
parallel to the Israelite escape—flee from the city of Rameses at night, are
pursued by soldiers, but disappear into the Sinai wilderness. "When my letter
reaches you," writes the official to the border guard, "write to me about all that
has happened to [them]. Who found their tracks? Which watch found their
tracks? Write to me about all that has happened to them and how many people
you send out after them." Another inscription from the same cache of documents
(Anastasi VI) records that an entire tribe gained permission to enter Egypt from
Edom in search of food.

• If it seems incredible to believe that 600,000 men plus women and children
could have survived as a people in the Sinai wilderness for 40 years, we may be
misinterpreting the number, says Hoffmeier. Hebrew University professor
Abraham Malamat, for one, points out that the Bible often refers to 600 and its
multiples, as well as 1,000 and its multiples, typologically in order to convey the
idea of a large military unit. "The issue of Exodus 12:37 is an interpretive one,"
says Hoffmeier. "The Hebrew word eleph can be translated 'thousand,' but it is
also rendered in the Bible as 'clans' and 'military units.' When I look at the
question as an Egyptologist, I know that there are thought to have been 20,000
in the entire Egyptian army at the height of Egypt's empire. And at the battle of
Ai in Joshua 7, there was a severe military setback when 36 troops were killed.
If you have an army of 600,000, that's not a big setback." In other words, the
head count may have been far fewer than suggested by a literal reading of
Exodus 12:37.
 • While conservative scholars debate an "early" and "late" date for the Exodus
(fifteenth century or thirteenth century B.C.), all but the most skeptical scholars
agree that the Israelites were in Canaan by the year 1208 B.C. This date was set a
century ago with the discovery of the Merneptah Stele. This seven-foot high,
black granite stone contains a victory hymn of Pharaoh Merneptah, which
proclaims, "The Canaan is plundered with every hardship. / Ashkelon is taken,
Gezer is captured, / [and] Yano'am reduced to nothing. / Israel is laid waste, his
seed is no more."

Not surprisingly, the minimalists downplay its significance, claiming it simply refers to
an insignificant early nomadic tribe—a proto-Israel, if you will. But the undeniable fact
is that a pharaoh considered Israel's defeat worth inscribing on stone, and that a people
called Israel lived in Canaan by that time. Just as fascinating are pictorial carvings on a
temple wall in Luxor, Egypt, which Egyptologist Frank Yurco believes depict the
destruction of Ashkelon, Gezer, Yano'am, and the Israelites mentioned in the Merneptah
Stele. If so, the first existing reference to Israel comes complete with pictures of them.

Joshua fit the battle?

By the time the archaeological search arrives in the Promised Land, the rocks and
pottery scraps begin to cry out their history more loudly. Archaeologists love having
more artifacts and inscriptions to study—but how best to interpret a rock's cry? Often,
the interpretation ends at the very place the interpreters' prejudices begin.

Such prejudice got Hoffmeier flunked from a class he was taking in the early 1970s in
graduate school. Raised in Egypt as a missionary kid, Hoffmeier found his first year of
graduate studies unsettling, especially in a class where the professor was denying the
history of Abraham in his lectures drawn from a book he was writing on the subject. "I
remember the knots in my stomach when he was lecturing. He said the type of nomadic
way of living in tents and riding on camels didn't fit the second millennium, but it did fit
the first. But when he trotted out all the evidence for the first millennium, he made a
statement in passing that his reason for that position was that texts from the ancient
Near East rarely mention the use of tents."

Made curious by the word rarely, Hoffmeier began noticing numerous references to
nomads from Syria and Palestine using tents in Egyptian texts he was reading for his
hieroglyphics class. To his surprise, he also discovered that his professor had written
extensively on a particular Egyptian text that described nomads and their tents in Syria-
Palestine during the second millennium. "So he knew about this reference to how the
Bedouin lived, but he didn't talk about it," Hoffmeier says. "I realized there's a pattern
here of minimizing evidence that doesn't fit."

Though Hoffmeier failed the course, "not because of my work, but because of what he
knew I stood for," he ultimately had the last say when he published an article—on tents
in the ancient Near East. "Later, I saw him at a wedding," Hoffmeier remembers. "He
walked up to me and said, 'Well, it was a good article on tents. But there are a lot of
other things in the book you haven't really dealt with.' But he conceded on that point
that I was right. It was a great moral victory for me." It also taught Hoffmeier the lesson
"that some of these experts are close-minded people. They're not willing to wrestle with
different views," he says.
A good example of this can be seen in the cover stories Time and U.S. News & World
Report ran in 1995 on how archaeological discoveries confirm and discredit the Bible.
In their sections on the conquest of the Promised Land, both painted a dark portrait of
the historical trustworthiness of the Book of Joshua. Experts were quoted to say that of
the sixteen cities said to have been destroyed by Joshua's forces, only three have been
shown to have been destroyed during a time period that would fit an Israelite
conquest—and Jericho wasn't one of them.

The alleged nonevent at Jericho became the poster child of the skeptics; few questioned
the negative conclusion since it was based on the findings of Kathleen Kenyon, who
excavated Jericho for six years in the 1950s. She believed the site was uninhabited from
1500 B.C. to about 800 B.C., encompassing the very time of the Exodus and the Israelite
crossing of the Jordan River into Canaan. What's for Israel to conquer, this line of
reasoning goes, if nobody's home?

This seemingly bleak assessment can be answered in part by the Bible itself, says
Hoffmeier. Many times scholars claim that the Book of Joshua paints the conquest as
one of burning every city to its foundations. "A careful reading of Joshua shows there
are only three cities that Joshua was specifically said to have burnt with fire—Jericho,
Ai, and Hazor." So when a city lacks an expected destruction level, "we should
remember that to besiege a city does not necessarily mean to destroy a city. To capture a
city may not involve destroying it in such a way that you'd find that destruction in the
archaeological record." What would there be left to settle if everything was destroyed?

Furthermore, literary comparisons of Joshua with other war chronicles of the period
show that the Book of Joshua reflects the rhetorical hyperbole commonly used in such
writings. For example, Joshua 10:20 boasts that Joshua's men had "wiped out" their
enemy, but in the very next phrase begins speaking unself-conciously of "the survivors."

Even archaeologically, the picture is not so bleak as the minimalists paint it to be, says
Hoffmeier. A detailed look at the archaeological finds at Hazor, Ai, and Jericho puts the
foregone conclusions of "uninhabited" and "not destroyed" into perspective.

• One of the three cities under question, Hazor, has, in fact, proven to have been
inhabited and destroyed during the time of Joshua. Already current excavations
have uncovered a palace with a small chapel area. Littered across its floor are
the heads of decapitated statues of Canaanite deities and an Egyptian sphinx
with the name of the pharaoh hacked out. "The palace was destroyed in such an
inferno that many of the mud bricks actually turned to glass," says Hoffmeier.
"No Canaanites would destroy their own deities, and no Egyptians would deface
their monuments." Only the account in Joshua 11:11 of the Israelites burning
"Hazor with fire" fits the evidence.

• "Ai is a little more complicated," admits Hoffmeier. The excavated site thus far
shows that it indeed wasn't inhabited during the time of Joshua and wasn't
destroyed at that time by fire. That is, if this site is, in fact, where ancient Ai was
located. "Part of the problem is that, in the Bible, Ai and Bethel are always
mentioned as being close to each other, and the identification of Ai has been
based on the proposed identification of the site at Bethel—neither of which has
been clearly demonstrated. We may be looking in the wrong place."
 • "Jericho," says Hoffmeier, "is still an open question." Despite the problems it
poses, there is archaeological agreement on three important points that
correspond directly with the biblical record: Jericho was destroyed violently
sometime in the second millennium B.C.; it was occupied briefly and partially
during the period of the Judges (a small palace from that period has been
identified); and it was rebuilt completely in the days of King Ahab in the ninth
century. The point of difference is over exactly when that first destruction
occurred, and by whom.

Kenyon dated Jericho's destruction to 1570 B.C., when the Egyptians kicked the Hyksos
out of their land and pursued them north to Jericho and beyond. But while her early
findings were published in journals and in a popular book on the subject, only recently
has the technical report of her excavations been completed and published. By studying
it in detail, Bryant Wood, director of the Associates for Biblical Research, discovered
evidence in her findings that sometimes contradicts Kenyon's own conclusions.

For example, one type of pottery she had unearthed was made for a limited time in the
late fifteenth century—150 years after Kenyon's 1570 B.C. date of destruction. And
seals were found for pharaohs from 1570 to as late as Amenhotep III, who died in 1349
B.C. Contrary to Kenyon's conclusions, these artifacts make dating Jericho's destruction
feasible between the fifteenth and thirteenth centuries when most conservative scholars
believe the Exodus occurred.

• The Bible says the Israelites crossed the Jordan River on dry ground and then
besieged Jericho, seeing its walls fall after they had marched around it seven
days. Wood finds this credible even in terms of natural causes (which God
controlled for his purposes), given the seismological activity in the region. In an
intriguing article in Biblical Archaeology Review, he cites Stanford University
geophysicist Amos Nur, who documents a 1927 earthquake and mudslide in this
century "that cut off the flow of the Jordan." Nur adds: "Such cutoffs, typically
lasting one to two days, have also been recorded in A.D. 1906, 1834, 1546, 1267,
and 1160." In the 1927 quake, writes Wood, "a section of a cliff 150 feet high
collapsed into the Jordan near the ford at Damiya, blocking the river for some 21
hours." Perhaps, he suggests, the collapse of Jericho's walls resulted from an
aftershock to the earthquake that blocked the Jordan River and allowed the
Israelites to cross into Canaan.

Fools with spades

Despite the current revisionist work, Hoffmeier and Kitchen are confident the future
will side with those who take the Bible's history seriously. As seen with the three
recently discovered "House of David" inscriptions (see "King David Was Here," p. 49),
archaeologists keep unearthing objects straight from the world of the Bible. Almost
yearly now, seals for the kings of Judah and Israel and surrounding Canaanite nations
are being found. In the last number of years, a twelfth-century B.C. bronze bull and a
sixteenth-century silver Canaanite calf were excavated, illustrating why the Israelites
were constantly warned against idol worship.

In 1979 a silver scroll from the seventh-century B.C. was found in a cave near
Jerusalem. Containing the words in Numbers 6:24-26 ("May Yahweh bless and keep
you; May Yahweh cause his face to shine upon you and grant you peace"), it forced
revisionists to explain how their sixth-century B.C. composition date (or even later) for
Numbers squared with a portion of that book appearing a century earlier.

Such discoveries have theological implications, says Hoffmeier. "There is a lot at stake
here. The New Testament interweaves the salvific events of the Old Testament into it in
such a way that Jesus the Passover Lamb loses significance if there is no historical
Passover. And methodologically, there is the issue of how one interprets Scripture. In a
sense we are seeing [with the minimalists] the Old Testament counterpart to the Jesus
Seminar in New Testament studies. Also, what happens in scholarship today may feel
irrelevant, but it soon trickles down into 'this is what the scholars say' in newspapers and
television broadcasts."

For those who find such newspaper reports disturbing, Hoffmeier and Kitchen urge
patience. "The biblical record, when you give it a fair test, fits its world and the world
fits it," says Kitchen. "When scholars say such things as 'We have no evidence,' that
merely means we do not know. Negative evidence is no evidence. It only takes one fool
with a spade to dig up a new inscription and, whoosh!, that 'no evidence' disappears. I'm
just amazed over the 40 years I've been in this business how we keep blundering into
things you didn't expect that tie in with the Scriptures. If something doesn't seem to fit,
the answer is to wait and see, not out of cowardice, not out of escapism, but just to see
what happens when you have fuller evidence."

The Biblical Impact of the Revised Egyptian History

Thomas S. McCall
Professor of Biblical Studies
Bullard, TX

http://www.conservativeonline.org/journals/02_05_journal/1998v2n5_id04.htm

Introduction
In 1995, a book entitled A Test of Time: The Bible—From Myth to History [Century
Publishers, London, 1995] was published in England by David Rohl, which should have
great impact on the study of both Egypt and the Bible. This same book is scheduled to
be published by Random House in July under the title Pharaohs and Kings. It is replete
with documentary evidence, photos, and numerous footnotes. The scholarly weight of
the book appears undeniable. It has, however, been systematically ignored.
My colleague and friend, Dr. David Reagan, who has also studied this book and
corresponded with the author, reports that the few reviews of Pharaohs and Kings that
have appeared do not deal with the issues Rohl raises, but rather attack him personally
because of his lack of academic standing in the field of Egyptology. This article, then,
will take the form of a review of the book, with a view to emphasizing those things that
are of importance to Biblical scholars. I would like very much to examine the responses
of those who disagree with Rohl, but, unfortunately, no significant Egyptologist has
made such a response, as far as I can tell. Because of this, I have no footnotes in this
article, because almost all of the material included here can easily be found by referring
to the sections in which they are discussed in Rohl’s book. I would encourage the reader
to study Pharaohs and Kings for himself, and evaluate the impact that this research
might have on his own understanding of the infallible and inerrant Word of God.
The Fictional View of Bible History
Most of the intelligentsia in the historical and even in the theological arenas do not
believe in the historicity of the Bible, especially the early accounts of Israel before the
Babylonian Captivity. Thus, to them, neither Abraham, Joseph, Moses, Joshua, Saul,
David, Solomon nor the kings of the divided monarchy ever lived. They are fictional
heroes created by the minds of “pious frauds” who lived after the Jewish people
returned from Babylon. These priests and teachers felt that they needed national heroes,
and developed legends about the patriarchs of the nation, much as the Greeks invented
stories about Hercules. Such is the predominant view among the faculties in the ancient
history departments of the major universities and the major theological seminaries of
America and Europe.

The Biblical View of Early Egyptologists

It was not always so. In the last century, many of the world’s leading scholars were
strong advocates of the historical character of the Bible. The archaeologists who
combed over Israel, Mesopotamia, and Egypt in the nineteenth century were looking for
evidences of Biblical history. In fact, their zeal for Biblical history caused part of the
problem we now have in establishing the veracity of the events of the Bible today,
because it was apparently misplaced. The archaeologists early realized how important
Egypt was in confirming the sojourn of the Hebrews in that country from the time of
Joseph to Moses, and afterward, when Israel became a nation in Canaan. Egypt, as well
as Mesopotamia, always had a strong influence over the Jewish nation, as it developed
between the two super powers of the ancient Middle East.
Two famous pharaohs in Egypt’s long history had names that appeared to correspond
to significant names in the Bible. One of them was the great Raamses II, and the other
was Shoshenk. Upon these Pharaohs were hung the entire framework of Egyptian
history. Raamses was understood to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus, primarily because of
the treasure city built by the Hebrew slaves with the same name. The other was
considered to be the Shishak of the Bible, who despoiled the gold out of the magnificent
Temple of Solomon, not long after Rehoboam became king in Jerusalem. Thus, on the
basis of these name identifications, Raamses, Moses, and the Exodus were placed at
about 1290 BC, and Shoshenk and Rehoboam were placed about 350 years later, at 925
BC. This didn’t quite square with the Biblical chronology, which had the Exodus
occurring 480 years before the Temple of Solomon was built, but it was considered
close enough for their purposes.

The Established Chronology Used to Attack

Biblical History
Once these correspondences were made between the respective histories of Israel and
Egypt, though, everything else began to fall apart as the scholars compared the two
accounts. Inasmuch as all that the scholars had to go by for the history of Israel was the
Bible, and Egypt offered contemporaneous history in the ancient stone monuments, the
archaeological evidence was considered more reliable. When the Scriptures described
an event that had to do with Egypt, and there was no archaeological evidence in Egypt
to support it, then the authorities assumed that the scriptural material had no basis in
historical fact, but was mythological in nature.
 There seemed to be nothing beyond the correspondence of the names of Raamses and
Shoshenk that connected Egypt with the early history of Israel. The more the scholars
learned of Egypt throughout this century, the more it became clear to them that
practically nothing described in the Pentateuch or Joshua ever happened. Thus, they
revised the ancient Jewish history into a much reduced concept of some Semitic tribes
that were in Egypt for a while, gradually migrated toward Canaan, and were eventually
assimilated into the hill country that came to be known as Israel. Strange as it may seem
to many Christians, this is the view that is held by almost all the people that hold a
Doctor’s degree in ancient Near Eastern history, whether in secular or theological halls
of learning.

Rohl’s New Egyptian Chronology

Into this intellectual morass steps a young Egyptologist by the name of David M.
Rohl, who has proposed a radical new view of the history of Egypt that could have a
phenomenal impact on biblical history as well. The name of his work is called Pharaohs
and Kings. When his book was published, he was in the process of completing a
doctoral thesis at University College in London. Because of his youth and lack of
stature in the academic world, his theories have not been taken very seriously by many
of the scholars in the fields of Egyptology and biblical studies. Nevertheless, to those of
us who are not so highly trained in Egyptian backgrounds, Rohl appears to present some
very compelling arguments. He has certainly made a great effort to get his views out to
the public, over the heads, so to speak, of the scholarly hierarchy.
Not only has Rohl published his 400+ page book, but he has also produced a
television documentary by the same name, which covers much of the same information.
This was aired over the Learning Channel, and was seen by many viewers in America
and Europe. Even in the documentary, though, it was clear that many of the
archaeological authorities were not convinced by Rohl’s considerable evidences. They
seemed to scoff at the idea that the entire Egyptian history could be turned on its ear by
the research of this one young man.

The Faulty Character of the Established Egyptian

Chronology.
What Rohl has come to believe is that the history of Egypt is completely out of joint,
and must be radically revised. It is important to note that he came to this conclusion,
not from interests in biblical history, but initially from his life-long interest in
Egyptology, and the internal evidence of the monuments. The more he learned about the
pharaonic tombs, the various genealogies, and the recorded astronomical events, the
more he was convinced that the previous assumptions concerning Egyptian history were
seriously flawed. Raamses was not the pharaoh of the Exodus, Shoshenk was not the
Shishak of the book of Kings, and the entire facade built on these presuppositions was
like a house of cards that collapsed, once these foundations were removed.
Having demonstrated how faulty the old chronology was, Rohl began to construct
(on Egyptological evidence) a new history of Egypt. This was his primary goal.
However, when the outline of his new history of Egypt was in place, he was astonished
that many events described in the Bible now had an observable place in the revised
Egyptian history. It all began to fit, where nothing had fit before.
How the Wrong Chronology Affects the
Interpretation of History
I have tried to think of an analogy that would be helpful in understanding what has
happened. Rohl tries to do this with an analogy that has to do with the lining up of
bricks. However, I think a more apt analogy would be the following: Suppose you lived
a thousand years from now, and were a history student. You are given an assignment to
do research about something that happened long before. The story is that Israel was re-
established as a nation, and that the consensus among scholars is that, if it happened, it
must have happened in the Eighteenth Century.
You research the Eighteenth Century, and can find nothing about the restoration of
Israel. There were the American and French Revolutions, King George III, but the
Middle East was in desolation. There was no evidence whatsoever of a state of Israel.
You reach the conclusion, that, if the only time Israel could have been re-established
was the Eighteenth Century, then it never happened. It was a myth! Then you stumble
on some evidence that the restoration might have occurred in the Twentieth Century
instead. This would be totally against the conventional wisdom, but you think the
evidence supports it. As you look into the matter, you see all kinds of reasons to believe
that Israel was restored in the Twentieth Century. World War II, the Holocaust, the
United Nations, the importance of oil in the Middle East, and the evidence of Israel’s
occupation. It all fits.
In a similar way, Rohl found evidence for the Exodus out of Egypt and the first
occupation of the Promised Land by Israel in the 1400’s BC, not the 1200’s BC. Many
other evidences of Israel come to light, once the proper time is located, and lined up
with the revised chronology of Egypt. Such is the genius of what Rohl has done.
It is difficult to overestimate what a great impact Rohl’s discovery can have on
Biblical studies. For those of us who believe the Scriptures are the Word of God, we
know by faith that the historical events actually happened, and need no further proofs.
However, it is somewhat unsettling when all of the teachers of the world say that there
is no evidence whatsoever that the Exodus, Red Sea, or Conquest ever happened. You
would think that such momentous events would have left some mark on the stones and
on the monuments. Alas, up until now, no solid evidence has manifested. Rohl’s
argument is that we have been looking for the right things (biblical history) at the wrong
time. Once the time is straightened out, it develops that there are all kinds of evidences
on and under the ground to support the historical events depicted in the Scriptures.

Why the Established Egyptian Chronology is Wrong

Most biblical students are not well versed in the intricacies of Egyptology, so when
Rohl begins to explain all the problems with the established chronology of Egypt, it
appears very complicated and intricate. Basically, what he is trying to prove is that the
length of time of the reign of the pharaohs before the Seventh Century BC must be
greatly compressed. The famous Raamses II must be moved from 1290 BC to 925 BC
(over 350 years!), and Shoshenk I must be moved from 925 BC to 778 BC (about 150
years). Once these compressions are made, the entire previous succession of pharaohs is
adjusted into an entirely new scenario, which, interestingly enough, corresponds well
with the Biblical paradigm.
How did the unwarranted expansion of time occur in the first place? When the
scholars pegged Raamses with the Exodus and Shoshenk with the plunder of Jerusalem,
as they did over 100 years ago, this left great gaps of empty space in the chronology.
They have tried to fill in these gaps with segments called Intermediate Periods, which
are murky times of decline in Egypt’s history, in which several pharaohs ruled at one
time, and the power of Egypt was greatly reduced. Often the gaps in time were filled
was by sheer speculation, Rohl explains, having little or no basis in archaeological facts.
However, once the chronology was established, it became hardened into the orthodox
academic model, from which very little deviation is allowed.
David Rohl looked at the established Egyptian chronology, and determined the entire
structure had to be dismantled, and a new chronological structure erected in its place.
This new structure was to be based, as much as possible, on observable archaeological
evidence, such as: the many monuments of Egypt, with all their hieroglyphics; the
tombs with their succession of kings; the various genealogies inscribed in several places
throughout the land; and the anomalies and anachronisms that have not heretofore been
taken into account. In addition, astronomical data was utilized, when possible.
Many astronomical events were recorded in the ancient world, including Egypt.
Before the advent of the computer, however, we were not able to do much with the
information. Now we can correlate this material with what we know of observable
current astronomy, and determine with considerable precision the dates on which certain
events in history occurred. Finally, when assumptions had to be made, as they
frequently did, such as the average length of the reign of kings over several hundred
years, a foundation was laid on how the calculations were made. In other words, Rohl
made the attempt to construct his new Egyptian chronology on internal scientific
foundations, with little emphasis on any exterior considerations.

The Apis Bull-gods

Let us look, for a little bit, at the methodology with which he attacks the established
Egyptian chronology. One of his approaches had to do with the Apis bulls. This is one
of the more amazing aspects of Egyptian history. For hundreds of years the Egyptians
chose one particular bull and treated it much like a pharaoh. It was the bull-god. It was
pampered with all that a bull could desire. It was used in ceremonial processions.
Finally, when the bull died, it was buried in a vault and placed in a mausoleum designed
especially for the Apis bull gods. Then it was replaced with another chosen bull, and the
cycle was repeated. Meticulous records were kept on the Apis bulls, and inscriptions
were recorded concerning their births and deaths. The centuries long span of the Apis
bulls was one of the keys Rohl used to demonstrate that the time allotted to the pharaohs
had to be greatly compressed.

The Genealogy of the Royal Chief Builder

Another significant piece of evidence used was the genealogy of the chief builder to
the pharaoh. It appears that, for many hundreds of years, one family served as the chief
builder to the dynasty of the pharaohs. One of the later chief builders inscribed his
genealogy on the face of a rock high up the cliff of a major sandstone quarry. Again, the
probable time for such a genealogy must be compressed by several hundred years from
the chronology proposed by the established view.
The Chronological Anomalies in Egyptian
Archaeology
Yet another evidence is the anomalies that have puzzled scholars for decades, which
suggest that, either the order of the pharaohs’ reigns has become confused, or else
numerous pharaohs reigned as co-regents contemporaneously. One such anomaly was
found in the tombs of two pharaohs who were supposed to be in succession. The
problem is that it is obvious that the tomb of the later pharaoh was built before the tomb
of the earlier pharaoh, if the established chronology is followed. Rohl proposes that the
solution to the problem lies in the fact that the two pharaohs were not successive, but
rather ruled contemporaneously. Perhaps they were co-regents. At any rate, the time
allotted for their two reigns should not be added end to end, but placed along side of
each other. This shortens the time considerably for the reigns of the two pharaohs. If
there were only one of these anomalies, it would not make so much difference in the
chronology, but Rohl shows that there are many of them, enough to make a great dent in
the entire structure of the accepted Egyptology.
We could go into considerable detail about all of the evidences Rohl presents, but
those who are interested can read the book. I fear that most Christians are not concerned
enough about Egyptian history to reason out the intricacies about the succession of
pharaohs and Apis bulls. However, when Rohl had finished, he had a brand new
chronology, much compressed in time, but it could account for most of the known facts
and personages of Egypt’s history, with few gaps. The end result is the construction of a
new Egyptian chronology that corresponds well with and greatly illuminates the
Scriptural texts bearing on Egypt.
What I would like to do for the remainder of this article is explore the Biblical
persons and events that are impacted by this new Egyptian chronology. To our
astonishment, almost every major Bible character from Joseph to Rehoboam find a
corresponding place in the revised Egyptian history, as we might well expect if these
two nations lived side by side for many centuries with much interrelation, as the Bible
indicates.

Joseph
With his new Egyptian chronology, Rohl amazingly not only finds some convincing
evidence of the patriarch Joseph, who had hitherto been missing in the old Egyptian
annals, but professes to have uncovered Joseph’s palace, his tomb, his administrative
building, and even his statue! Not that Rohl actually dug up these items. They were
found by archaeologists over the past several decades, who to this day do not realize
their significance. In the old chronology, these discoveries would have nothing to do
with the time frame of Joseph, and the idea that they could have had anything to do with
the Hebrew patriarch seems preposterous.

The Large Administrative Building at Lake

Faiyum
A large massive building has been known about for a long time, and is situated close
to the artificial lake of Faiyum. This lake is filled by a canal flowing out of the Nile
River. From time immemorial the canal has been called “the Canal of Joseph.” That
would appear to give us our first clue. However, no one has been able to interpret the
meaning of this massive structure, but Rohl observes that it has twelve “departments,”
and could well have been utilized to administer the central district agricultural
disbursements of grain during the seven “lean years” in which Joseph virtually saved
Egypt (and his Hebrew brethren). It took a lot of planning and storage to collect grain
for seven years, and then to distribute it in an orderly fashion. Perhaps this building was
indeed the headquarters Joseph used when he was second only to the pharaoh who
believed this prophet.

The Palace Compound in Goshen

But, when Jacob moved the Hebrew family to Egypt, he settled them in the Land of
Goshen, just south of the east side of the Nile Delta. It would seem that there should be
some evidence of their presence there. According to the old chronology, none exists.
But with the new chronology, evidence abounds all over Goshen. The archaeologists
have thought that the remains of settlements in the Goshen area were somehow related
to a mysterious Semitic occupation about which they know very little.
Rohl believes that these are none other than the villages occupied for centuries by the
Hebrew people. Most of these dwellings are quite modest, but in the midst of the
settlements there are the remains of structures that can only be considered a palace
compound. There are two large residential sections in the front of the main building,
which might have been the dwellings of the two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and
Manasseh. The even larger residential area in the rear could have been the home of the
Vizier of Egypt himself, Joseph and his Egyptian wife. Rohl speculates that this might
have been the retirement residence of Joseph in his later years, as he settled down from
his public service to dwell with his Hebrew brethren.

The Tomb in the Palace Compound

Also in this compound they found a remarkable tomb as well. It had a pyramid shape
for a roof, but was only large enough for one body, although treated with elegant space
and respect. While there was an obvious Egyptian motif, no other important Egyptian
personages had had themselves buried in this style in the midst of the Semitic villages.
Furthermore, there was no mummy found in the tomb. It had been broken into and the
body taken. It was not done like the tomb robbers did the resting places of the
pharaoh’s, however. The removal of the protective stones somehow looked more
methodical, more careful. It is reminiscent of the description of how the Israelites
remembered the request of Joseph that his bones be taken to the Promised Land when
the people returned there. They dutifully removed his bones from his tomb and carried
them to be buried in the new land of Israel.

The Remarkable Statue

That is not all. In the ruins of this tomb at the palace compound there are the
shattered remains of a statue. There are many grand statues in Egypt, but this one is
very peculiar. It is an odd combination of Egyptian and Semitic design. The human
figure is in a seated position with the implements of royal power held in one hand, much
like the seated images of the pharaohs guarding the temples and monuments along the
Nile River. But there the similarity stops. The face and hair are unlike those of the
pharaohs. These are totally un-Egyptian and very Semitic. Also, the clothing draping
the seated figure has several colors. All of these elements appear to portray the
enormously powerful Joseph, who ruled Egypt with compassion, and provided a haven
for his father’s family in a time of great famine and distress.
Yet the statue has been devastated. It is as though it had been destroyed by an angry
mob. It is in pieces strewn over the floor of the tomb. The stone head was chopped with
a sharp tool like an axe. The vicious cleavage of that blow is visible to this day. Rohl
again speculates that this would have been consistent with the angry feelings of the
Egyptians toward the Hebrews, who left the country after it had been virtually destroyed
by the ten plagues that fell upon Egypt, including the death of the firstborn sons.
Rohl is like a voice crying in the wilderness about this evidence of Joseph, though.
The archaeologists who have been working in Goshen for years do not accept his thesis
at all. They think all of these things are of some unknown and mysterious Semitic
origin, and have nothing to do with Joseph or the Bible. It simply is in the wrong time!

Moses
Moses was adopted into the royal family of the pharaoh of his youth, and became
heir to the throne of the greatest superpower of the day. But he threw it all away to be
with the people of God, and lead them out of Egyptian bondage to the very doorstep of
the Promised Land. Up until now, the scholars have told us that Moses left no mark
upon Egypt, and therefore he must have been a figment of the fertile imagination of
much later Jewish scribes. In Rohl’s new Egypt, however, there are indeed some signs
of Moses, and they should not be ignored.

Moses and Pharaoh Khenepheres

In the biblical account, Moses would have been born about 1520 BC, and the Exodus
would have occurred about 1440 BC (much different from the suggested established date
of 1290). The new chronology, arrived at in part through tedious astronomical research,
would have had Pharaoh Khenepheres ruling at the time of the birth of Moses. As
remarkable as it may seem, early Jewish writings from Alexandria, produced a century
or two before the birth of Christ, named Khenepheres as the pharaoh who adopted
Moses. Thus, we have historical and astronomical evidence of this confirmation of the
Biblical events and dates. This is much more substantial than the contrived
establishment view that Raamses is the pharaoh of Moses’s time.

The Mass Graves in Egypt

There is more evidence for Moses, if one looks for him at the right time. Around
1450 BC, the pharaoh of the Exodus would have been Dudimose, in the new chronology.
In his time there have been found mass graves in several places around Egypt. It is
obvious that great numbers of people died at one time of a disastrous plague of some
kind, and the bodies had to be disposed of quickly, with little or no ceremony. Here
again, we see that the new arrangement of Egyptian history not only allows for the story
of Moses and the Exodus, but actually supports it with substantial evidence.
The Mysterious Amalekites
Finally, the new time line helps to explain one of the great mysteries of the Bible and
ancient Egyptian history—the Amalekites. Who were these strange people who were
traveling south through Sinai, while the Israelites, under Moses, were heading north
toward Canaan? The Amalekites have this furious battle with the tribes of Israel, are
defeated by Moses, and are never heard of again. It is obvious that they did not settle in
Sinai. Rohl speculates that they continued on south to Egypt, and became the Semitic
people who dominated Egypt for several centuries, known as the Hyksos. This would fit
well with the new chronology. Also, Egypt would have been relatively easy prey for
the Amalekite/Hyksos hordes, after the nation had been destroyed by plagues and the
army had been annihilated in the Red Sea. Once more, the new Egyptian history
correlates perfectly with the remarkable geopolitical events described in the Word of
God.

Joshua
There is less connection, of course, between the administration under Joshua and the
history of Egypt, inasmuch of all of his work was carried out in the land of Israel.
Where the new chronology assists us with Joshua is in placing his conquest at an earlier
time than the established chronology, at about 1400 BC rather than 1250 BC. Two major
cities that Joshua destroyed were Jericho on the Jordan River and Hazor in the Galilee.
Archaeologists inform us that there is evidence of the destruction of both cities, but it is
too early for Joshua by a couple of centuries!
But that is precisely the point. Joshua lived a couple of centuries before the scholars
thought he lived! Once it is clear that Israel made the conquest of Canaan in 1400 BC, all
the evidence fits. The destruction levels are precisely where they are supposed to be in
both Jericho and Hazor.
This is essentially the impact that the new chronology has on the historicity of the
Joshua conquest. It supports the concept that both the scriptural evidences and the
archaeological evidences of Israel and Egypt are in agreement, and the established
chronology is grossly in error.

King Saul and King David

Can it be that there is some interrelationship between Egypt and Israel during the
time of King Saul and his conflict with the young anointed King David? While the
books of Samuel and Kings relate much about the contact Israel had with the Philistines
and the Canaanites at that time, not much is said about Egypt. It would appear that
Egypt has receded in power and influence at this juncture of history.

Pharaoh Akhenaten and The Tel-el-Amarna

Letters
But Rohl surprises us with his novel interpretations of the Tel-El-Amarna tablets.
Most Christians have never heard of these documents, but they were discovered in
Egypt early this century. They were quickly identified as belonging to the
correspondence library of the eccentric Pharaoh Akhenaten. He was the Pharaoh who
led a religious revolution, in which he put aside all the pagan gods of Egypt except Re,
the sun god. In a sense, he tried to create a pagan monotheism. This caused
considerable disruption in the land, with great resentment among the priests of the other
numerous deities of Egypt. Akhenaten also was content to withdraw from the military
demands of the vast Egyptian empire, which stretched from Lybia, to the Sudan, and
north toward Mesopotamia. He would rather enjoy the religious culture he created and
the companionship of his beautiful wife, Nefertiti.
As a result, the pharaoh’s isolationist policies led to considerable unrest in the
outlying areas of the empire, especially where the Egyptian allies were being threatened,
as by the Philistines and the Canaanites. These outposts of Egypt were alarmed about
the military incursions they were experiencing and, in the letters discovered in Amarna,
complained to Pharaoh Akhenaten about the difficulties they were having. They
frequently requested military assistance, but were apparently disappointed in the
lackadaisical response from the Egyptian capital.
All of this has been known almost from the time the letters were discovered. The
problem, again, was the timing of the letters and of Akhenaten’s reign. The established
chronology dictates that he lived about 1,400 BC, but the new compressed chronology of
Rohl would put Akhenaten around 1,000 BC, which would make him a contemporary of
King Saul and King David of Israel.

Pagan Monotheism
Once this correlation is made, it is amazing how reasonable the timing would be, and
how well the circumstances fit. For one thing, after Moses, by the power of Yahweh,
had demolished the pagan deities of Egypt a few centuries before, and after Joshua had
led the Israelites to establish a monotheistic state shortly afterwards, it does not seem
quite so unreasonable that an Egyptian monarch might come up with a distorted view of
monotheism for his own people. Also, conditions in Israel, Canaan, and Philistia are
compatible with Pharaoh Akhenaten’s Egypt. Little is mentioned about Egypt in the
historical books of I and II Samuel. Saul and David fought with these enemies
throughout the Land with little or no interference from Egypt. Such conditions would be
similar to those when Akhenaten ruled his empire with a light hand.

Labayu and King Saul

Now, to the letters themselves. Many of them were found in Amarna, the ancient and
short-lived capital of Akhenaten. Most of these are now housed in the Cairo Museum;
some are in the British Museum; others are in various museums of Europe. They are
written in Akkadian cuneiform script, which was the lingua franca of the ancient world
of diplomacy. As already noted above, most of the letters were pleas for assistance from
Pharaoh, which appeared to be largely ignored. The situation, which the outposts
complained about, was caused by someone they called Labayu, the “lion king,” in the
central highlands, whose armies caused constant turmoil, especially for the Philistines.
Rohl has made the great leap of identifying Labayu with none other than King Saul.
This might seem to be quite a stretch at first, but he presents some rather strong
arguments in its favor. These arguments are beyond the scope of this article, but they
are readily available in Rohl’s book.
Not only are the armies of Israel, under Saul, seen as antagonists in the letters,
according to Rohl, but even the renegade band of four hundred under David. They are
referred to as the Habiru, who are described as a roving band of marauders, not greatly
different from the description of David’s group of malcontents described in Samuel’s
books. It is not difficult to consider the Habiru to be Hebrew armed men. They are seen
in the letters to be sometimes a significant threat, but at other times they form a league
with the Philistines. This also corresponds to the temporary alliances David formed with
the King of Gath, while he was eluding the army of Saul.
In so many ways, the conditions described in the Tel-el-Amarna letters reflect a
mirror image of the conditions described in the books of Samuel. I believe Rohl has
proposed a correlation that demands serious consideration by biblical scholars, as well
as those interested in Egyptian history. If one thinks about it, there was no other time
known to us when events were so similar to what we read in both sets of documents.
Before this remarkable interpretation by Rohl, the Tel-el-Amarna letters were a great
mystery, and neither Egyptologists nor biblical experts could make sense of who
Labayu or the Habiru were who were mentioned in the letters.

Letters from Saul and Ishbosheth to Pharaoh?

There are two of the letters to which Rohl draws our attention. One is a letter from
none other than Labayu himself to Pharaoh, explaining why he recaptured the city that
had been taken from him, understood to be Gibeah. This letter is different from the
others in many respects, and Rohl is convinced that this letter was written by King Saul
himself. He wonders if it could be possible that an actual letter from King Saul has been
on display at the British Museum for all these decades, unknown to it’s curators. The
other letter, Rohl believes, is from Saul’s surviving son, Ishbosheth who for a time
claimed the throne of his father, while David awaited his time to reign. The name used
is not Ishbosheth, but, if pagan name equivalents are used, there are some similarities
that might be plausible. At any rate, the letter does refer to David, Joab, and Jesse by
name. This is remarkable, indeed. Whether or not Rohl has proved his thought
provoking points about these letters, again they require serious consideration.

King Solomon
Of the three kings of the united monarchy of Israel, Solomon is the only one recorded
in the Scriptures as having friendly relations with Egypt. In fact, we are told specifically
that King Solomon married Pharaoh’s daughter, much to the chagrin of those in Israel
who believed in being faithful to the Lord. When Solomon wanted to honor her by
building a palace just for her in Jerusalem, he was required to construct it outside the
city, so that it would not pollute the city in which the holy Temple of the Lord was
located.
Rohl believes his new chronology accommodates this circumstance well, as the
pharaoh in Egypt at the time of Solomon, around 960 BC, would have been a general,
who was able to usurp the throne. There is evidence that this Pharaoh-general married
another of his daughters to a Hittite king; this might have been a custom he used for
diplomatic reasons. It could have bought him some international tranquillity, so that he
could shore up his presumably shaky hold on the throne of Egypt.

Evidence of Pharaoh’s Daughter, Queen of Israel

In his search for evidence of Pharaoh’s daughter in Jerusalem, Rohl thinks he has
found it in the environs of the Garden Tomb, the beautiful area Protestants flock to in
the Holy City, as a possible site of the death and resurrection of Christ. Here has been
found the capital of a pillar that is identified as distinctly Egyptian. Across the alley, on
the grounds of the Ecole Biblique, archaeologists have located other ancient Egyptian
artifacts, which are rare in Jerusalem. Rohl is convinced that this may well be where the
palace of Pharaoh’s daughter was located, outside the city in King Solomon’s day, a
good distance from the Temple.

Evidence of Solomon in Megiddo

The Scriptures also say that Solomon built fortified cities throughout Israel, including
Megiddo. One of the most beautiful finds made in the extensive excavations of
Megiddo during this century is a lovely ivory blade, engraved with magnificent art
work. Depicted on the ivory is an apparently royal scene, with the queen offering a cup
of refreshment to her king. It is similar to royal art work found in Egypt. The
archaeologists have never identified this king with Solomon, because the ivory piece
comes from the prosperous Bronze Age, and they are certain that, if Solomon reigned at
all, it was in the more austere Iron Age. But with the new chronology, Solomon would
have indeed been in the Bronze Age, a fitting time for the most prosperous and
extensive builder during the Israeli monarchy.
Once again, the revised chronology comes alongside the biblical presentation and
finds correlation with the parallel events in Israel, as it relates to the majestic reign of
King Solomon.

Rehoboam
As divine providence would have it, when Israel began to decline in power after
King Solomon, Egypt began to consolidate its power and renew it empirical ambitions.
Rehoboam succeeded Solomon, and decided to oppress his own people with increased
labor and taxation. The northern tribes took this occasion to secede from Jerusalem, and
formed their own government under Jeroboam. From then on there was the divided
kingdom of Judah and Israel.
The northern tribes were not the only ones to take advantage of the situation in
Jerusalem. Egypt arose out of its neutrality and took the occasion to attack Jerusalem
under Pharaoh Shishak. According to the Scriptures, Shishak besieged Jerusalem, but
did not militarily destroy the city. Instead, Shishak took all the gold out of the Temple
of Solomon, thus greatly impoverishing Jerusalem. This is an important event in the
joint histories of Israel and Egypt, and many scholars agree that this occurred around
925 BC.

The Identification of Shishak with Raamses II

The question arises as to who was Pharaoh Shishak? No pharaoh by that precise
name appears in the annals of the rulers of Egypt. Over a century ago, scholars assumed
that Shishak was Shoshenk I, a famous pharaoh, who was known for his military
exploits. This identification of Shishak with Shoshenk I became a lynch pin of the
established chronology, and locked Egyptologists in a scenario in which they had to
explain the gaps between the Shoshenk event and the other major assumption, which
was the identification of the pharaoh of the Exodus with Raamses II. Once these
identifications were settled in the halls of learning, they have not been seriously
challenged until Rohl’s book was published. Rohl challenges both identifications, and
proposes that the Shishak of the Bible is none other than the famous and powerful
Pharaoh Raamses II.
 This is one of the most remarkable identifications Rohl has made, and one that raises
the eyebrows of the establishment Egyptologists considerably. One thing Rohl must do
is show how the name Raamses became Shishak, which, at first glance, appears quite a
stretch. He goes to great lengths to demonstrate that Shishak was a nickname and
popular name for Raamses. If this is accurate, it has enormous implications for the
chronology of Egypt. If Raamses II is, in fact, Shishak, it means that Raamses must be
moved in time from about 1290 BC to 925 BC, a transition of over 350 years! This is no
minor matter. To transpose Raamses II from Moses to Rehoboam in correlation between
Egypt and Israel is a massive operation of change in our understanding. These hundreds
of years must be compressed, and that compression explained in such a way as to
become the new accepted chronology.

Raamses II and Jerusalem

After making the name identification of Raamses II with Shishak, Rohl makes some
interesting observations to support the concept that the two are one in the same.
Raamses II was a great military leader and a great builder of monuments. Rohl draws
attention to two particular items that tend to substantiate his claims. One is a stone that
is part of a pylon built by Raamses II, which mentions “Salem” as part of a list of cities
over which Raamses dominated during his reign. This, of course, is one of the ancient
names of Jerusalem, and Rohl understands it to be so. If this is the case, then this is the
only known reference to Jerusalem in all the monuments of Egypt. This would comport
well with the subjugation of Jerusalem by Raamses (Shishak).
One other amazing item is a mural on the wall of one of Raamses’s temples. It
depicts Raamses in his war chariot facing a well fortified city in hilly country. The
inhabitants on the wall appear to be the Semitic king of the city and his queen pleading
with Raamses to spare the city, holding out tribute to Raamses. According to Rohl, this
is a contemporaneous sculptured snapshot of Raamses (Shishak) besieging Jerusalem
and obtaining the vast wealth of Rehoboam’s predecessor, Solomon. Such wealth, by
the way, would provide Raamses the wherewithal for his massive building program that
is evident in several places in Egypt. None of the other cities taken by Raamses were
situated in hilly country, as the city depicted in this mural, and none of the others
suggest that the conquered cities were spared destruction. All of this fits well with the
idea that he attacked the city fortified in hills and spared it for the great tribute he
received, and this is the picture given of Pharaoh Shishak when he attacked Jerusalem.

The New Chronology and Bible History

With the restructuring of Egyptian history, then, based primarily on evidence found
in Egypt itself, the way is open for a broad reconsideration of the correlation between
the land of the pharaohs and the Bible from Joseph to Rehoboam. From the standpoint
of Biblical studies, it is always good to get the mirror image of Biblical events from
non-biblical contemporary sources. It helps to round out the context of the events and
personalities in the times in which they lived, and then get the divine perspective on
these things from the Scriptures.
The question, then, is whether or not the new chronology is accurate. The problem is
that most biblical scholars are not proficient in the intricate discipline of Egyptology,
and we are hardly in a position to pass judgment on various theories about the history of
Egypt. However, the considerable work done by David Rohl appears to be a very
serious effort to rectify some very important difficulties in the established Egyptian
chronology. It seems that this effort deserves far more respect and attention than the
scholarly world has given it up until now. If reputable Egyptologists disagree with
Rohl’s methodology or conclusions, they should explain their objections forthrightly.
I have not been able to find a serious response from the scholarly world to Rohl’s
presentation. Egyptologists are generally ignoring his work, and are apparently hoping
the issues he has raised will go away. What little has been written is usually of a
derogatory nature, asking what a young whippersnapper like Rohl is doing questioning
the scholarship of over a century of painstaking work by leading Egyptologists. Perhaps
those who appreciate the impact this study could have on the understanding of biblical
history can create enough interest in Rohl’s work, that the scholarly world will have no
choice but to investigate his claims and respond in a responsible manner. Such a debate
would be a healthy exercise for all concerned.
exodo la evidencia

Tres de abril de 1993

A petición de Obed, Elis, y Jairo.
Aquí podéis ver un interesante documento
descargado de Internet.
La rueda de oro de un carro de oro.
ÉXODO; LA EVIDENCIA
En nuestra última noticia volante, examinamos la ruta
tomada por Moshe y la gran multitud cuando huyeron
de Egipto. Examinaremos las evidencias que nos dicen
exactamente ahora de quién eran los derechos de autor
egipcios involucrados y la fecha aproximada en la cual
el Éxodo ocurrió. Éste es un asunto que se pone
bastante oscuro y nosotros podremos sólo presentar un
marco desnudo de referencia en esta publicación.
Intentaremos presentar una gran cantidad de
información en corto espacio.

LAS RUEDAS del CARRO

Empezaremos con las ruedas del carro que Ron y su

equipo encontraron en el Golfo de Aqaba. En 1978, en
su primer buceo al sitio, ellos encontraron éstos restos
del carro. Como el Arca de Noah, éstos no estaban en
perfectas condiciones y requirió de un examen
cuidadoso para ver lo que eran exactamente. Estaban
cubiertos de coral lo que hizo difícil verlos claramente
pero aparece que el coral era el agente en el que el
Señor los conservaba.

Ellos encontraron numerosas ruedas - algunas todavía

estaban en sus ejes, y algunas estaban dispersas por el
fondo.

También se encontraron ejes del carro sin las ruedas:

" ...En la vigilia de la mañana el SEÑOR miró hacia el

campamento de los egipcios a través de la columna de
fuego y de la nube, y causó problemas en el
campamento de los egipcios, Y se quitaron las ruedas
de sus carros en las que ellos conducían
pesadamente..." Éxodo 14:24,25

Hasta ahora, esto coincide con la narración Bíblica.

Ellos encontraron varios radios de ruedas, así como
una rueda. Y finalmente, en 1988, Ron encontró la

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exodo la evidencia

rueda del carro con cuatro radios de oro. La razón por

la que esta rueda estaba perfectamente conservada se
deba a que el coral no crece en el oro. La madera
dentro de la "chapa" del oro fue deteriorada lo que la
hizo muy frágil y por esa razón, no se intentadó
recuperar la rueda del agua.
Otra rueda del carro
La importancia de estas ruedas es extrema, pues datan
de la fecha en la que ocurrió el Éxodo y determinando
qué dinastía estaba envuelta. En los años 70, Ron
recuperó el cubo de una rueda que contenía los restos
de ocho radios. Él llevó los restos a El Cairo, a la
oficina de Nassif Mahoma Hassan, el director de
Antigüedades con quienes Ron había estado
trabajando. El Sr. Hassan lo examinó e
inmediatamente loreconoció como de la 18 Dinastía
del Egipto antiguo.

Cuando Ron le preguntó cómo supo esto tan

prontamente, El Sr. Hassan explicó que los ocho radios
de las ruedas sólo se usaron durante la 18 Dinastía.
Esto estrechó la fecha ciertamente. Nosotros
empezamos a investigar el carro egipcio
completamente y pronto descubrimos el hecho de que
Ron y su equipo encontraran ruedas con 4, 6 y 8 radios
en lugares relacionados con el Éxodo alrededor de la
18 Dinastía era una evidencia del Exodo según las
numerosas fuentes, como la siguiente,:

"Las referencias literarias egipcias a los carros ocurren

ya en los reinos de Kamose, el 17 rey de la Dinastía
que tomó los primeros pasos librando Egipto del
Hyksos, y Ahmose, el fundador de la 18 Dinastía. Las
representaciones pictóricas, sin embargo, no aparecen
ligeramente después hasta en la 18 Dinastía...." (De
"las Observaciones en la Rueda del Carro
Evolucionando en la 18 Dinastía" por James K.
Hoffmeier, JARCE #13, 1976)

Aquí, nosotros aprendemos que sólo era al principio de

la 18 Dinastía que el carro entra en uso dentro del
ejército egipcio. La Biblia menciona que en el tiempo
de Joseph, los carros estaban en uso, pero al parecer

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exodo la evidencia

ellos no se desarrollaron tenazmente hasta bastante

después para el uso en la guerra.

El autor sigue para explicar cómo sólo estaban en uso

durante la 18 Dinastía los 4, 6, y 8 radios en las ruedas
y que los monumentos realmente pueden ser fechados
por el número de radios en la rueda:

"Profesor Yigael Yadin mantiene eso durante la parte

más temprana de la 18 Dinastía, el carro egipcio era
`Exáctamente como el carro de Canaanita: ' los dos se
construyeron de madera flexible ligera, con correas de
cuero envueltas alrededor de la madera para
fortalecerlo, y los dos utilizaron ruedas con cuatro
radios.

A los ojos de Yadin, los cuatro radios de la rueda es

diagnóstico suficiente para fechar la época; se restringe
a la parte temprana de la 18 Dinastía. Permanecía en
boga, él dice, hasta el reino de Thutmoses IV, cuando
el carro egipcio empieza a moverse fuera de su
influencia Canaanita y sufrir un cambio considerable.
'

Yadin cree que los ocho radios en las ruedas que se

ven en el cuerpo del carro de Thutmoses IV era un
experimento de prueba egipcio que, cuando se
demostró infructuoso, estableció después de esto la
rueda con seis radios. Tan extendido y meticuloso es la
delineación del número de radios de la rueda en carros
pintados en monumentos egipcios que ellos pueden
usarse como un criterio por determinar si el
monumento es más temprano o después que 1400 BC."

Para más información sobre los carros del ejército

egipcio, vamos a la narración bíblica Bíblica, cuando
Pharaoh y su ejército persiguen a Israel:

"Y él se dispuso su carro, y tomó a su ejército con él:

Y tomó seiscientos carros escogidos, y todos los carros
de Egipto, y capitanes encima de cada uno de ellos."
Éxodo 14:6,7

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exodo la evidencia

Este verso aclara realmente que el Pharaoh tomó cada

carro en Egipto el suyo propio, los de sus generales (o
"Capitanes") y un grupo llamado como "escogido",
carros que parecen ser además un ejército aparte de su
ejército regular ("todos los carros de Egipto"). ¿Qué le
pudo ocurrir e estos "600 carros escogidos"?

Este grupo parece demasiado pequeño para haber sido

una división del ejército. Nosotros no sabemos el
número exacto en un "escuadrón", pero nosotros
tenemos información de que uno de los nombres del
pharaoh, es Rameses II, tenía un ejército de 20,000
tropas que eran colocadas en 4 divisiones. Esto
implicaría que cada división estaba constituida de
5,000

soldados. Pero el ejército que fue a por Israel estaba

constituido muchas veces de algo más que soldados,.
Para conseguir un poco la visión, nosotros necesitamos
entender como era el gobierno egipcio y su economía.

"Los sacerdotes y hombres del ejército defendieron la

posición más alta en el país después de la familia del
rey, y de ellos eran escogidos sus ministros y los
consejeros confidenciales, `El primer ministro o sabio
de Pharaoh, ' y todos los funcionarios principales de
estado." (De "Los egipcios Antiguos - Su Vida y
Aduana" por J. Gardner Wilkinson, 1854, vol.1,
p.316.)

El sacerdocio y el ejército estaban estrechamente

asociados - el gobierno egipcio era una combinación
de "iglesia y estado", por así decirlo. Su sistema de
"dioses" era bastante detallado y nosotros no podemos
aquí presentar una descripción exacta de su sistema
religioso debido a su extensión y complejidad. Pero
para nuestros propósitos, solo necesitamos entender
que había muchos, muchos dioses en el Egipto antiguo
- pero el último "dios" era el representado como el
"sol." Este dios era conocido a lo largo de varios
tiempos como Amon, Aten y Re o Ra, entre otros
nombres. Y era este "último dios" por el que el

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exodo la evidencia

pharaoh fue considerado la "encarnación terrenal" del

dios.

Se nombraron las divisiones del ejército después de los

Egipcios que construyen un carro.
dioses. "el primer ejército fue de Amon, el ejército de
Re, el ejército de Ptah y el ejército de Sutech." Cuando
el ejército partió para guerrear, se realizaron
ceremonias detalladas a los varios templos y piden a
los varios dioses que les fuera concedida la victoria por
encima de sus enemigos. Entonces, el botín que se
ganaba como resultado de las victorias se dedicaba a
los sacerdocios y templos de las deidades. Todas las
victorias militares se atribuyeron directamente al favor
de los dioses.

A veces, los sacerdotes acompañarían el ejército al

campo de batalla en espera que el "el dios(es)"
mostraría favor especial en sus esfuerzos. Y la
evidencia de ello la encontramos cuando Pharaoh y su
ejército partieron después de Moshe y la gran multitud,
pues él tomó a todo el sacerdocio de todos los dioses
de Egipto. Después de todo, él había visto el poder del
verdadero Dios, el grande "yo SOY." Si el ejército
egipcio alguna vez necesitó de la intervención
sobrenatural de sus "dioses" ese, era el mejor
momento. Nosotros creemos que cada sacerdote de
cada dios así como todos los ministros de estado
fueron convocados para acompañar el ejército cuando
persiguieron a Moshe y a la multitud.

Todos esto llevó a a una discusión acerca de las ruedas

de oro de cuatro radios del carro que Ron encontró en
1988. Desde que él lo encontró en el lado egipcio del
Golfo de Aqaba que indicaba que quienquiera que
estuviera manejando esos carros de oro en particular,
se encontraban a la retaguardia del ejército. No tiene
sentido que un sacerdote que no estaba especializado
en la batalla estuviera en esta posición en la
retaguardia del ejército. Tampoco, el carro de oro
habría sido práctico para la batalla - estos carros eran
más "ceremoniales" que aquéllos usados por el
ejército profesional.

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 exodo la evidencia
Estos dibujos son de "Los egipcios Antiguos" de J.
Gardiner Wilkinson, y fue consegudo de tumbas de 18
de la dinastía y otros monumentos. Estos grabados
muestran una pintura de un Retenu (sirio) el carro y
también a egipcios construyendo carros - los dos con
la rueda de la misma manera, con los 4 radios, y además
el mismo tipo de rueda de oro que Ron encontró.
Un carro egipcio
http://www.kolisraelorg.net/koisral_geshershalom/documentos/interes/exodo%20la%20evidencia.htm (6 of 7)29/01/2006 01:50:45 p.m.
También sabemos que a los sacerdotes se les daban
carros de oro, los cuales eran botín de varias derrotas
extranjeras. Hay una inscripción de Thutmoses III (18
Dinastía) qué relata:
"Él fue adelante, ninguno como él, matando a los
bárbaros, golpeando con violencia Retenu, trayendo a
sus príncipes como cautivo vivientes, sus carros
forjados con oro, así como los correajes y vestidos de
sus caballos."
De hecho, nosotros tenemos muchas inscripciones de
los reyes de la 18 Dinastía que reciben carros
extranjeroscubiertos de oro, o como despojos de guerra
o cuando las pueblos conquistados pagaban sus
tributos de esta forma. Hay, también, inscripciones que
dicen que estos carros de oro eran muchas veces
dedicados a los varios templos y dioses lo que significa
que los sacerdotes recibirían estos carros.
Sabemos por las inscripciones que el rey fue a guerrear
en un "carro reluciente" como declara una de las
inscripciones de Thutmoses III - pero, dudamos muy
en serio que él hubiera permanecido en la retaguardia
del ejército. Sin embargo, el Dr. Bill Shea del Instituto
de Investigación Bíblica, nos dijo hace unos días, que
él cree posible que los pharaoh pudieran permanecer a
la retaguardia del ejército.
Con toda esta información, podemos concluir que la
rueda de oro probablemente perteneció a un miembro
de la casta sacerdotal que estaba acompañando al
ejército, o posiblemente alto ministro de estado. Si
hubiera pertenecido al pharaoh, habría tenido su
"marca" probablemente o estaría inscrito su nombre- y
Ron encontró que no tenía esto, por lo menos no en el
lado expuesto. De cualquier modo, hay evidencia en
las tumbas antiguas de que los egipcios construyeron
ruedas de esta forma, y también en los carros sirios las
ruedas eran de esta misma forma y tamaño.
exodo la evidencia

Volver

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 Evidence for the exodus

Many people do not believe the Exodus took place. They often claim that there is no historical
evidence, other than that found in the Bible. But there is evidence of the Exodus as stated by
Grant Jeffrey in his book "Unveiling Mysteries of the Bible". An important Egyptian historical
manuscript was discovered in Egypt more than a century ago.

Remarkably, this ancient papyrus parallels the history of the Exodus account as found in the
Scriptures. This manuscript recorded the writings of an ancient Egyptian named Ipuwer. The
papyrus manuscript, now called the Ipuwer Papyrus, was discovered by someone named
Anastasi in the area of Memphis, near the pyramids of Saqqara in Egypt.

The museum of Leiden in the Netherlands acquired the papyrus in 1828. It was translated and
published in English for the first time in 1909 by Professor Alan H. Gardiner. Gardiner wrote
that the manuscript was one that recorded a genuine historical catastrophe when the whole
country of Egypt was in distress and violence. "It is no merely local disturbance that is here
described, but a great and overwhelming national disaster."

Gardiner suggests that Ipuwer was an Egyptian sage who directed his writing to the king as a
complaint that the national catastrophe was in part caused by the king’s failure to act and deal
with the crisis.

A comparison of several key passages from the Biblical Book of Exodus with the ancient
Egyptian papyrus reveals remarkable correspondences and parallels that point to a real historical
catastrophe.

1. The Plague of Blood

In Ipuwer Papyrus 2:5-6, it says: Plague is throughout the land. Blood is everywhere. Compare
this with the Book of Exodus 7:21: There was blood throughout all the land of Egypt.

In Ipuwer Papyrus 2:10, it says: The River is Blood. Compare with Exodus 7:20: All the waters
that were in the river were turned to blood.

In Ipuwer Papyrus 2:10, it says: Men shrank from tasting...and thirst for water. Compare with
Exodus 7:24: And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink; for they
could not drink of the water of the river.
2. The Plague of Hail

Ipuwer papyrus 9:23: The fire ran along the ground. There was hail, and fire mingled with the
hail. Exodus 9:25: And the hail smote every herb on the field, and brake every tree in the field.

3. The Plague of Darkness

Ipuwer Papyrus 9:11: The land is not light. Exodus 10:22: And there was a thick darkness in all
the land of Egypt.

4. The Plague of Egyptian Cattle

Ipuwer papyrus 5:5: All animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan. Exodus 9:3: Behold, the hand
of the Lord is upon thy cattle which is in the field, upon the horses, upon the asses, upon the
camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep: there shall be grievous murrain (disease).

5. The Plague of the Firstborn of Egypt

Ipuwer Papyrus 2:13: He who places his brother in the ground is everywhere. Exodus 12:27: He
(the angel of the Lord) smote the Egyptians. Ipuwer Papyrus 4:3: Forsooth, the children of
princes are dashed against the walls. Exodus 12:29: At midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn
in the land of Egypt. Ipuwer Papyrus 6:12: Forsooth, the children of the princes are cast out in
the streets, Exodus 12:30: There was not a house where there was not one dead.

6. Response of the Egyptians to the Loss of their First born

Ipuwer Papyrus 3:14: It is groaning that is throughout the land, mingled with lamentations.
Exodus 12:30: There was a great cry in Egypt.

In light of the ample evidence accumulated from ancient Jewish and Greek historians, together
with the Ipuwer Papyrus that parallels several of the 10 Biblical plagues, it is clear that there is
compelling non-Biblical evidence to confirm the scriptural account about the Exodus of the
Jews from Egypt. Further proof of the Exodus is the fact; the Jews have annually celebrated
three great festivals in commemoration of their Exodus (Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles)
for 3500 years. Therefore, logically, the public observance of the Exodus Passover festival can
only be explained if the Jewish people actually participated in these historical events as recorded
in the Torah, the first five books of the Bible.

By George Konig
March 14, 2004
www.konig.org.
LA LIBRE BELGIQUE
http://www.lalibre.be/article.phtml?id=11&subid=118&art_id=265929

SPIRITUALITÉS

La Bible dit vrai

Albert GUIGUI, Grand Rabbin de Bruxelles
Mis en ligne le 31/01/2006
-----------

Les récits bibliques ne seraient-ils que des mythes? Rien n'est moins sûr. Les preuves
manquent? Evoquons donc le «Papyrus d'Ipuwer» face aux dix plaies d'Egypte.

Dans sa livraison datée du 16 décembre 2005, le Vif-l'Express a

publié un dossier intitulé «La Bible: le vrai et le faux». Dans ce
dossier, les articles de fonds visent à prouver de façon scientifique
que les récits bibliques ne sont que des mythes et que rien ne
vient corroborer l'authenticité de ces événements.

Il est dommageable qu'une revue qui se veut objective et à

vocation informative ne donne la parole qu'à l'une des parties. Il
Johanna de Tessières est dommageable que face à ces articles, il n'y ait pas eu d'autres
voies qui pourraient soutenir des thèses inverses. Ainsi le lecteur
aurait pu se faire une idée de façon objective et totalement dépourvue de parti pris.

Dans l'article ayant comme titre: «Les Hébreux ont-ils séjourné en Egypte?», après avoir décrit
sommairement l'histoire du peuple juif sous la domination égyptienne ainsi que la sortie d'Egypte et la
conquête de la Terre promise, l'auteur se pose la question: «Une pure légende? La cité de Pitom
n'existait pas au milieu du Xe siècle avant l'ère chrétienne. Surtout, les archives égyptiennes, qui
consignaient tous les événements administratifs du royaume pharaonique - n'ont conservé aucun
souvenir de cette présence juive. Rien non plus sur l'Exode, qui n'est pas davantage prouvé par les
recherches archéologiques ou épigraphiques...... La fuite des Hébreux vers la Palestine paraît, en elle-
même, peu vraisemblable...»

Face à cet article qui nie de façon absolue et catégorique l'authenticité des récits bibliques, nous
pouvons citer bien d'autres articles de scientifiques qui viennent étayer et conforter les passages
bibliques.

Le professeur américain William Foxwell Albrighth - un savant de renommée universelle, à la fois

théologien, historien, philosophe et archéologue - écrit: «Dans l'état actuel de nos connaissances de la
topographie de la partie orientale du delta, les précisions données par la Bible au sujet du début de
l'exode (Exode, XII, 37; XIII, 20) sont absolument exactes, géographiquement parlant. Nos
connaissances de la topographie et de l'archéologie nous fournissent un grand nombre de preuves du
caractère historique du livre de l'Exode. Il faut que nous nous mettions dans la tête que l'attitude de
scepticisme que certains prennent vis-à-vis des anciennes traditions historiques d'Israël n'est plus
justifiée. Même la date du départ, au sujet de laquelle, on a si longtemps ergoté, peut être à présent
fixée avec des risques d'erreurs minimes...»

Ainsi donc, la bataille entre les scientifiques fait rage. Les controverses quant à l'historicité de ces
événements dans la vie d'Israël n'en sont pas terminées pour autant. Par ailleurs, le manque de preuves
ne témoigne pas nécessairement de l'authenticité d'un fait. Le lecteur méditera tout particulièrement
cette formule énoncée par Vincent Michel: «L'absence de preuve n'est pas la preuve de l'absence». Qui
dit que demain, des chercheurs ou des archéologues ne mettront pas la main sur des fouilles qui
pourraient renverser nos données scientifiques actuelles? A-t-on mis un point final à la recherche
scientifique et archéologique dans cette région du monde?

Dans le cadre de cet article, j'aimerais me focaliser sur un passage biblique qui a fait couler beaucoup
d'encre. Il s'agit des chapitres du livre de l'Exode qui retracent les plaies, prélude à la sortie d'Egypte.

Les dix plaies d'Egypte

Dieu voulant forcer Pharaon à libérer les enfants d'Israël d'Egypte frappa l'Egypte d'une série de
malheurs: les dix plaies. Ces plaies ont-elles existé? N'ont-elles pas existé?

Le Professeur Immanuel Velikovski va éclairer notre horizon d'un regard nouveau. Il utilise pour ce faire
un papyrus appelé «Le Papyrus d'Ipuwer». Velikovski a été frappé par le parallèle qui existe entre les
faits relatés dans ce manuscrit et ceux relatés par le texte biblique. Il analyse ce manuscrit dans ses
livres «Les désordres des Siècles» et «Mondes en collision» et établit un parallèle entre les catastrophes
décrites par le prêtre égyptien Ipuwer et le récit tel qu'il est rapporté dans le livre de l'Exode. Les
ressemblances sont stupéfiantes.

Quelques mots pour expliquer ce qu'est le Papyrus d'Ipuwer. Ce papyrus du scribe égyptien Ipuwer fut
découvert à Memphis. En 1828, le Musée de Leiden aux Pays-Bas acquit ce papyrus et le classa sous le
numéro «Leiden 344». En 1909, il fut traduit et publié à Leipzig par l'un des plus grands égyptologues
anglais, Sir Alan Gardiner, spécialiste de l'écriture hiératique sous le titre: «Les Admonitions d'un Sage
égyptien selon le Papyrus Hiératique de Leiden».

Ce texte constitue la description triste et amère d'événements extraordinaires dont Ipuwer était témoin.
C'est la version d'une grande catastrophe. La description des ruines et d'horreur.

Selon le Professeur Velikovski, qui retrace de nouveau la généalogie des rois d'Egypte, ce papyrus
correspond de façon exacte à l'époque de la sortie d'Egypte, conformément à la date qui est acceptée
par la tradition juive. Le papyrus d'Ipuwer serait donc un compte rendu exact «de ce qui s'est passé».

Nous comprenons dès lors la pression faite par certains scientifiques de ne pas publier l'ouvrage du
professeur Velikovsky même si des scientifiques renommés soutenaient ces thèses.

Afin d'être plus concrets et surtout pour éclairer nos propos, nous reproduisons ci-dessous une partie
des similitudes entre les versets bibliques et la description faite par Ipuwer. Nous reproduisons quelques
points de comparaison sans les explications fournies par le Professeur Walikowski lui-même. Car nous
pensons que cela suffirait pour nous donner une idée claire de l'authenticité du texte biblique...

Exode. VII, 21: «Et il y eut du sang dans tout le pays d'Egypte».

Papyrus 2: 5-6: «La terre est couverte de plaies. Il y a du sang partout.»

Ex. VII, 21: «Le fleuve devient infect»

Papyrus 3: 10-13: «Ce sont nos eaux. Ceci est notre bonheur! Qu'allons-nous faire? Tout est
en ruine!»
Ex. IX, 25: «Toute herbe des champs fut abattue par la grêle, et tout arbre des champs
brisé».

Papyrus 4: 14: «Les arbres sont brisés.»

Papyrus 6:1. «On ne trouve plus ni fruits, ni légumes.»

Ex. IX, 23-24: «Des feux s'élancèrent sur le sol, et le Seigneur fit pleuvoir la grêle sur le pays.
Elle était très forte».

Papyrus 2: 10: «C'est vrai, des portes, des colonnes, des murs ont été dévorés par les
flammes.»

Ex. X, 15: «Et il ne resta plus de verdure soit aux arbres, soit en herbe des champs, dans tout
le pays d'Egypte.»

Papyrus 5: 12: «En vérité, tout ce qui était encore visible hier a péri. La terre est aussi
dénudée qu'après la coupe du lin».

Papyrus 6: 3: «En vérité, la semence a péri de toutes parts.»

Papyrus 6: 1: «Il est impossible de trouver ni fruits ni légumes.»

Ex. X. 22: «Moïse dirigea sa main vers le ciel, et il y eut obscurité de ténèbres dans tout le
pays d'Egypte.»

Papyrus 9: 11 «La terre n'est pas éclairée».

Ex. XII, 29: «Ce fut au milieu de la nuit, et l'Eternel fit périr tout premier-né dans le pays
d'Egypte, depuis le premier-né de Pharaon, assis sur son trône, jusqu'au premier-né du captif
du fond de la geôle, et tous les premiers-nés des animaux..»

Papyrus 4:3: «En vérité, les enfants des princes sont écrasés contre les murs»

Papyrus 6:12: «Les enfants des princes sont précipités dans les rues.»

Ex. XII, 13: «Car il n'y avait pas de maison où il n'y avait pas de mort»

Papyrus 2:3: «Partout on voit ceux qui placent leur frère dans la tombe».

Ex. XII, 30: «Et ce fut une clameur immense dans l'Egypte».

Papyrus 3: 14: «Les soupirs se font entendre dans tout le pays, mêlés aux lamentations».

L'étude comparative du texte biblique et du manuscrit d'Ipuwer montre bien une description similaire
des plaies. Et bien que le Papyrus détérioré ne fournisse aucune référence explicite au peuple d'Israël ni
à Moïse, il décrit selon Verblovski trois phénomènes consécutifs: le soulèvement du peuple, la fuite des
misérables et des pauvres et la mort du roi dans des circonstances inhabituelles. Ainsi les racines de
l'Exode ne sont ni babyloniennes, ni grecques mais bien égyptiennes.

© La Libre Belgique 2006

 The Ten Plagues - Live From Egypt
by Rabbi Mordechai Becher
http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/838

In the early 19th Century a papyrus, dating from the

end of the Middle Kingdom, was found in Egypt. It was
taken to the Leiden Museum in Holland and interpreted
by A.H. Gardiner in 1909. The complete papyrus can be
found in the book Admonitions of an Egyptian from a
heiratic papyrus in Leiden. The papyrus describes
violent upheavals in Egypt, starvation, drought, escape
of slaves (with the wealth of the Egyptians), and death throughout the land. The papyrus
was written by an Egyptian named Ipuwer and appears to be an eyewitness account of
the effects of the Exodus plagues from the perspective of an average Egyptian. Below
are excerpts from the papyrus together with their parallels in the Book of Exodus.

(For a lengthier discussion of the papyrus and the historical background of the Exodus, see Jewish Action,
Spring 1995, article by Brad Aaronson, entitled When Was the Exodus? )

IPUWER PAPYRUS - LEIDEN 344 TORAH - EXODUS

2:5-6 Plague is throughout the land.
Blood is everywhere. 7:20 …all the waters of the river were turned to
blood.
2:10 The river is blood.
7:21 ...there was blood thoughout all the land of
2:10 Men shrink from tasting - human Egypt …and the river stank.
beings, and thirst after water
7:24 And all the Egyptians dug around the river for
3:10-13 That is our water! That is our water to drink; for they could not drink of the water
happiness! What shall we do in respect of the river.
thereof? All is ruin.
9:23-24 ...and the fire ran along the ground... there
2:10 Forsooth, gates, columns and walls was hail, and fire mingled with the hail, very
are consumed by fire. grievous.

10:3-6 Lower Egypt weeps... The entire 9:25 ...and the hail smote every herb of the field, and
palace is without its revenues. To it broke every tree of the field.
belong [by right] wheat and barley, geese
and fish 9:31-32 ...and the flax and the barley was smitten; for
the barley was in season, and flax was ripe.
6:3 Forsooth, grain has perished on every
side. But the wheat and the rye were not smitten; for they
were not grown up.
5:12 Forsooth, that has perished which
was yesterday seen. The land is left over 10:15 ...there remained no green things in the trees,
to its weariness like the cutting of flax. or in the herbs of the fields, through all the land of
Egypt.
 9:3 ...the hand of the Lord is upon thy cattle which is
in the field... and there shall be a very grievous
5:5 All animals, their hearts weep. Cattle sickness.
moan...
9:19 ...gather thy cattle, and all that thou hast in the
9:2-3 Behold, cattle are left to stray, and field...
there is none to gather them together.
9:21 And he that did not fear the word of the Lord
left his servants and cattle in the field.
10:22 And there was a thick darkness in all the land
9:11 The land is without light
of Egypt.
4:3 (5:6) Forsooth, the children of princes
are dashed against the walls.
12:29 And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord
6:12 Forsooth, the children of princes are smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the
cast out in the streets. firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne to the
firstborn of the captive that was in the prison.
6:3 The prison is ruined.
12:30 ...there was not a house where there was not
2:13 He who places his brother in the one dead.
ground is everywhere.
12:30 ...there was a great cry in Egypt.
3:14 It is groaning throughout the land,
mingled with lamentations
7:1 Behold, the fire has mounted up on 13:21 ... by day in a pillar of cloud, to lead them the
high. Its burning goes forth against the way; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them
enemies of the land. light; to go by day and night.
12:35-36 ...and they requested from the Egyptians,
3:2 Gold and lapis lazuli, silver and silver and gold articles and clothing. And God made
malachite, carnelian and bronze... are the Egyptians favour them and they granted their
fastened on the neck of female slaves. request. [The Israelites] thus drained Egypt of its
wealth.

The Plagues of Egypt

http://www.mystae.com/restricted/streams/thera/plagues.html

The First Nine Plagues

"United Egypt in the Old Kingdom disintegrated into individual kingdoms (nomarchs)
after the 6th Dynasty until almost the end of the 11th Dynasty. This period of disunity,
possibly described in the Admonitions of Ipuwer, lasted some 300 years and is generally
contemporary with the Middle Bronze I period [2200 - 1570 B. C.] in which there is
little evidence of sedentary culture in Palestine."
- "Ancient Palestine Gallery with Biblical References"
A number of explanations have been advanced to explain the plagues described in the
Book of Exodus.

"There was sufficient vulcanism in what is now northern Saudi Arabia, at this time, to
explain the cloud. Visualize modern Pinatubo. The stinging insects would be red hot
bits of fly ash, the waters of the Nile turning red, similar to modern red tides, an algae
bloom, depriving the water of oxygen and driving the frogs out into the fields; etc."
- whittet@shore.net

The first nine plagues "can be explained as natural phenomena, occurring as a result of
an abnormally high Nile inundation between July and the following March...The Nile
turning to blood could reflect the fact that its waters were filled with red earth carried in
suspension from the highlands of Ethiopia. As a result, the river would then become
polluted and frogs would infest the shores in search of shelter. Mosquitoes and flies
would find ideal breeding grounds in the brackish ponds left behind by the receding
floodwaters.
"The death of Egypt's livestock could be due to an anthrax epidemic spread by the
insects with men and animals breaking out in sores. Hail ruining the crops of flax and
barley could have happened in January, when such a climatic phenomenon, though rare,
is most likely to occur. Swarms of locusts could have been blown into the Nile valley by
winds from the Sudan and Ethiopia and the three days of darkness are typical of a
severe khamsin, a sandstorm of unusual proportions."
- Great Events of Bible Times

The Admonitions of Ipuwer is believed to have been written around 1780 B.C.E.
according to the astronomical computations of the Sothis period.

"The Ipuwer papyrus is believed to be a Middle Kingdom document dating from a

tumultuous period during which five dynasties, three Egyptian and two foreign, vied for
power, sometimes ruling simultaneously. Most scholars place the Ipuwer papyrus in the
Thirteenth Dynasty, traditionally dated about 1600 B.C., but it is important to note that
insufficient knowledge make dating everything except the Thera ash layer...very
difficult."
- Charles Pellegrino, Unearthing Atlantis (1991) p. 78

Events described on the papyrus seem to remarkably parallel passages in the Book of
Exodus which, according to biblical chronology, occurred in 1447 B.C.E.

(For the other textual parallels, see Egyptian & Old Testament Scriptural
Correspondences.)

"The land - to its whole extent confusion and terrible noise....For nine days there was no
exit from the palace and no one could see the face of his fellow....Towns were destroyed
by mighty tides....Upper Egypt suffered devastation...blood everywhere...pestilence
throughout the country....No one really sails north to Byblos today. What shall we do
for cedar for our mummies? Priests were buried with their produce, and nobles were
embalmed with the oil thereof as far away as Keftiu [Crete], but men of Keftiu come no
longer. Gold is lacking...How important it now seems when the oasis people come
carrying their festival produce"
- Admonitions of Ipuwer
In his book, The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a Hieratic Papyrus in Leiden,
Alan H. Gardiner "argued that all the internal evidence of the text points to the historical
character of the situation. Egypt was in distress; the social system had become
disorganized; violence filled the land. Invaders preyed upon the defenseless population;
the rich were stripped of everything and slept in the open, and the poor took their
possessions. 'It is no merely local disturbance that is here described, but a great and
overwhelming national disaster'."
- Immanuel Velikovsky, Ages in Chaos

"Forsooth, the Desert is throughout the land. The nomes are laid waste. A foreign tribe
from abroad has come to Egypt."
- Admonitions of Ipuwer 2:5-6

[The "foreign tribe from abroad" appears to refer to the invading Hyksos.]

"The American historian J. G. Benett Jr. and Professor Galanopoulos have recently dealt
with these prophetic texts and have both concluded that they describe the consequences
of the Theran eruption in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. Moreover, Benett has
express the opinion that the plaques of Egypt as described in Exodus might be due to
the effects of the eruption."
- Christos G. Doumas Thera - Pompeii of the Ancient Aegean, p. 149

"...There was blood throughout all the land of Egypt."

- Exodus 7:21

"Plague is throughout the land. Blood is everywhere."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 2:5-6

"...'Blood everywhere' could be a reference to people coughing up blood after inhaling

the ash of Thera, or to the Nile River, polluted with acidy, sulfuric ash, filled with
rotting fish and transformed, in effect, from the bringer of life to the river of death."
- Charles Pellegrino, Unearthing Atlantis (1991) p. 79

"...All the waters that were in the river were turned to blood."
- Exodus 7:20

"The river is blood."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 2:10

"Forsooth, gates, columns and walls are consumed by fire."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 2:10

"...The flax and the barely was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was
boiled."
"...There remained not any green thing in the trees, or in the herbs of the fields, through
all the land of Egypt."
- Exodus 9:31, 10:15

"The land is left over to its weariness like the cutting of flax."
"Forsooth, grain has perished on every side."
- Admonitions of Ipuwer 5:12, 6:3

"...The hand of the Lord will strike with a deadly pestilence your livestock in the
field..."
- Exodus 9:3

"All animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan..."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 5:53

"And he that regarded not the word of the Lord left his servants and his cattle in the
field."
- Exodus 9:21

"Behold, cattle are left to stray, and there is none to gather them together. Each man
fetches for himself those that are branded with his name."
- Admonitions of Ipuwer 9:2-3

"...Total darkness covered all Egypt for three days."

- Exodus 10:22b

"The land is not light..."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 9:11

The Last Plague

"Then the Lord said to Moses, 'I will send just one more disaster on Pharaoh and his
land, and after that he will let you go; in fact, he will be so anxious to get rid of you that
he will practically throw you out of the country. Tell all the men and women of Israel to
ask their Egyptian neighbors for gold and silver jewelry'."
- Exodus 11:1-2 (Living Bible)

"Yahweh gave the people such prestige in the eyes of the Egyptians, that they gave
them what they asked. So they plundered the Egyptians."
- Exodus 12:36New Jerulsalem Bible

"The storehouse of the king is the common property of everyone."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer10:3
"And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land of
Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn of the
captive that was in the dungeon."
- Exodus 12:29

"Forsooth, the children of princes are dashed against the walls."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 4:3, also 5:6

"...There was not a house where there was not one dead."
- Exodus 12:30

"He who places his brother in the ground is everywhere."

"Forsooth, those who were in the place of embalment were laid on the high ground."
- Admonitions of Ipuwer 2:13 and 4:4, also 6:16

"...There was a great cry in Egypt."

- Exodus 12:30

"It is groaning that is throughout the land, mingled with lamentations."

- Admonitions of Ipuwer 3:14

The Tenth Plague

"At the end of stratum G/1 at Tell ed-Daba, which is roughly dated to the middle of the
13th Dynasty, Bietak and his archaeological team began to uncover a gruesome scene.
All over the city of Avaris they found shallow burial pits into which the victims of some
terrible disaster had been hurriedly cast. There were no careful interments of the
deceased. The bodies were not arranged in the proper burial fashion but rather thrown
into the mass graves, one on top of the other. There were no grave goods placed with
the corpses as was usually the custom."
"...Analysis of the site archaeology suggests that a large part of the remaining
population of the town abandoned their homes and departed from Avaris en masse. The
site was then reoccupied after an interval of unknown duration by Asiatics who were
not 'Egyptianised' like the previous population of stratum G."
- David M. Rohl, A Test of Time: The Bible from Myth to History (1995), p. 279

Rohl asserts that these next Asiatic occupants were the Hyksos, who invaded Egypt at
the end of the Middle Kingdom and ruled the country for more than two centuries.

"Old Midrash sources narrate that the walls of Pithom and Raamses fell and were partly
swallowed by the earth, and that many Israelites perished on that occasion."
- velikov.htmlImmanuel Velikovsky, Ages in Chaos
"Tutimaos [the pharaoh Dudimose, one of the later rulers of the 13th Dynasty]. In his
reign, for what cause I know not, a blast of God smote us; and unexpectedly, from the
regions of the East, invaders of obscure race marched in confidence of victory against
our land. By main force they easily seized it without striking a blow; and having
overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities ruthless, razed to the
ground the temples of the gods, and treated all the natives with a cruel hostility,
massacring some and leading into slavery the wives and children of others. Finally, they
appointed as king one of their number who name was Salitis..."
- Josephus, quoting Manetho in Against Apion, Book 1:14

Using the Royal Canon of Turin and dating backwards from Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV
(circa 1529-1510 in Rohl's new chronology) through twelve kings in the 13th Dynasty
to Dudimose "gives an approximate date range for the accession of Dudimose of 1457
to 1444 BC. The biblical date for the Exodus is 1447 BC and so Dudimose was in all
likelihood the Pharaoh of the Exodus."
"...Biblical tradition gives a birth-date for Moses of 1527 BC. He would then have been
between seventy-two and eighty-five years old at the accession of Dudimose....The Old
Testament informs us that Moses was eighty years old at the time of Exodus..."
- David M. Rohl, A Test of Time: The Bible from Myth to History (1995), p. 282

"But as the king still persisted in his folly, Moses caused hail and earthquakes by
night, so that those who fled from the earthquakes were killed by the hail, and those
who sought shelter form the hail were destroyed by the earthquakes. And at that time all
the houses fell in and most of the temples."
- Artapanus, Peri Ioudaion

"Forsooth, the land turns round as does a potter's wheel. The towns are destroyed.
Upper Egypt has become dry (wastes?).
"All is ruin."
"The residence is overturned in a minute."
"Oh, that the earth would cease from noise, and tumult (uproar) be no more."
- Papyrus of Ipuwer 2:8, 2:11, 3:13, 7:4

"In Hebrew the word raash signifies 'noise', 'commotions', as well as 'earthquake'.
Earthquakes are often accompanied by loud sounds, subterranean rumbling and roaring,
and this acoustic phenomenon gives the name to the upheaval itself."
- Immanuel Velikovsky, Ages in Chaos

"And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land of
Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn of the
captive that was in the dungeon."
- Exodus 12:29

"The Hebrew word for 'first born' is bekore whilst the Hebrew for 'chosen' is bakhur
(with the meaning of 'choice youth'). Both words appear to stem from bakhar meaning
'prime root'. There is a clear connection in the Bible between these two words. When
God refers to 'Israel, my chosen' the phrase in Hebrew is either Israel bechiri or Israel
bechori; when God refers to 'Israel, my first-born' the Hebrew is Israel bekhori. We
may therefore understand the passage concerning the death of the Egyptian first-born as
a literary device which should better be understood as 'the chosen of Egypt' or, in
modern parlance, 'the flower of Egypt'. Egypt's future was cut short by Yahweh's
punishment, perhaps personified in the death of the crown prince, the first-born son of
Pharaoh Dudimose."
- David M. Rohl, A Test of Time: The Bible from Myth to History (1995), p. 284

"According to the Haggadic tradition, not only the firstborn but the majority of the
population in Egypt was killed during the tenth plague."
- Immanuel Velikovsky, Ages in Chaos

"...There was not a house where there was not one dead."
- Exodus 12:30

No Proof for the Exodus?

The potential role of Thera and 14C dating of the destruction of Jericho
by Rich Deem

Is there any physical evidence for the Exodus described in the Bible? If you were to read
the popular press, you would come to the conclusion that not only was there no
evidence, but the evidence actually contradicted known archaeology. One such article
recently appeared in Time Magazine. The usual complaints surround the lack of
archaeological evidence of the Hebrews' wanderings through the desert. However,
nomadic people seldom, if ever, leave any evidence of their presence. The Bible tells us
that throughout the Exodus, the people never planted crops, built cities or did anything
that would be expected to be found in thousands of square miles of desert. The Bible
says that even their clothing did not wear out. The chances of finding any physical
evidence of the Exodus itself seems extremely unlikely. However, the events
surrounding the Exodus (both before and after) are testable and datable.

Unfortunately, extremely strong evidence for the validity of the Exodus has been
published only in the scientific journals and never made it to the popular press. These
studies examined one of the Egyptian plagues (before the Exodus) and demise of
Jericho (after the Exodus). Drs. Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht reported
in the prestigious British journal, Nature,1 that the destruction of Jericho was dated to
1580 (± 13 years) B.C. (using 14C dating). This date is significant, since several
archeologists have insisted that Jericho was destroyed by the Egyptians between 1550
and 1300 B.C. The recent study discredits the Egyptian theory, since the date is much
too old.

What is even more interesting is that scientists, using 14C dating and tree rings, have
found evidence of a volcanic eruption from the Aegean island of Thera, which has been
dated to 1628 B.C.2 This would place the eruption at 45 years prior to the destruction of
Jericho, at a time which coincidentally corresponds to the time of the plagues the Lord
unleashed upon Egypt. Check out Exodus 10:

Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward the sky, that there may be
darkness over the land of Egypt, even a darkness which may be felt.” So Moses
stretched out his hand toward the sky, and there was thick darkness in all the land of
Egypt for three days. (Exodus 10:21-22)

Even the researchers commented that the 45 years difference in events was "rather
striking."3

REFERENCES
 1. Bruins, H.J. and J. van der Plicht. 1996. The Exodus enigma. Nature 382: 213-
214.
2. Renfrew, C. 1996. Kings, tree rings and the Old World. Nature 381:733-734.
Kuniholm, P. I., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Newton, M., Latini, C. E., and
Bruce, M. J. 1996. Anatolian tree rings and the absolute chronology of the
eastern Mediterranean, 2220-718 BC Nature 381:780-783.
Friedrich, W.L., P. Wagner, and H. Tauber. 1990. Thera and the Aegean World
III Thera Foundation, London, UK.
3. "These averages, taken together, yield 3,356 +/- 18 yr BP, 45 radiocarbon years
older than our 14Carbon destruction date for MB-IIC Jericho. This time difference
is rather striking, as it could fit the desert period of 40 years separating the
Exodus from the destruction of Jericho, mentioned in ancient Hebrew texts."
from Reference 1.

http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/thera.html

Last updated December 1, 2005

Old Testament Dates of Solomon and Egyptian King

Shishak Confirmed by 14C Dates from Tel Rehov
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

The dating of events in Hebrew Old Testament is often assumed to be incorrect by many
secular scholars. Much of the scholarship related to the dating of these sites is based
upon pottery and other items that are associated with certain civilizations and times.
However, the discovery of pottery assemblages with biblical data relating to the
monarchies of David and Solomon in the destruction layer of Jezreel, a royal citadel of
the Omride Dynasty, which ruled over the northern Kingdom of Israel from 885 to
843 B.C., suggested that the older dates for key sites in Israel (e.g., Hazor, Megiddo,
and Gezer) might be much later than the time of King Solomon (second half of the 10th
century B.C.). The implication was that archaeological layers traditionally associated
with the monarchies of David and Solomon were too young to fit the biblical claims.

New evidence

A team of archeologists from Netherlands and Israel, Drs. Bruins, van der Plicht, and
Mazar examined the site of Tel Rehov, in the Beth-Shean/Jordan Valley, 4 miles west of
the River Jordan.1 14C radiocarbon dating placed the destruction of Tel Rehov at 940-
900 B.C., instead of the later date suggested by the associated pottery.

Biblical and extra- biblical evidence

The place name Rehov occurs on the list of cities conquered by Pharaoh Shoshenq I,
known as Shishak in the Bible.2 His Asian campaign was recorded on the southern wall
of the temple of Amun at Karnak in Upper Egypt, where Rehov appears after the term
"The Valley" (probably referring to the Beth-Shean/Jordan Valley) and before the city
name Beth Shean. The Bible says that King Shishak invaded Israel in the fifth year of
the reign of Solomon's son, Rehoboam.3 The biblical timeframe would place Solomon's
death at 930 B.C., putting Shishak's invasion at 925 B.C., exactly within the range of
radiocarbon dates (940-900 B.C.) for the destruction of Tel Rehov.

CONCLUSION
High-precision radiocarbon dating of Tel Rehov establishes a date earlier than that
suggested by previous studies utilizing pottery finds. The accuracy of 14C dating calls
into question previous studies based solely upon pottery evidence. The current dating of
Tel Rehov confirms the biblical date for Shishak's invasion of Israel.

REFERENCES

1. Hendrik J. Bruins, Johannes van der Plicht, and Amihai Mazar. 2003. 14C Dates
from Tel Rehov: Iron-Age Chronology, Pharaohs, and Hebrew Kings. Science
300: 315-318.
2. Solomon sought therefore to put Jeroboam to death; but Jeroboam arose and
fled to Egypt to Shishak king of Egypt, and he was in Egypt until the death of
Solomon. (1 Kings 11:40)
3. Now it happened in the fifth year of King Rehoboam, that Shishak the king of
Egypt came up against Jerusalem. He took away the treasures of the house of
the LORD and the treasures of the king's house, and he took everything, even
taking all the shields of gold which Solomon had made. (1 Kings 14:25-26)

BIBLE AND SPADE

BY STEPHEN L CAIGER D B
first published at the University Press, Oxford 1936.
This Edition prepared for Katapi by Paul Ingram 2003.
http://www.katapi.org.uk/BAndS/ChVI.htm#I

Chapter VI

THE EXODUS FROM EGYPT

ALTHOUGH up to the present we have found no actual archaeological evidence for the
Biblical narrative, 'it is impossible to deny either the fact of the Exodus or the historicity
of Moses. An event which stamped itself so deeply on the consciousness of the people
as to control all its later thinking, to ratify its religion, and to dictate its theory of
history, can by no possibility have been a mere invention.' [T. H. Robinson, History of
Israel, vol.i (1932).]

The main problem is, When did it all happen?

The Biblical story implies that Moses waited for the death of the great Oppressor
(Thothmes III) before returning to Egypt from his refuge in Midian; and that the Exodus
took place almost immediately in the reign of Thothmes' successor, that is, of
Amenhotep II (1448-1420). Amenhotep, therefore, was probably the 'Pharaoh of the
Exodus' who hardened his heart and 'would not let them go'. He followed Thothmes in
1448 BC, which coincides with the Biblical time note dating the Exodus as 480 years
before the Temple, i.e. 1447 BC.
With this identification of the Pharaoh of the Exodus agrees, for what it is worth, the
Osarsiph Legend reported by Josephus (from Manetho) [See Appendix, 'Note on
Ancient Authorities'.] to the following effect:
The Pharaoh Amenophis (Amenhotep) gathered all the lepers of Egypt

together, and made them labour in quarries near the Red Sea, allowing

them to make their centre at Avaris, the deserted capital of the Hyksos

kings.

Here the colony of lepers chose a former priest of On (Heliopolis) named Osarsiph
(Joseph) to be their leader. This Osarsiph thereupon changed his name to Moses [!], and
enacted a number of laws to preserve the religious integrity of his community.

Eventually he fortified Avaris, and in alliance with the refugee Hyksos now centred in
Jerusalem, made war on Amenophis. Amenophis was defeated, and Osarsiph-Moses
ruled over the whole land of Egypt for fourteen years.

Finally the Egyptians rose in revolt, expelling the lepers, who afterwards became the
patriarchal ancestors of Israel.

Although there is obviously no historical value in this farrago of legend, we quote it as a

good specimen of the kind of thing encountered immediately one seeks outside the
Bible for any tradition of the Exodus. With regard to the present point, all we can claim
is that possibly the tradition preserves a vague memory connecting the events of the
Exodus with the name of Amenhotep. [Surely 'Amenophis' must be intended for
Amenhotep, and not for Merenptah, as was once asserted.]

In the contemporary records of Amenhotep II, one must admit that there is no reference
whatever to such national disasters as the Ten Plagues, or the loss of the Egyptian army
in the Red Sea, far less to the escape of the Hebrew colonists. But this was only to be
expected: the Egyptians were the last people to record their misfortunes.

Nor is there any sign upon the mummy of Amenhotep II, discovered in 1898 in the
Valley of the Kings, to show that he was drowned at sea. The Bible indeed never states
that he was, or even that he personally accompanied his horses, his chariots, and his
horsemen into the water (Ex.xiv.23f).

The Tenth Plague—which smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn
of Pharaoh that sat on his throne (Ex.xii.29 J)—ought, however, to be capable of
archaeological verification. Is there any record on the monuments that the eldest son of
Amenhotep II came to an untimely end?
That he did so certainly seems to be implied by the curious Dream Inscription of
Thothmes IV, Amenhotep's immediate successor, showing that Thothmes was not that
sovereign's eldest son.

On an immense slab of red granite near the Sphinx at Gizeh it is recorded that Thothmes
IV, while yet a youth, had fallen asleep under the famous monument, and dreamed a
dream. In this the Sphinx appeared to him, startling him with a prophecy that one day he
would live to be King of Egypt, and bidding him clear the sand away from her feet in
token of his gratitude: which, on his accession, he did.

It is clear from this inscription that Thothmes' hopes of succession had been remote,
which proves—since the law of primogeniture obtained in Egypt at the time—that he
could not have been Amenhotep's eldest son. In other words, there is room for the
explanation that the heir apparent died in the manner related in the Bible.

As to the historical situation in general, there is no reason to doubt the possibility of the
Exodus occurring about the beginning of the reign of Amenhotep II. The records show
that on the death of the puissant Thothmes III the whole of the outlying parts of the
empire broke into revolt. At the instigation of the Mitanni in the far north a rebellion
against Egyptian supremacy involved the whole of Syria and Palestine. Amenhotep
soon moved against the confederates and crushed them, but it may well be that the
distractions of this campaign early in his reign created a diversion of which Moses was
not slow to make use.

Thus, though we have no explicit proof of the Exodus story outside the Bible, 'there is',
in the words of T. E. Peet, 'yet nothing in the monumental evidence which throws doubt
on the general credibility of the Biblical narrative. On the contrary, the picture presented
by the latter agrees remarkably in general features as well as in detail with the picture
presented by the monuments.'

THE WILDERNESS WANDERING

The duration of the Wilderness Period is fixed by one of the oldest written passages in
the Bible as 'forty years'—/ led you forty years in the wilderness (Amos 210; cf. 525)—
with which all other Biblical references agree. Forty may, of course, be no more than a
round number, but to make the duration of the Wandering much more or much less than
a generation would be to do violence to the firm tradition. We may therefore assign this
interlude to the years 1447-1407 BC or thereabouts, commencing with the Exodus and
ending at the latter date with the entry of Joshua into the Promised Land.
Archaeologically, in the nature of the case, one can expect little additional light upon
the Biblical narrative of these forty years during which the Hebrews were in hiding from
the long arm of Egypt. But we can at any rate reconstruct the imperial background
against which they moved.

Amenhotep II survived the Exodus for twenty-seven years, being succeeded about 1420
BC by a younger son Thothmes IV, whose tomb was discovered by Carter in 1902. It
was adorned with pictures of his warlike exploits, but of course makes no reference to
the Hebrews then lurking in the wilderness. He was succeeded in 1411 by Amenhotep
III, whose reign inaugurated one of the most brilliant epochs of Egyptian history. It was
claimed that his empire extended from Nubia to Mesopotamia, and the great North
Road through Palestine resounded to the tramp of his armies. Palestine itself was held in
subjection to the Pharaoh by a system of vassal kings or chieftains, mostly Amorites,
whose embattled fortresses (though weakened by previous Egyptian assault and spolia-
tion) were held in fief to guard the roads from Bedouins and bandits, or if need be to
hold the frontiers against more dangerous enemies until Egyptian reinforcements should
arrive.

That the Egyptian supremacy in Palestine involved more than merely military
occupation is clear from the innumerable remains of a peaceful and domestic type
discovered by the excavations. Scarabs of the XVIIIth Dynasty are plentiful
everywhere, thus dating the discoveries. [Scarabs: typically Egyptian ornaments or
charms made in the shape of the sacred beetle of Egypt, and often containing the name
of the reigning Pharaoh. They are thus the ancient Egyptian equivalent of date-stamps.]
Other typical relics include 'Horus Eyes' (charms to avert the Evil Eye), statuettes of
Nilotic deities such as Isis, Osiris, and Hathor with her lotus-flower, draught-boards and
men, models of sacred cats, apes, and hippopotami, dolls, jewellery, and so on. There
are many signs, too, that the Egyptian religion was not without its influence on the cults
of Canaan, and that in more ways than one this influence was reciprocal.

It has frequently been suggested, indeed, that Canaanite influence may have penetrated
to the Court of Egypt itself through Amenhotep's wife, Queen Thi, who is said (ap-
parently without much proof) to have been of Semitic blood. It was this Queen Thi
whose parents Yuaa and Thuaa were buried in the dazzling tomb discovered, with all its
treasures still intact, by T. Davies in 1905. Her son Akhnaton's religious reforms,
however, show no trace of Semitic influence, but are purely Egyptian in expression.

Under Amenhotep, Egypt attained a peak of wealth and splendour never touched before.
A whole chapter might be written on his treasure-stores, his works of art, his
magnificent temples and palaces, his towering monuments (of which the so-called
Colossi of Memnon are so well known in picture), and his munificent endowment of the
sacred Apis bulls.
While this mighty monarch was at the height of his power, it was clearly useless for any
invader of his frontiers to expect success. We can well understand that Moses and
Joshua, biding their time in the wilderness, must have felt that the opportunity for
claiming the Promised Land was not yet.

THE ROUTE OF THE WANDERING

During these forty years (c. 1447-1407 BC), therefore, we are to picture Moses building
up his people into a nation in the security of the wilderness. The wandering itself
probably would not last very long: he would make as directly as possible for the well-
watered camping-grounds by Sinai and Kadesh, there to settle down and develop his
resources in peace. [The J narrative says nothing of detours, but makes the Israelites
march direct from Egypt to Kadesh.]

The precise route of his journey thither will probably never be agreed. None of the
place-names mentioned in the Biblical narrative have been certainly identified [Even the
identification of the 'Red Sea' (Heb. the Sea of Reeds) is in doubt.], and excavations in
the Sinaitic peninsula have failed to find any trace of the Hebrews.

Petrie's excavations at Serabit-el-Khadem, it is true, have proved the existence of

Semitic quarrymen and turquoise-miners in the peninsula at this time. Quite unlike the
free-roving people of Moses, they were clearly prisoners or slaves, held down to their
work under Egyptian overlookers. Yet they were allowed a certain amount of religious
freedom, as is shown by a temple dedicated to 'Hathor, Queen of the Turquoise', where
the cult-objects are of distinctly Semitic type—altars of incense, sacred pillars, and the
like. If our chronology is correct, this temple was actually in use at the time of the
Exodus, and Marston makes the interesting suggestion [C. Marston, New Knowledge
about the Old Testament (1933), p.137.] that it was used by Moses as a pretext for
visiting the peninsula—let us go, we pray thee, three days' journey into the wilderness,
and sacrifice unto the LORD our God (Ex.v.3 J). Petrie here discovered, among the
interesting inscriptions described in our first chapter, a group of characters which he
read as MNSHEH [It is more likely to be Manasseh.] and which some have tried to
identify with the name Moses.

It is unlikely, however, that the route of the Exodus ever descended south into the
peninsula at all. The name 'Sinaitic', and the identification of the Jebel Musa (Mount of
Moses) with Mount Sinai go no farther back than the third century of our era, while the
'dotted line' showing the 'journey of the Israelites' in most of our Scripture atlases has no
real authority. As a matter of fact the peninsula was probably the last hiding-place that
any one would choose who was anxious to escape from Egyptian pursuit. From the days
of Senerkhet of the 1st Dynasty onwards, its mines of precious stones and metals had
been treasured possessions of the Pharaohs: to this day the hills of 'Sinai' are strewn
with the marks of Egyptian occupation. The whole country was known and charted;
indeed 'a papyrus chart—the oldest map in the world—has been discovered which
reveals how the Pharaoh marked out the route across the desert to the goldmines in that
region' [Knight, Nile and Jordan, p.228 (1933 edit.).]. It is extremely unlikely,
therefore, that the Israelites would dally long in a land so overrun by their enemies.

A very reasonable conjecture would place the Holy Mount of Sinai, or Horeb [Horeb
and Sinai are probably only different names for the same mountain, Horeb perhaps
being the more primitive (W. J. Phythian-Adams, The Call of Israel, 1934).], not in the
peninsula, but east of the Gulf of Akaba in the volcanic region of northern Arabia.
There are many indications in the oldest Biblical tradition that Sinai was a volcano (e.g.
Ex.xix.18 E: Mount Sinai was altogether on smoke, because the LORD descended upon
it in fire: and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace). Now there are no
volcanoes in the peninsula, but in Arabia there are several. It has been observed that 'the
extensive volcanic region of Awaridh contains an isolated volcano called Tadra which
appears to satisfy the requirements of the Biblical record concerning Sinai.... A number
of Arab traditions still associate it with the exploits of Moses.' [Ibid.] Others suggest a
more northerly volcanic area near Petra. From the crater of such a volcano at the height
of its activity the light could be seen for many hundreds of miles, and it has been
suggested that this was the pillar of fire by night that guided Moses in a direct line from
the crossing of the Red Sea to the Sacred Mount.

The Land of Midian, which according to the Biblical narrative was in close contact with
Sinai, must accordingly be located east of the Gulf of Akaba in Arabia, and not (as in
the Scripture atlases) west of it in the peninsula. This fits in well with the Biblical
narrative, where Midian is clearly in the neighbourhood of Moab and Edom—compare
the very ancient Song of Deborah, for instance (Jdg.v.4-5): and is in accord with a
statement in Ptolemy the Geographer, and with the Septuagint translators, which imply
that Midian took its name from Maon [Maon-ites is translated by Midianites in LXX.
For survey of evidence for this identification of Midian see Jeremias, op. cit.] (Minaea)
in Arabia.

The importance of thus localizing Sinai and Midian lies in the fact that it brings us back
once more to Arabia, the original motherland of the Semitic peoples and now (as it
seems) the home of the Mosaic Law. Recent scholarship tends to lay far more stress on
Arabian archaeology than formerly, and it is much to be desired that the country of
Mohammed, so long almost closed to European explorers, should be more thoroughly
excavated. Among the discoveries already made are the remarkable Minaean
Inscriptions of south Arabia, dated by many scholars as early as the fifteenth century
[But others regard them as contemporary with the Sabaean kingdom many centuries
later. See Montgomery, Arabia and the Bible (1934).], in which are found many
parallels to Hebrew religious beliefs and practices, going back perhaps to the days of
Jethro, Moses' Midianite father-in-law. And connected (in all probability) with this
Minaean civilization are the recently discovered Ras Shamra tablets which contain so
many curious reminiscences of the Mosaic legislation.

We also make contact with Petra [A picturesque description of Petra with excellent
photographs is in Hammerton's Wonders of the Past (1934), p.83.], that unique rock-
hewn city of north Arabia immortalized by Burgon in the famous lines:
Match you this wonder save in Eastern clime,

A rose-red city half as old as time.

The existing temples and typically Canaanite High Places of Petra (called in the Bible
Sela, the Rock, or Joktheel) are probably not older than Nabataean times, but the
religious importance of the place may date much earlier. Conjecture would connect it
with the home of the Kenites, perhaps the ancient shrine of Jethro himself, and the spot,
which Balaam had in mind when he sang, Strong is thy dwelling place, and thy nest is
set in the rock (Num.xxiv.21).

Phythian-Adams definitely identifies Kadesh (Kadesh-Barnea), where the Hebrews

encamped on the eve of the Conquest, with this Petra, rather than with Ain Kadeis in the
Negeb. In that district, he points out, there is no stream of any note, while Kadeis means
simply a 'paddle', and has nothing to do with Kadesh. The very remarkable rivulet, on
the other hand, which runs out of the solid rock through the narrow defile at Petra, he
regards as the original of the Massah-Meribah episode (Ex.xvii.2-7 JE). The stream is
still called the 'Brook of Moses' by the Arabs, and an adjoining hill is pointed out as the
mount where Aaron died.

Such, perhaps, were the surroundings—beetling cliffs, volcanic mountains, fertile oases
at their feet where encampment could be made, a district occupied by kindred tribes of
no mean civilization nor unenlightened religion—in which Moses sojourned with the
Midianites and where he afterwards prepared his people for their entry into Canaan.
Here, if Hommel and his school are right, Moses may have spoken that dialect of Arabic
which, fused with Canaanite, became the Hebrew tongue; may have learnt the script
which evolved into the Hebrew alphabet; and may have renewed the half-forgotten faith
of his forefathers under the influence of the mother religion of Arabia.

Old Testament Dates of Edomite Kingdom Confirmed by

Archeological Find
by Rich Deem

INTRODUCTION

Most secular scholars believe that the Hebrew Old Testament is merely a collection of
revisionist, fragmented history, along with folklore and theology. Often, biblical dates
for historic events are often assumed to be incorrect. Previous excavations of Edom
have been conducted on the highland plateaus of Jordan, which had been controlled by
the neo-Assyrian empire during the eighth and seventh B.C.1 So, archeologists assumed
that dating of the kingdom of Edom was at least 200 years later than the date given in
the Old Testament. New archeological excavations have examined the copper ore-rich
lowlands of Jordan, discovering a large Iron Age copper production center.

New evidence

Canadian archeologist Russell Adams, along with Thomas Levy of the University of
California at San Diego and Mohammad Najjar of the Jordanian Department of
Antiquities recently discovered a monumental tenth century B.C. fortress at a site called
Khirbat en-Nahas (30 miles south of the Dead Sea in Jordan).2 The use of high-precision
radiocarbon dating (14C) methods on some of the relics firmly established that
occupation of the site had began in the eleventh century B.C.

CONCLUSION

These early dates establish the existence of the Edomite kingdom at the time King
David and his son Solomon ruled over Israel. The Old Testament claims that David
conquered the Edomites and placed garrisons there.3 The Bible claims that David ruled
from ~1010 B.C. to 970 B.C., which is directly correlated with the dates determined at
Khirbat en-Nahas. Now that 14C dating is being used to accurately determine
archeological sites in the Middle East, we should be getting a better idea of the accuracy
of Old Testament histories.

REFERENCES

1. Bienkowski, P. 2001. Iron Age Settlement in Edom: A Revised Framework, in P.

M. M. Daviau, J. W. Wevers, and M. Weigl (eds) The World of the Aramaeans II:
Studies in History and Archaeology in Honour of Paul-Eugen Dion: 257 -69.
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 325. Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press.
Herr, L.G. and M. Najjar. 2001. The Iron Age, in B. MacDonald, R. Adams & P.
Bienkowski (eds) The Archaeology of Jordan. 323-345. Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press.
Stern, E. 2001. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible Volume II – the Assyrian,
Babylonian and Persian Periods (732 – 332 B.C.E). New York: Doubleday.
2. Thomas E. Levy, T.E., R. B. Adams, M. Najjar, A. Hauptmann, J.D. Anderson, B.
Brandl, M.A. Robinson and T. Higham. 2004. Research Reassessing the
chronology of Biblical Edom: new excavations and 14C dates from Khirbat en-
Nahas (Jordan) Antiquity 78: 863-876.
3. He put garrisons in Edom. In all Edom he put garrisons, and all the Edomites
became servants to David. And the LORD helped David wherever he went. (2
Samuel 8:14)
 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

This article was published in the Spring 1995 issue of Jewish Action, put out by the Union of Orthodox Rabbis.
Because Jewish Action is a family magazine, the article is a popular, rather than scholarly one. This does not mean
that the arguments in it are faulty; I stand behind them fully. Feedback is welcome. - Lisa

The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

"And Moses said unto the people: Do not fear! Stand and see the deliverance of Hashem which he
shall do for you this day. For as you have seen Egypt this day, never will you see it again." (Exodus
14:13)

When was the Exodus?

The Exodus from Egypt was not only the seminal event in the history of the Jewish People, but was an
unprecedented and unequaled catastrophe for Egypt. In the course of Pharaoh's stubborn refusal to let us leave and
the resultant plagues sent by Hashem, Egypt was devastated. Hail, disease and infestations obliterated Egypt's
produce and livestock, while the plague of the first born stripped the land of its elite, leaving inexperienced second
sons to cope with the economic disaster. The drowning of the Egyptian armed forces in the Red Sea left Egypt open
and vulnerable to foreign invasions.

From the days of Flavius Josephus (c.70 CE) until the present, historians have tried to find some trace of this event in
the ancient records of Egypt. They have had little luck.

According to biblical chronology, the Exodus took place in the 890th year before the destruction of the Temple by
the Babylonians in 421 BCE (g.a.d. 587 BCE) [1]. This was 1310 BCE (g.a.d. 1476 BCE). In this year, the greatest
warlord Egypt ever knew, Thutmose III, deposed his aunt Hatshepsut and embarked on a series of conquests,
extending the Egyptian sphere of influence and tribute over Israel and Syria and crossing the Euphrates into
Mesopotamia itself. While it is interesting that this date actually saw the death of an Egyptian ruler - and there have
been those who tried to identify Queen Hatshepsut as the Pharaoh of the Exodus - the power and prosperity of Egypt
at this time is hard to square with the biblical account of the Exodus.

Some historians have been attracted by the name of the store-city Raamses built by the Israelites before the Exodus.
They have drawn connections to the best known Pharaoh of that name, Ramses II, or Ramses the Great, and set the
Exodus around his time, roughly 1134 BCE (g.a.d. 1300 BCE [2]). In order to do this, they had to reduce the time
between the Exodus and the destruction of the Temple by 180 years, which they did by reinterpreting the 480 years
between the Exodus and the building of the Temple (I Kings 6:1) as twelve generations of forty years. By
"correcting" the Bible and setting a generation equal to twenty five years, these imaginary twelve generations
become 300 years.

Aside from the fact that such "adjustments" of the biblical text imply that the Bible cannot be trusted, in which case
there is no reason to accept that there ever was an Exodus, Ramses II was a conqueror second only to Thutmose III.
And as in the case of Thutmose III, the Egyptian records make it clear that nothing even remotely resembling the
Exodus happened anywhere near his time of history.

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 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

We appear to be at a standstill. The only options are to relegate the Exodus to the status of myth, or to conclude that
there is something seriously wrong with the generally accepted dates for Egyptian history.

In 1952, Immanuel Velikovsky published Ages in Chaos, the first of a series of books in which he proposed a radical
redating of Egyptian history in order to bring the histories of Egypt and Israel into synchronization. Velikovsky's
work sparked a wave of new research into ancient history. And while the bulk of Velikovsky's conclusions have not
been borne out by this research, his main the-sis has. This is that the apparent conflict between ancient records and
the Bible is due to a misdating of those ancient records, and that when these records are dated correctly, all such
"conflicts" disappear.

Both Thutmose III and Ramses II date to a period called the Late Bronze Age, which ended with the onset of the Iron
Age. Since the Iron Age has been thought to be the time when Israel first arrived in Canaan, the Late Bronze Age has
been called "The Canaanite Period," and historians have limited their search for the Exodus to this time. When we
break free of this artificial restraint, the picture changes drastically.

According to the midrash [3], the Pharaoh of the Exodus was named Adikam. He had a short reign of four years
before drowning in the Red Sea. The Pharaoh who preceded him, whose death prompted Moses's return to Egypt
(Exodus 2:23, 4:19), was named Malul. Malul, we are told, reigned from the age of six to the age of one hundred.
Such a long reign - ninety four years! - sounds fantastic, and many people would hesitate to take this midrash
literally. As it happens, though, Egyptian records mention a Pharaoh who reigned for ninety four years. And not only
ninety four years, but from the age of six to the age of one hundred! This Pharaoh was known in inscriptions as Pepi
(or Phiops) II [4]. The information regarding his reign is known both from the Egyptian historian-priest Manetho,
writing in the 3rd century BCE, and from an ancient Egyptian papyrus called the Turin Royal Canon, which was only
discovered in the last century.

Egyptologists, unaware of the midrash, have wrestled with the historicity of Pepi II's long reign. One historian wrote:
[5]

Pepi II...appears to have had the longest reign in Egyptian history and perhaps in all history. The
Turin Royal Canon credits him with upwards of ninety years. One version of the Epitome of
Manetho indicates that he "began to rule at the age of six and continued to a hundred." Although
modern scholars have questioned this, it remains to be disproved.

While the existence of a two kings who reigned a) ninety four years, b) in Egypt, and c) from the age of six, is hard
enough to swallow as a coincidence, that is not all. Like Malul, Pepi II was the second to last king of his dynasty.
Like Malul, his successor had a short reign of three or four years, after which Egypt fell apart. Pepi II's dynasty was
called the 6th Dynasty, and was the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Following his successor's death,
Egypt collapsed, both economically and under foreign invasion. Egypt, which had been so powerful and wealthy
only decades before, suddenly could not defend itself against tribes of invading bedouin. No one knows what
happened. Some historians have suggested that the long reign of Pepi II resulted in stagnation, and that when he died,
it was like pulling the support out from under a rickety building. But there is no evidence to support such a theory.

A papyrus dating from the end of the Old Kingdom was found in the early 19th century in Egypt [6]. It seems to be
an eyewitness account of the events preceding the dissolution of the Old Kingdom. Its author, an Egyptian named
Ipuwer, writes:

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 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

● Plague is throughout the land. Blood is everywhere.

● The river is blood.
● That is our water! That is our happiness! What shall we do in respect thereof? All is ruin!
● Trees are destroyed.
● No fruit or herbs are found...
● Forsooth, gates, columns and walls are consumed by fire.
● Forsooth, grain has perished on every side.
● The land is not light [dark].

Velikovsky recognized this as an eyewitness account of the ten plagues. Since modern men are not supposed to
believe in such things, it has been interpreted figuratively by most historians. The destruction of crops and livestock
means an economic depression. The river being blood indicates a breakdown of law an order and a proliferation of
violent crime. The lack of light stands for the lack of enlightened leadership. Of course, that's not what it says, but it
is more palatable than the alternative, which is that the phenomena described by Ipuwer were literally true.

When the Bible tells us that Egypt would never be the same after the Exodus, it was no exaggeration. With invasions
from all directions, virtually all subsequent kings of Egypt were of Ethiopian, Libyan or Asiatic descent. When
Chazal tell us that King Solomon was able to marry Pharaoh's daughter despite the ban on marrying Egyptian
converts until they have been Jewish for three generations because she was not of the original Egyptian nation, there
is no reason to be surprised.

In the Wake of the Exodus

It was not only Egypt which felt the birth pangs of the Jewish People. The end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt
preceded only slightly the end of the Early Bronze age in the Land of Israel. The end of this period, dated by
archeologists to c.2200 BCE (in order to conform to the Egyptian chronology), has long puzzled archeologists. The
people living in the Land of Israel during Early Bronze were the first urban dwellers there. They were, by all
available evidence, primitive, illiterate and brutal. They built large but crude fortress cities and were constantly at
war. At the end of the Early Bronze Age, they were obliterated.

Who destroyed Early Bronze Age Canaan? Some early archeologists, before the vast amount of information we have
today had been more than hinted at, suggested that they were Amorites. The time, they thought, was more or less
right for Abraham. So why not postulate a great disaster in Mesopotamia, which resulted in people migrated from
there to Canaan? Abraham would have been thus one in a great crowd of immigrants (scholars of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries often felt compelled to debunk the idea of divine commands).

Today, the picture is different. The invaders of the Early Bronze/Middle Bronze Interchange seem to have appeared
out of nowhere in the Sinai and the Negev. Initially, they moved up into the transjordan, and then crossed over north
of the Dead Sea, conquering Canaan and wiping out the inhabitants. Of course, since we are dealing with cultural
remnants and not written records, we don't know that the previous inhabitants were all killed. Some of them may
have remained, but if so, they adopted enough of the newcomers' culture to "disappear" from the archeological record.

Two archeologists have already gone on record identifying the invaders as the Israelites. In an article published in
Biblical Archeology Review [7], Israeli archeologist Rudolph Cohen demonstrated that the two invasions match in
every detail. Faced with the problem that the two are separated in time by some eight centuries, Cohen backed down

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 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

a bit:

I do not necessarily mean to equate the MBI people with the Israelites, although an ethnic
identification should not be automatically ruled out. But I am suggesting that at the very least the
traditions incorporated into the Exodus account may have a very ancient inspiration reaching back to
the MBI period.

The Italian archeologist Immanuel Anati has come to similar conclusions [8]. He added other pieces of evidence,
such as the fact that Ai, Arad and other cities destroyed by Israel in the invasion of Canaan were destroyed at the end
of the Early Bronze Age, but remained uninhabited until the Iron Age. Since the Iron Age is when Israel supposedly
invaded Canaan, we have been in the embarrassing position of having the Bible describe the destructions of these
cities at the very time that they were being resettled for the first time in almost a millennium. When the conquest is
redated to the end of the Early Bronze, history (the Bible) and physical evidence (archeology) are in harmony. Anati
goes further than Cohen in that he claims the invaders really were the Israelites. How does he get around the eight
hundred year gap? By inventing a "missing book of the Bible" between Joshua and Judges that originally covered
this period.

Both Cohen and Anati are in the unenviable position of having discovered truths which conflict with the accepted
wisdom. Their "tricks" for avoid the problem are lame, but the only alternative would be to suggest a radical redating
of the archeology of the Land of Israel. And there is good reason to do this. It is not only the period of the Exodus
and Conquest which suddenly match the evidence of ancient records and archeology when the dates of the
archeological periods are brought down:

1. The Middle Bronze Age invaders, after some centuries of rural settlement, expanded almost overnight into an
empire, stretching from the Nile to the Euphrates. This empire has been termed the "Hyksos Empire," after a
group of nomads that invaded Egypt, despite the fact that there is no historical evidence for such an
identification. History knows of one such empire. Archeology knows of one such empire. The same
adjustment which restores the Exodus and Conquest to history does the same to the United Kingdom of
David and Solomon.

2. The Empire fell, bringing the Middle Bronze Age to an end. Archeologists and Egyptologists are currently
involved in a great debate over whether it was civil war or Egyptian invasions which destroyed the "Hyksos"
empire. The biblical accounts of the revolt of the ten northern tribes and the invasion of Shishak king of
Egypt make the debate irrelevant.

3. The period following the end of the Empire was one of much unrest, but saw tremendous literary
achievements. Since this period, the Late Bronze Age, was the last period before the Iron Age, and since the
Iron Age was believed to have been the Israelite Period, the Late Bronze Age was called the Canaanite
Period. Strangely, these Canaanites spoke and wrote in beautiful Biblical Hebrew. Semitic Canaanites? Did
the Bible get it wrong again? But then, coming after the time of David and Solomon, they weren't really
Canaanites. The speakers and writers of Biblical Hebrew were, as might have been guessed - Biblical
Hebrews.

4. Finally we get to the Iron Age. This is when Israel supposedly arrived in Canaan. But it has been obvious to
archeologists for over a century that the archeology of the Iron Age bears little resemblance to the biblical
account of the conquest of Canaan. There were invasions, but they were from the north, from Syria and

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 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

Mesopotamia, and they came in several waves, unlike the lightning conquest under Joshua. The people who
settled the land after the invasions also came from the north, though there is much evidence to suggest that
they weren't the invaders, and merely settled an empty land after it had been destroyed by others. The south
remained in the hands of the Bronze Age inhabitants, albeit on a lower material level.

The conclusions drawn from this evidence have been devastating. The people in the south, who constituted
the kingdom of Judah, from whence came the Jews, has been determined to be of Canaanite descent! If not
biologically, then culturally. And the people in the north, the other ten tribes of Israel, have been determined
to have been no relation to the tribes of the south. The idea of twelve tribes descended from the sons of Jacob
has been removed from the history books and recatalogued under "Mythology, Jewish."

What is most strange is that multiple waves of invasion followed by northern tribes settling in the north of
Israel is not an event which has gone unmentioned in the Bible. The invaders were the Assyrians. The settlers
were the northern tribes who eventually became the Samaritans. And if the people in the south were
descended from the Late Bronze Age inhabitants of the land, why, that merely means that the kingdom of
Judah was a continuation of the kingdom of Judah. The only historical claims which are contradicted by the
archeological record are those of the Samaritans, who claim to have been the descendants of the ten tribes of
Israel.

A simple redating of the archeological periods in the Land of Israel brings the entire scope of biblical history into
synchronization with the ancient historical record. Only time will tell whether more archeologists will follow Cohen
and Anati in their slowly dawning recognition of the historicity of the Bible.

The Historical View of the History of the Land of Israel

NORTHERN
TRIBES
HYKSOS
PROTO-CANAANITES AMORITES CANAANITES
EMPIRE
SOUTHERN
TRIBES

LATE
EARLY BRONZE AGE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE BRONZE IRON AGE
AGE

SAMARITANS
CONQUEST & UNITED DIVIDED
CANAANITES
JUDGES MONARCHY MONARCHY
JUDAH

The Biblical View of the History of the Land of Israel

Notes

[1] Contrary to the Jewish historical tradition, the generally accepted date (g.a.d.) is 166 years earlier, or 587 BCE
(see "Fixing the History Books - Dr. Chaim Heifetz's Revision of Persian History," in the Spring 1991 issue of
Jewish Action). This difference applies to all Mesopotamian and Egyptian history prior to the Persian period. The

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 The Exodus and Ancient Egyptian Records

dates for Egyptian history given in the history books are therefore off by this amount. For our purposes, we will use
the corrected date followed by the g.a.d. in parentheses. return to text

[2] Some people have been excited about the generally accepted date for Ramses II coming so close to the traditional
date for the Exodus. This is a mistake, as Egyptian and Mesopotamian histories are linked. If Ramses II lived c. 1300
BCE, then the destruction of the Temple was in 587 BCE, and the Exodus was in 1476 BCE. return to text

[3] Sefer HaYashar and The Prayer of Asenath (an ancient pseudepigraphical work) contain this information, though
Sefer HaYashar only gives the 94 year reign length without Malul's age. return to text

[4] Egyptian kings had a vast titulary. They generally had at least five official throne names, not to mention their
personal name or names, and whatever nicknames their subjects gave them. return to text

[5] William Kelly Simpson in The Ancient Near East: A History, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1971. return to text

[6] A.H. Gardiner, Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a hieratic papyrus in Leiden (1909). Historians are almost
unanimous in dating this papyrus to the very beginning of the Middle Kingdom. The events it describes,
consequently, deal with the end of the Old Kingdom. return to text

[7] Rudolph Cohen, "The Mysterious MB I People - Does the Exodus Tradition in the Bible Preserve the Memory of
Their Entry into Canaan?" in Biblical Archeology Review IX:4 (1983), pp.16ff. return to text

[8] Immanuel Anati, The Mountain of God, Rizzoli International Publications, New York 1986. return to text

Return to Lisa's World

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 The Papyrus Ipuwer
http://www.geocities.com/regkeith/linkipuwer.htm

Excerpt from Ages in Chaos, by Immanuel Velikovsky:

"It is not known under what circumstances the papyrus containing the words of Ipuwer
was found. According to its first possessor (Anastasi), it was found in "Memphis", by
which is probably meant the neighborhood of the pyramids of Saqqara. In 1828 the
papyrus was acquired by the Museum of Leiden or Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in the
Netherlands and is listed in the catalogue as Leiden 344.

The papyrus is written on both sides. The face (recto) and the back (verso) are
differentiated by the direction of the fiber tissues; the story of Ipuwer is written on the
face, on the back is a hymn to a deity. A facsimile copy of both texts was published by
the authorities of the museum together with other Egyptian documents. The text of
Ipuwer is now bolded into a book of seventeen pages, most of them containing fourteen
lines of hieratic signs (a flowing writing used by the scribes, quite different from pictorial
hieroglyphics). Of the first page only a third -- the left or last part of eleven lines -- is
preserved; pages 9 to 16 are in very bad condition -- there are but a few lines at the top
and bottom of the pages -- and of the seventeenth page only the beginning of the first
two lines remains.

In 1909 the text, translated anew, was published by Alan H. Gardiner under the title, The
Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a Hieratic Papyrus in Leiden. Gardiner argued
that all the internal evidence of the text points to the historical character of the situation.
Egypt was in distress; the social system had become disorganized; violence filled the
land. Invaders preyed upon the defenceless population; the rich were stripped of
everything and slept in the open, and the poor took their possessions. "It is no merely
local distrubance that is here described, but a great and overwhelming national
disaster."

Gardiner... interprets the text as though the words of a sage name Ipuwer were directed
to some king, blaming him for inactivity which has brought confusion, insecurity, and
suffering to the people. "The Almighty", to whom Ipuwer directs his words, is a
customary appellation of great gods. Because the introductory passages of the papyrus,
where the author and his listeners would be likely to be mentioned, are missing, the
presence of the king listening to the sage is assumed on the basis of the preferred form
of certain other literary examples of the Middle Kingdom. In accordance with this
interpretation, the papyrus containing the words of Ipuwer is called, in the Gardiner
edition, Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage.

Egypt in Upheaval

The Papyrus Ipuwer is not a collection of proverbs... or riddles; no more is it a literary

prophecy... or an admonition concerning profound social changes. It is the Egyptian
version of a great catastrophe.

The papyrus is a script of lamentations, a description of ruin and horror.

PAPYRUS 2:8 Forsooth, the land turns round as does a potter's wheel.
 2:11 The towns are destroyed. Upper Egypt has become dry (wastes?).

3:13 All is ruin!

7:4 The residence is overturned in a minute.

4:2 ... Years of noise. There is no end to noise.

What do "noise" and "years of noise" denote? The translator wrote: "There is clearly
some play upon the word hrw (noise) here, the point of which is to us obscure." Does it
mean "earthquake" and "years of earthquake"? In Hebrew the word raash signifies
"noise", "commotion", as well as "earthquake". Earthquakes are often accompanied by
loud sounds, subterranean rumbling and roaring, and this acoustic phenomenon gives
the name to the upheaval itself.

Apparently the shaking returned again and again, and the country was reduced to ruins,
the state went into sudden decline, and life became unbearable.

Ipuwer says:

PAPYRUS 6:1 Oh, that the earth would cease from noise, and tumult (uproar) be no
more.

The noise and the tumult were produced by the earth. The royal residence would be
overthrown "in a minute" and left in ruins....

The papyrus of Ipuwer contains evidence of some natural cataclysm accompanied by

earthquakes and bears witness to the appearance of things as they happened at that
time.

I shall compare some passages from the Book of Exodus and from the papyrus. As, prior
to the publication of Worlds in Collision and Ages in Chaos, no parallels had been drawn
between the Bible and the text of the Papyrus Ipuwer, the translator of the papyrus could
not have been influenced by a desire to make his translation resemble the biblical text.

PAPYRUS 2:5-6 Plague is throughout the land. Blood is everywhere.

EXODUS 7:21 ... there was blood thoughout all the land of Egypt.

This was the first plague.

PAPYRUS 2:10 The river is blood.

EXODUS 7:20 ... all the waters that were in the river were turned to blood.

This water was loathsome, and the people could not drink it.

PAPYRUS 2:10 Men shrink from tasting -- human beings, and thirst after water.

EXODUS 7:24 And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink; for
they could not drink of the water of the river.

The fish in the lakes and the river died, and worms, insects, and reptiles bred prolifically.

EXODUS 7:21 ... and the river stank.

 PAPYRUS 3:10-13 That is our water! That is our happiness! What shall we do in
respect thereof? All is ruin!

The destruction in the fields is related in these words:

EXODUS 9:25 ... and the hail smote every herb of the field, and brake every tree of the
field.

PAPYRUS 4:14 Trees are destroyed.

6:1 No fruit nor herbs are found..

This portent was accompanied by consuming fire. Fire spread all over the land.

EXODUS 9:23-24 ... the fire ran along the ground.... there was hail, and fire mingled
with the hail, very grievous.

PAPYRUS 2:10 Forsooth, gates, columns and walls are consumed by fire.

The fire which consumed the land was not spread by human hand but fell from the skies.

By this torrent of destruction, according to Exodus,

EXODUS 9:31-32 ... the flax and the barley was smitten; for the barley was in the ear,
and the flax was boiled. But the wheat and the rye were not smitten: for they were not
grown up.

It was after the next plague that the fields became utterly barren. Like the Book of
Exodus (9:31-32 and 10:15), the papyrus relates that no duty could be rendered to the
crown for wheat and barley; and as in Exodus 7:21 ("And the fish that was in the river
died"), there was no fish for the royal storehouse.

PAPYRUS 10:3-6 Lower Egypt weeps... The entire palace is without its revenues. To it
belong (by right) wheat and barley, geese and fish.

The fields were entirely devastated.

EXODUS 10:15 ... there remained not any green thing in the trees, or in the herbs of
the fields, through all the land of Egypt.

PAPYRUS 6:3 Forsooth, grain has perished on every side.

5:12 Forsooth, that has perished which yesterday was seen. The land is left over to its
weariness like the cutting of flax.

The statement that the crops of the fields were destroyed in a single day ("which
yesterday was seen") excludes drought, the usual cause of a bad harvest; only hail, fire,
or locusts could have left the fields as though after "the cutting of flax". The plague is
described in Psalms 105:34-35 in these words: "... the locusts came, and caterpillars, and
that without number. And did eat up all the herbs in their land, and devoured the fruit of
their ground."

PAPYRUS 6:1 No fruit nor herbs are found... hunger.

The cattle were in a pitiful condition.

 EXODUS 9:3 ... the hand of the Lord is upon the cattle which is in the field... there shall
be a very grievous murrain.

PAPYRUS 5:5 All animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan....

Hail and fire made the frightened cattle flee.

EXODUS 9:19 .. gather thy cattle, and all that thou hast in the field...

21 And he that regarded not the word of the Lord left his servants and his cattle in the
field.

PAPYRUS 9:2-3 Behold, cattle are left to stray, and there is none to gather them
together. Each man fetches for himself those that are branded with his name.

The ninth plague, according to the Book of Exodus, covered Egypt with profound
darkness.

EXODUS 10:22 ... and there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt.

PAPYRUS 9:11 The land is not light....

"Not light" is in Egyptian equivalent to "without light" or "dark". But there is some
question as to whether the two sentences are entirely parallel. The years of wandering in
the desert are described as spent in gloom under a cover of thick clouds....

The Last Night before the Exodus

According to the Book of Exodus, the last night the Israelites were in Egypt was a night
in which death struck instantly and took victims from every Egyptian home. The death of
so many in a single night, even at the same hour of midnight, cannot be explained by a
pestilence, which would last more than a single hour. The story of the last plague does
seem like a myth; it is a stranger in the sequence of the other plagues, which can be
explained...

...Apparently we have before us the testimony of an Egyptian witness of the plagues.

On careful reading of the papyrus, it appeared that the slaves were still in Egypt when at
least one great shock occurred, ruining houses and destroying life and fortune. It
precipitated a general flight of the population from the cities, while the other plagues
probably drove them from the country into the cities.

The biblical testimony was reread. It became evident that it had not neglected this most
conspicuous event: it was the tenth plague.

In the papyrus it is said: "The residence is overturned in a minute." On a previous page it

was stressed that only an earthquake could have overturned and ruined the royal
residence in a minute. Sudden and simultaneous death could be inflicted on many....

EXODUS 12:30 And Pharaoh rose up in the night, he, and all his servants, and all the
Egyptians; and there was a great cry in Egypt: for there was not a house where there
was not one dead.

A great part of the people lost their lives in one violent shock. Houses were struck a
furious blow.
 EXODUS 12:27 [The Angel of the Lord] passed over the houses of the children of Israel
in Egypt, when he smote the Egyptians, and delivered our houses.

The word nogaf for "smote" is used for a violent blow, e.g. for thrusting with his horns by
an ox.

The residence of the king and the palaces of the rich were tossed to the ground, and with
them the houses of the common people and the dungeons of captives.

EXODUS 12:29 And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn in
the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn
of the captive that was in the dungeon.

PAPYRUS 4:3, and 5:6 Forsooth, the children of princes are dashed against the walls.

6:12 Forsooth, the children of princes are cast out in the streets.

PAPYRUS 6:3 The prison is ruined.

2:13 He who places his brother in the ground is everywhere.

To it correspond Exodus 12:30:

... there was not a house where there was not one dead.

In Exodus 12:30 it is written:

... there was a great cry in Egypt.

To it corresponds the papyrus 3:14:

It is groaning that is throughout the land, mingled with lamentations.

The statues of the gods fell and broke in pieces: "this night... against all the gods of Egypt I
will execute judgment" (Exodus 12:12).

A book by Artapanus, no longer extant, which quoted some unknown ancient source and
which in its turn was quoted by Eusebius, tells of "hail and earthquake by night [of the
last plague], so that those who fled from the earthquake were killed by the hail, and those
who sought shelter from the hail were destroyed by the earthquake. And at that time all
the houses fell in, and most of the temples."

The earth was equally pitiless towards the dead in their graves: the sepulchers opened,
and the buried were disentombed.

PAPYRUS 4:4, also 6:14 Forsooth, those who were in the place of embalmment are
laid on the high ground.

Revolt and Flight

The description of disturbances in the Papyrus Ipuwer, when compared with the
scriptural narrative, gives a strong impression that both sources relate the very same
events. It is therefore only natural to look for mention of revolt among the population, of
a flight of wretched slaves from this country visited by disaster, and of a cataclysm in
which the pharaoh perished.
Although in the mutilated papyrus there is no explicit reference to the Israelites or their
leaders, three facts are clearly described as consequences of the upheaval: the
population revolted; the wretched or the poor men fled; the king perished under unusual
circumstances....

PAPYRUS 4:2 Forsooth, great and small say: I wish I might die.

5:14f. Would that there might be an end of men, no conception, no birth! Oh, that the
earth would cease from noise, and tumult be no more!

The escaped slaves hurried across the border of the country. By day a column of smoke
went before them in the sky; by night it was a pillar of fire.

EXODUS 13:21 ... by day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in a
pillar of fire, to give them light; to go by day and night.

PAPYRUS 7:1 Behold, the fire has mounted up on high. Its burning goes forth against
the enemies of the land.

The translator added this remark: "Here the 'fire' is regarded as something disastrous."

After the first manifestations of the protracted cataclysm the Egyptians tried to bring
order into the land. They traced the route of the escaped slaves. The wanderers became
"entangled in the land, the wilderness hath shut them in" (Exodus 14:3). They turned to
the sea, they stood at Pi-ha-Khiroth. "The Egyptians pursued after them. The Egyptians
marched after them." A hurricane blew all the night and the sea fled.

In a great avalanche of water "the sea returned to his strength", and "the Egyptians fled
against it". The sea engulfed the chariots and the horsemen, the pharaoh and all his
host.

The Papyrus Ipuwer (7:1-2) records only that the pharaoh was lost under unusual
circumstances "that have never happened before". The Egyptian wrote his lamentations,
and even in the broken lines they are perceptible:

... weep... the earth is... on every side... weep...

Excerpt from Ages in Chaos, by Immanuel Velikovsky (pages 18-31)

To this day, scholarly explanations for the collapse of the great Egyptian Empire, a civilization
that burst on to History's stage... arrayed in wisdom beyond our Centuries... that one day was...
and then suddenly was not... most explanations remain woefully inadequate.
 The Ipuwer Papyrus
http://www.everythingjewish.com/Pesach/Pesach_Origins.htm

The Ipuwer Papyrus was discovered in Egypt in the 1800's and recounts in stunning detail a
series of catastrophes which struck Egypt. Named for its author, an Egyptian named Ipuwer,
the Papyrus was translated at the Leiden Museum in Holland by A.H. Gardiner.

The following is a side by side comparison of just a few of the events as depicted by Ipuwer and
as they are related in the Book of Exodus:

Paprus
The river is blood. (Papyrus
2:10)
Help us; gates, columns and
walls are consumed by fire.
(Papyrus 2:10)
He who places his brother in the
ground is everywhere. (Papyrus
2:13)
Behold, the fire has mounted up
on high. Its burning goes before
the enemies of the land.
(Papyrus 7:1)
Gold and lapis lazuli, silver and
malachite, carnelian and
bronze... are fastened on the
neck of female slaves. (Papyrus
3:2)
The land is without light.
(Papyrus 9:11)
Torah
...all the waters that were in
the river were turned to blood.
(Exodus 7:20)
... the fire ran upon the
ground.
...there was hail, and fire
mingled with the hail, very
grievous. (Exodus 9:23-24
...there was not a house
where there was not one
dead. (Exodus 12:30)
...By day in a pillar of a cloud,
to lead them the way; and by
night in a pillar of fire, to give
them light; to go by day and
night. (Exodus 13:31)
...and they requested from the
Egyptians, silver and gold
articles and clothing. And God
made the Egyptians favour
them and they granted their
request. [The Israelites] thus
drained Egypt of its wealth.
(Exodus 12:35-36
And there was a thick
darkness in all the land of
Egypt. (Exodus 10:22)

The complete papyrus can be found in the book Admonitions of an Egyptian from a heiratic
papyrus in Leiden.

In his book Ages in Chaos, (Abacus Publishing, 1978, pages 57-62), Professor Immanuel
Velikovsy discusses the Ipuwer Papyrus and another finding at el-Arish:

"Ipuwer is a record of some natural catastrophe followed by a social upheaval; in the

description of the catastrophe we recognized many details of the disturbances that
accompanied the Exodus as narrated in the Scriptures. The inscription (of yet another
archeological find) the shrine from el-Arish contains another version of the cataclysm
accompanied by a hurricane and nine days' darkness; and there we found also a
description of the march of the pharaoh and his army toward the eastern frontier of his
 kingdom, where he was engulfed in a whirlpool... The inscription on the shrine at el-
Arish says that the name of the pharaoh who perished in the whirlpool was Thom. It is
of interest the Pi-Thom means "the abode of Thom.' Pithom was one of the two cities
built by the Israelite slaves for the Pharaoh of Oppression."

Other Historians look back to the Pharaoh, Amenophis IV, also knows as Iknaton (1383-1365
B.C.E.) for a starting point.

Prior to the Hebrew’s enslavement, Amenophis IV abolished multiple idol worship in favor of
worshipping only the sun. Some scholars theorize that this abandonment of polytheism may
have been influenced by the presence of the Israelites who worshipped one G-d. When his
religious revolution was overturned and Egyptians returned to polytheism, the Israelites, who
worshipped the G-d of Abraham, became persecuted.

Many bible scholars accept Ramses II (1300-1234 or 1347-1280 B.C.E.) as the Pharaoh who
enslaved the Israelites. He was known for his massive ego and building programs. He was also
known for his use of slave labor. However, scholars believe it was his son, Menerptah, who
ruled the declining Egypt at the end of the thirteenth century B.C.E., the one most likely to have
seen the plagues and witnessed the splitting of the Red Sea.

The search for artifacts and documents still continues and there are still archeologists and
historians who debate its accuracy. As Jews, we believe the entire Torah version. If it’s wrong, it
would be the first time in history that an entire people conceived this kind of national myth.

Comparing Two Independent Sources to Show that

the Papyrus Account Seems to Parallel the Account of
the 10 Plagues
http://www.specialtyinterests.net/ipuwer.html

The information we have regarding the provenance of the Papyrus Ipuwer is

that it was copied by 19th Dynasty scribes and constitutes a part of what is
known as the Papyrus Leiden 334. Some newer translations present the
text in more contemporary expressions, i.e. `forsooth' becomes `why really',
but the basic content is the same.
Papyrus The Papyrus Ipuwer Describing a Disaster Exodus The Hebrew Scriptures on the 10 Plagues
2:5-6 "Plague is throughout the land. Blood is 7:21 "... there is blood throughout all the land of
everywhere." Egypt."
2:8 "Forsooth, the land turns round like a potter's
wheel."
2:10 "Forsooth, gates, columns and walls are 7:20 "... all the waters that were in the river turned to
consumed." blood."
2:10 Men shrink from tasting - human beings and 7:24 "And all the Egyptians dug round about the
thirst after water." river for water to drink."
2:11 "The towns are destroyed. Upper Egypt has
become dry (wastes?)."
2:13 "He who places his brother in the ground is 12:30 "... there was not a house where there was not
everywhere." one dead. ... there was a great cry in Egypt."
3:1 "Forsooth, the desert is throughout the land.
The nomes are laid waste. A foreign tribe from
abroad has come to Egypt."
3:10-13 "That is our water! That is our happiness! What 7:21 "... and the river stank."
shall we do in respect thereof? All is ruin."
3:14 "It is groaning that is throughout the land, 12:12 "... this night ... against all the gods of Egypt I
mingled with lamentations." will execute judgment."
4:2 "Forsooth, great and small say: I wish I might
 die."
4:3 "Forsooth, the children of princes are dashed
against the walls."
4:4 "Forsooth, those who were in the place of 12:29 "And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord
embalment are laid on the high ground." smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt,
from the first born of Pharaoh that sat on his
throne unto the first born of the captive that
was in the dungeon."
4:14 "Trees are destroyed. ... Years of noise [hrw].
There is no end to noise."
5:5 "All animals, their hearts weep. Cattle moan ..." 9:3 "... the hand of the Lord is upon thy cattle
which is in the field ... there shall be a grievous
morain."
9:19 "... gather thy cattle and all that thou hast in the
field ..."
5:12 "Forsooth, that has perished which yesterday
was seen. The land is left over to its weariness
like the cutting of flax."
5:14f "Would that there might be an end of men, no
conception, no birth! Oh, that the earth would
cease from noise, and tumult be no more!"
6:1 "No fruits nor herbs are found. ... hunger. ... 9:25 "... and the hail smote every herb of the field,
Oh, that the earth would cease from noise, and and brake every tree of the field."
tumult (uproar) be no more."
9:23-24 "... the fire ran along upon the ground. ... there
was hail, and fire mingled with the hail, very
grievous."
9:31-32 "... the flax and the barley was smitten: for the
barley was in the ear, and the flax was boiled.
But the wheat and the rye were not smitten: for
they were not grown up."
6:7 "Forsooth, public offices are opened and their
census lists are taken away."
6:9 "Forsooth, the laws of the judgment hall are
cast forth. Men walk upon [them] in the public
places."
6:12 "Forsooth, the children of princes are cast out
in the streets."
7:1 "Behold, the fire has mounted up on high. Its
burning goes forth against the enemies of the
land. ... weep ... the earth is ... on every side ...
weep."
7:4 "The residence is overturned in a minute."
7:20 "...all the waters that were in the river were
turned to blood."
7:21 "... there was blood throughout all the land of
Egypt. ... and the river stank."
8:14 "Behold, the chiefs of the land flee."
9:2-3 "Behold, no offices are in their (right) place, like 9:21 "And he that regarded not the word of the Lord
a frightened herd without a herdsmen. Behold, left his servants and his cattle in the field."
cattle are left to stray, and there is none to
gather them together.
Each man fetches for himself those that are
branded with his name."
9:11 "The land is not light ... " 10:22 "... and there was a thick darkness in all the
land of Egypt."
10:2 "Men flee ... Tents are what they make like the
dwellers of the hills ..."
10:3-6 "Lower Egypt weeps. ... The entire palace is 10:15 "... and there remained not any green thing in
without its revenues. To it belong (by right) the trees, or in the herbs of the fields, through
wheat and barley, geese and fish. The all the land of Egypt."
storehouse of the king is the common property "He smote their vines also and their fig trees;
of everyone." and brake the trees of their coasts." Psalms
105:33
12:6ff "Today fear ... more than a million of people.
Not seen ... enemies ... enter into the temples
... weep."
14:11 Men ... They have come to an end for
themselves. There are none found to stand
and protect themselves."
15:1 "What has happened? ... through it is to cause
the Asiatics to know the condition of the land."

Is the `Papyrus Ipuwer' for real? The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt by Margaret Bunson says
this:

"Admonitions of Ipuwer, a text recording the observations and adages of a sage who described
conditions in Egypt at the end of the Old or the Middle Kingdom. The Admonitions offer a
remarkably pessimistic view of Egyptian society and the state of affairs at the time, something
not seen frequently in Egyptian writings. The text was discovered in the Papyrus Leiden 334,
having been copied by 19th Dynasty scribes (c.1200 BCE; 6th century BC in revised view). The
Admonitions address an unidentified king with vivid images of invading tribesmen from the
desert wastes and other problems confronting Egypt at the time."

Entendiendo el Judaísmo

Por el Rab. Ken Spiro

Una vez que las plagas golpearon Egipto - sangre, piojos, ranas, etc. - la devastación continuó
por un año. Cada plaga fue un milagro visible, ya que cada una representó una fantástica
manipulación de la naturaleza. Las leyes de la naturaleza han cambiado para ayudar a los
judíos.

Los milagros visibles son una parte muy importante de la antigua historia judía. Después de la
destrucción del Primer Templo ellos desaparecieron, sin embargo, hubiera sido imposible que
los judíos sobrevivan sin milagros ocultos continuos.

La pregunta obvia que debemos formular al examinar las Diez Plagas es: ¿por qué? ¿Por qué
D-os escogió poner en libertad al pueblo judío por medio de este proceso tan largo y
desgastante? Si Él hubiera querido, siendo el Ser Todopoderoso, hubiera podido hacer que los
egipcios cayeran muertos en el primer encuentro con Moshé, o los hubiera congelado en el
momento, y los judíos hubieran podido empacar y dejar Egipto en cinco minutos.

Para explicar el por qué de las Diez Plagas antes que nada debemos explicar la postura del
judaísmo respecto de los milagros en general.

El judaísmo sostiene que la naturaleza no actúa independientemente de D-os, sino junto con
Él. D-os creó las leyes de la naturaleza y no interfiere con ellas. Seguro que D-os es capaz de
hacer lo que quiera, pero Él no juega así con el mundo físico y su funcionamiento. Por lo tanto,
la mayoría de los milagros son fenómenos naturales que ocurren en los momentos oportunos.

Pero las Diez Plagas son una notable excepción a la regla!

Una Completa Excepción

A diferencia de las Diez Plagas, la división del Mar de los Juncos, el Iam Suf, puede ser
explicada como un evento natural que ocurrió en el momento oportuno.

Hace algunos años, oceanógrafos documentaron que cada 2.500 años la combinación correcta
de vientos y marea van a causar que el océano se divida en el área del Mar de los Juncos. A
diferencia de la versión de la película, donde en pocos minutos el mar se divide, la historia de la
Biblia relata un proceso lento - justo como está documentado - del viento soplando toda la
noche y a la mañana siguiente un lugar seco aparece para caminar sobre él.

Hace 200 años Napoleón fue testigo de un mismo fenómeno.

¿Puedes imaginarte si esto te pasaría a ti? Justo en el momento que necesitabas cruzar el mar
éste se divide para ti durante la noche. Si un evento que ocurre estadísticamente una vez cada
2.500 años te pasara a ti, justo cuando lo necesitabas, no dirías "Esa es una combinación
interesante de vientos y mareas", sino que dirías "D-os mío, esto es un milagro!". Y esto es
precisamente lo que ocurrió muchas veces respecto de los milagros de la Biblia.

Sin embargo, no existe una explicación natural para las Diez Plagas. Las Diez Plagas son un
ejemplo claro de cómo D-os cambió las leyes de la naturaleza completamente.

Una de ellas fue el granizo - que debería haber sido agua congelada - pero que en este caso
estaba ardiendo; otra fue una oscuridad tan densa que no podían ver ni moverse; y por otro
lado, todo lo que les ocurría a los egipcios no le ocurría a los judíos. Todo un conjunto de cosas
sobrenaturales. ¿Por qué?

Toda la esencia de la idolatría es la creencia de que cada fuerza en la naturaleza tiene un dios
que la controla. En Egipto idolatraban al río Nilo, el dios sol, el dios gato, el dios becerro, etc…
Las diez plagas fueron diseñadas por D-os para cambiar todas las leyes de la naturaleza y
demostrar - no sólo al pueblo judío, sino a toda la humanidad a lo largo de toda la historia - que
solamente Él controla toda la naturaleza, todo el mundo físico y no existe nada fuera de Su
control.

Si examinamos las plagas cuidadosamente podemos ver que cada una fue diseñada para
demostrar el control de D-os sobre todas las fuerzas de la naturaleza: el agua y la tierra, hielo y
fuego, reptiles y mamíferos, luz y oscuridad, y finalmente la vida y la muerte.

La Evidencia Arqueológica

¿Tenemos evidencias de las Diez plagas en la arqueología?

Existe un período de diez años de la historia egipcia que data del tiempo en el cual reinó el
caos. Existen otras referencias: la más famosa es el Papiro Ipuwer. Esto es una serie de
papiros que describen varios eventos cataclísmicos en Egipto - sangre por todos lados, gente
muriendo, etc.

Immanuel Velikovsky usa el papiro Ipuwer como base para su libro "Worlds in Collison" en el
que dice que toda la historia del éxodo es verdad, pero que las plagas ocurrieron porque un
cometa pasó cerca de la tierra. También dice que el polvo del cometa transformó al agua en
líquido rojo y la fuerza del campo gravitacional del cometa dividió el mar, etc.

Sin embargo, si lees la Biblia, verás que la plaga de sangre, no fue sólo convertir al agua en un
líquido de color rojo. El Midrash nos dice que los egipcios sufrieron porque el agua se
transformó en sangre para ellos y para los judíos no.

A pesar de eso, existió una increíble resistencia de parte de los egipcios - y no sólo del Faraón,
sino de todo Egipto - para dejar salir a los judíos. Esto fue el antisemitismo clásico: “No importa
que mi país caiga, siempre y cuando pueda llevarme a los judíos conmigo”.
Este es realmente un patrón histórico muy común. Lo podemos ver respecto de Hitler: cuando
necesitaban los trenes para suministrar provisiones en el frente del Este, los utilizaron para
mandar judíos a Auschwitz. Estaban perdiendo la guerra, pero su energía principal siguió, no
para ganar, no para salvarse a ellos mismos, sino para matar a los judíos.

Finalmente, después de la muerte del primer primogénito, el Faraón dijo: "Váyanse!".

Los judíos se fueron, el mar se dividió, los egipcios los siguieron y se hundieron. Ese fue el
gran evento final … hasta la llegada al Monte Sinai.

Israel en Egipto
http://www.jabad.org.ar/notasdetail.asp?idnota=336&nota=si

Uno de los mayores misterios del pasado antiguo es la relación entre Israel y Egipto. Esto
puede sonar como una declaración peculiar tomando en consideración con qué cristalina
claridad nuestra tradición trata esta relación, pero no es aquí donde radica el misterio. El
misterio radica en la casi total ausencia, fuera de nuestra tradición, de mención alguna de esta
relación. ¿Por qué casi no hay mención alguna, en las antiguas inscripciones egipcias, acerca
del Exodo y la esclavitud de Israel?

Fue este hecho el que provocó, en cierta medida, que los

antisemitas del pasado, en particular los griegos y los romanos,
negaran que tuviéramos historia alguna. El antiguo historiador judío
Josefo dedica gran parte de su tiempo a contrarrestar este cargo
ante su audiencia romana. Dado que los romanos no tenían acceso
a nuestra tradición, estaba en la imperiosa necesidad de hacerlo.
Pero, con todo, perdura el enigma. ¿Por qué casi no hay mención
alguna, en las antiguas inscripciones egipcias, acerca del Éxodo y la esclavitud de Israel?
Hay unas contadas excepciones a esto, que la arqueología moderna ha descubierto, y un
examen de estas excepciones puede darnos una pista en cuanto a la respuesta a esta
pregunta.
Una es el así llamado "estilo de victoria" de Merenhotep, el rey durante la época de nuestra
esclavitud. Los reyes egipcios tenían el hábito de erigir monumentos de piedra sobre los que
registraban en sumo detalle, y comúnmente con gran exageración, todas sus victorias políticas
y militares. Este monumento recientemente descubierto registra su victoria sobre un "Israel". Es
la primera vez que esta palabra se encuentra en algún monumento antiguo.
El segundo ejemplo es la así llamada "Historia de Ipuwer". Ipuwer era un ordinario pero
versado egipcio que vivió en la época en que dejamos Egipto. Su historia no fue escrita sobre
piedra sino sobre papiro, que pudo sobrevivir únicamente a causa del aire sumamente seco de
Egipcio. No era un registro oficial sino un lamento privado. En él, Ipuwer describe una serie de
terribles vicisitudes que su nación había encarado recientemente, pruebas que lo dejaron a él y
a su familia desolado y desanimado. Su tono melancólico ofrece una visión pesimista del futuro
de su nación y es caracterizado por el terror de que la gran gloria de Egipto pudiera llegar a
semejante fin. Las dificultades que menciona presentan una llamativa similitud tanto en tema
como en orden, con las diez plagas que acompañaron nuestra partida de Egipto y que, de
hecho, golpearon a Egipto permanentemente expulsándolo del centro de la historia.
Examinemos por un momento estas dos referencias a nuestra temprana historia desde afuera
de nuestra tradición. Una es una exclamación pública de victoria sobre una nación sometida
destinada a proclamar la gloria del vencedor para siempre, noción que surge del hecho de que
fuera escrita en piedra. La otra es una endecha privada que relata el desastre nacional,
concebida para consuelo personal y, por lo tanto, no fue escrita en piedra.
A medida que el tiempo pasa de día en día y de año a año, la gente mira hacia atrás y escribe
historia. Lo que ve es una miríada extensa de complicados sucesos entretejidos y personajes.
Si el historiador simplemente escribiera todos estos hechos, nadie, ni siquiera los más grandes
eruditos, estarían interesados. Por lo que tamiza esta información, eligiendo una parte y
dejando detrás mucho más. Luego, interpreta su significado.
Tanto el cernido como la interpretación son actos que no se llevan a cabo en un vacío, sino que
están sujetos no solamente a los prejuicios del historiador sino también al efecto que éste
quiere producir con sus escritos. Lo podemos ver sucediendo ante nuestros propios ojos hoy
con el nuevo currículum en las escuelas exagerando el papel que las minoridades étnicas y las
feministas jugaron en la historia norteamericana. A menos de que la persona realmente viva un
suceso o tenga acceso a una tradición confiable transmitida a él por alguien que lo hizo, jamás
sabrá la genuina verdad sobre éste con estudiar historia. Cuando los reyes egipcios ponían
estas inscripciones, escribían historia, y estaban interesados en producir un efecto, su propia
autoglorificación. Naturalmente, no escribirían nada que estropearía este efecto, tal como un
Israel abandonando un Egipto en ruinas. Es por esto que no hay mención en los escritos
históricos de los grandes sucesos relatados en nuestra tradición. Los únicos que escribieron
historia fueron aquellos que no tenían interés alguno en estos agitados sucesos. El pueblo
judío no escribió historia, y la única razón de que se conocen estos eventos es porque nuestra
nación sobrevivió y, así, las tradiciones están hoy con nosotros. Pero Ipuwer tampoco escribía
historia. No trataba de producir efecto alguno salvo su propio consuelo. Y no era para nada
probable que su narración sobreviviera. Uno de los más grandes errores que todos los
historiadores tienen en común es que presumen que el hombre antiguo era en el mejor de los
casos un individuo burdo, y en el peor, un salvaje. En épocas antiguas esta equivocación se
debió a simple ignorancia. La Edad Media fue una extensa y opaca barrera que separó a los
historiadores de cualquier conocimiento preciso del pasado antiguo. En el último siglo la
arqueología ha resuelto este problema en cierta medida, pero otro más serio ha surgido. Es la
aceptación casi universal de la teoría de la evolución de las especies por medio de la selección
natural. Si el hombre evolucionó de una forma inferior de vida, obviamente, a medida que pasa
el tiempo, tanto más se aleja éste de esa forma inferior de vida. A ello se debe que todos los
historiadores se sienten desconcertados por los logros del hombre antiguo, como lo han
descubierto los registros arqueológicos. No tiene manera de explicar, por ejemplo, las
pirámides o la arquitectura antigua en general. Y esto, como lo admiten, en el amanecer de la
historia. Repentinamente, de ninguna parte, estalla una explosión de tecnología insuperada
hasta el siglo XX. Y por increíble que esto pudiera parecer, como no pueden explicarlo,
simplemente lo ignoran, especialmente sus implicaciones respecto de la evolución.

La Torá relata los grandes pasos que la tecnología dio a principios del mundo. Después del
diluvio, este crecimiento continuó. Pero hasta la Torre de Bavel, estaba restringido
generalmente a la Mesopotamia. Lo que es más importante, como no había guerra ni
nacionalismo, la tecnología no era considerada demasiado importante. Pero, con todo, la
pericia tecnológica práctica ciertamente continuaba creciendo. Después de la Torre y la
dispersión de las naciones pegó un salto como una flecha de un arco contraído y
repentinamente en Egipto comienza la edad de las grandes pirámides. Aparece
simultáneamente la monarquía absoluta, que encamina esta tecnología a su antojo. Este era el
Viejo Reino en Egipto, hace unos 42 siglos. Lentamente, esta monarquía se debilitó y surge un
corto período de feudalismo en el que los reyes son débiles y controlados por los nobles. Pero
pronto llega el Reino Medio, caracterizado nuevamente por una fuerte monarquía.
En este punto desciende una bruma y casi nada se conoce sobre los próximos cien años.
Parecería que un "fiero" pueblo semita llamado Hyksos invadió Egipto y se mantuvo en el poder
por un siglo aproximadamente. Casi nada se conoce de ellos. Nuevamente, porque su historia
no fue escrita por ellos sino por sus enemigos egipcios. Sabemos que a estos enemigos los
llamaron "el pueblo pastor" y se nos cuenta cómo libraron una guerra "despiadada" sobre el
paganismo egipcio. De hecho, ésta es una de las pocas cosas que sabemos sobre ellos porque
era una de las pocas cosas que a los egipcios no les importó que la historia supiera. Los
Hyksos eran iconoclastas. No dejaron detrás de sí ninguna imagen o estatuas de cualquier
cosa, ni de algún dios o de sí mismos. Y es por esto que sabemos tan poco sobre ellos. Esto
es en brusco contraste con los egipcios, quienes dejaron detrás todo tipo de monumentos y
estatuas. Y es por eso que fueron tan odiados y temidos por los egipcios.
Otro hecho importante que debe presentarse: fue por esta época que Avraham descendió a
Egipto. Es ocioso especular sobre la relación de Avraham con los Hyksos. ¿Eran ellos sus
discípulos, como Josefo parece implicar? Las "almas que ellos hicieron en Jarán".
¿Participaron ellos en su guerra contra los reyes? No se conoce lo suficiente como para hablar.
Mientras ciertamente no eran tan degenerados como los egipcios, muy bien podrían haber sido
responsables del problema que Avraham tuvo con su esposa cuando llegó. Y el odio que los
egipcios sentían por ellos explica otra cosa. En Parshat Miketz (Gen. 41:34) la Torá cuenta
cómo después de que Biniamín descendiera a Egipto Iosef invita a sus hermanos a comer con
él. La Torá detalla la muy misteriosa disposición de asientos en esta comida. Iosef se sentó
solo, sus hermanos se sentaron por separado como lo hicieron los egipcios. La Torá da una
razón. Los egipcios no podían comer con los Ivrí, los hebreos, porque era una abominación
para ellos. Onkelós explica que los egipcios adoraban los animales que los hebreos criaban
para alimento y ropa. Eran pastores. Luego, cuando Iosef quiso asegurarse de que su familia
podría radicarse en Góshen, lejos de los egipcios, les dijo que contaran al Faraón que eran
pastores. Esto aseguraría que los egipcios se mantendrían alejados de ellos. Con todo, parece
que los egipcios hubieran querido estar en términos más bien buenos con los judíos,
considerando el hecho de que eran una "abominación". ¿Qué tipo de abominación era ésta, y
cuán mala podría haber sido? ¡Era más de un siglo antes de que los judíos fueran
concretamente esclavizados y comenzara la persecución! Después de unos 100 años de
gobierno, una rebelión popular aplastó la dominación de los Hyksos y comenzó una nueva y
enérgica dinastía egipcia.
Este era el Nuevo Imperio. Imperio, porque ahora los egipcios hicieron algo que jamás antes
habían hecho. Comenzaron un movimiento de expansión nacional que habría de culminar en el
imperio oriental medio de Thutmose III. Por esto los reyes de egipto siempre estaban en busca
de sirvientes militares y civiles capaces de ganar y mantener este imperio. Fue por esta época
que Iosef fue vendido a Egipto. No sorprende que el rey egipcio lo reconociera de inmediato
como alguien a quien se podría usar para fomentar las necesidades de su imperio. Cuando
llegaron los demás he rmanos, varios años después, también puso sus ojos sobre ellos. Pero
la memoria y el odio a los Hyksos era todavía muy fuerte entre los egipcios y todo lo que los
hermanos tuvieron que hacer era decir que eran pastores para asegurarse de que los egipcios
no querrían trabar amistad con ellos. Así continuaron las cosas durante un siglo más; Israel
vivió en Góshen y evitó la asimilación. Por su parte, los egipcios no parecieron molestarlos.
Una de las marcas características del paganismo es la tolerancia religiosa. Si crees en 100
dioses, agregar uno más no habrá de molestarte demasiado. Los egipcios no eran tan
quisquillosos en cuanto a dioses nuevos. De hecho, ésta puede haber sido una de las causas
de la fricción con los Hyksos, quienes no se mostraban tan dóciles con esto.
Pero más o menos a mediados del siglo XV antes de la era común, surgió un rey en Egipto que
habría de poner fin a esto. Este era Amenhotep IV, mejor conocido como Iknatón. En la
literatura popular, e incluso en la literatura erudita, se sostiene ampliamente que él ha sido un
monoteísta. Muchas teorías románticas han soñado incluso los eruditos con respecto a su
relación con Israel. El no era, sin embargo, un verdadero monoteísta. Quizás sería mejor
llamarlo el primer fanático religioso del mundo. Simplemente proscribió todos los dioses
egipcios excepto el suyo. El no podía soportar que alguien adorara a dios alguno fuera del
suyo. Y aplicó una crueldad directa para suprimir a quienquiera no cumpliera con su voluntad,
tal como lo hacen todos los fanáticos religiosos. Pero los poderosos sacerdotes eran
demasiado fuertes para él y no se mantuvo en el poder demasiado tiempo. Después de su
muerte volvió el viejo orden. Pero Egipto jamás volvería a ser el mismo, de una forma que tuvo
una peso directo sobre el pueblo judío que vivía pacíficamente en Góshen. Una vez que la
semilla del fanatismo religioso es plantada, continuará creciendo. Aunque ya no quedaba rastro
alguno de la ideología de Iknatón tras su muerte, la atmósfera de fanatismo religioso que había
creado, perduró. Poco después se tomó sospechosa y peligrosa nota de Israel viviendo solo en
Góshen. Cuando Moshé y Aharón llegaron y se pararon ante el Faraón, éste no era el mismo
Faraón sensual de quien Avraham había tratado de ocultar a su esposa. Tampoco era el
mismo empresario constructor de imperios que estaba ávido de aprovecharse de Iosef y sus
hermanos. Era una ceñudo Faraón decidido a erradicar toda ideología que difiriera de la suya.
 Mondes en Collision

Mondes en Collision
par Immanuel Velikovsky

Le Monde Rouge, pages 48-49

Au milieu du second millénaire précédant notre ère (il y a environ 3500 ans), la Terre
subit la plus grosse catastrophe de son histoire. Un corps céleste ... approcha la Terre de
très près. Le récit de cette catastrophe peut être reconstitué à partir des preuves fournies
par un grand nombre de documents. La comète ... toucha d’abord la Terre par sa queue
faite de gaz. .. Servius écrit, « elle n’était pas rouge feu, mais rouge sang. »

L’un des premiers signes visibles de cette rencontre fut le rougeoiement de la surface de la
Terre causé par une fine poussière de couleur rouille. Dans la mer, les lacs, et les rivières,
ce pigment donna une coloration sang à l’eau. La Terre vira au rouge à cause de ces
particules de couleur ferrugineuse ou autre qui se dissolvaient dans l’eau.

Le Manuscrit Quiche des Mayas dit que dans l’Hémisphère Ouest, lors d’un grand
cataclysme, quand la Terre fut secouée et que le mouvement du Soleil s’interrompit, l’eau
des rivières vira au rouge.

Ipuwer, le témoin égyptien de cette catastrophe, écrivit cette complainte sur papyrus, « La
rivière est en sang », et cela correspond au Livre de l’Exode 7:20 : « toutes les eaux qui
sont dans le Fleuve se changèrent en sang. »

L’Ombre de la Mort, pages 127-128

Si l’éruption d’un volcan peut à elle seule assombrir l’atmosphère tout autour du globe,
l’éruption simultanée et prolongée de milliers de volcans rendrait le ciel complètement
noir. Les volcans vomissent de la vapeur d’eau mais aussi des cendres. A la suite du
cataclysme, l’auteur de Codex Chimalpopoca , dans son histoire des soleils, nous parle
d’un phénomène céleste terrifiant.. suivi par une obscurité qui couvrit la surface de la
Terre, cela en un instant et qui dura 25 ans.

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 Mondes en Collision

Dans le Papyrus Ermitage de Leningrad .. on trouve des complaintes concernant une

catastrophe épouvantable, où le ciel et la Terre furent mis sens dessus dessous. Après cette
catastrophe, l’obscurité envahit la Terre. L’Ombre de la Mort fait référence au temps
d’errance dans le désert après l’Exode d’Egypte. La signification sinistre des mots «
ombre de la mort » correspond à la description faite dans le Papyrus Ermitage : «
Personne ne peut survivre lorsque le Soleil est voilé par des nuages ».

Le phénomène de ténèbres qui perdura des années s’est imprimé dans la mémoire des
Douze Tribus et est mentionné dans de nombreux versets bibliques. Psaumes 44 :19 - « Le
peuple qui marchait dans l’obscurité .. sur la terre où plane l’ombre de la mort. »

L’Histoire la Plus Incroyable, page 39

On raconte (une) histoire à propos de Josué ben Num qui, en poursuivant les rois amorites
à Bet-Horôn, implora le Soleil et la Lune de rester immobiles. Josué (10 :12-13) :

« Et le soleil s’arrêta, et la lune se tint immobile jusqu'à ce que le peuple se fût vengé de
ses ennemis. Cela n’est il pas écrit dans le livre du Juste? Le soleil se tint immobile au
milieu du ciel et près d’un jour entier retarda son coucher. »

De l’Autre Côté de l’Océan, pages 45-46

Le Livre de Josué, compilation du Livre de Jasher encore plus ancien, déclare que le soleil
se tint immobile au dessus de Gabaôn et la lune au dessus de la vallée d’Ayyalôn. Cette
description des luminaires indique qu’il s’agissait de l’après-midi. Le Livre de Josué dit
que les luminaires se tinrent au milieu du ciel. Avec la différence de longitude, cela dut se
passer tôt le matin ou même la nuit dans l’hémisphère Ouest.

Nous nous rendons là où sur des étagères on trouve les traditions historiques des
aborigènes d’Amérique Centrale. Les marins de Colomb et de Cortes, en arrivant en
Amérique, y trouvèrent des gens lettrés qui possédaient des livres. Dans les Annales de
Cuauhtitlan au Mexique, écrites en indien Nahua, il est rapporté que lors d’une
catastrophe cosmique qui se produisit par le passé, la nuit ne cessa pas pendant très
longtemps.

Sahagun, le savant espagnol qui se rendit en Amérique une génération après Christophe
Colomb et qui recueillit des informations sur les traditions aborigènes, écrivit qu’au temps
d’une catastrophe cosmique, le Soleil resta bas sur l’horizon après s’être levé et y resta
sans bouger. La Lune aussi se tint immobile. Les légendes bibliques n’étaient pas connues
des aborigènes. Il convient de dire que cette tradition transmise grâce à Sahagun ne
montrait aucunement qu’elle ait pu avoir été introduite par les missionnaires.

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 Mondes en Collision

Naphta, pages 53-55

Le pétrole brut est constitué de deux éléments, le carbone et l’hydrogène. La théorie

inorganique (de l’origine du pétrole affirme que) l’hydrogène et le carbone furent produits
ensemble dans les formations rocheuses de la Terre sous l’effet de pression et de chaleur
intense. Les queues des comètes sont pour l’essentiel constituées de gaz carbonique et
d’hydrogène. Comme l’oxygène n’est pas présent, ces gaz ne brûlent pas en vol, mais les
gaz inflammables prennent feu en engageant tout l’oxygène à disposition lorsqu’ils
traversent une atmosphère qui en contient. La descente sur Terre d’un fluide gluant qui
flambait en faisant une épaisse fumée est rapportée dans les traditions orales et écrites des
habitants des deux hémisphères.

Le Popol-Vuh, le livre sacré des Mayas, raconte que les « Gens se noyaient dans une
substance gluante qui pleuvait du ciel... et puis il y eut cet épouvantable vacarme que fit
un incendie au-dessus de leurs têtes. » Toute la population de l’endroit fut anéantie. Un
récit identique est conservé dans les Annales de Cuauhtitlan. L’ère qui se termina dans
une pluie de feu fut appelée « le soleil de pluie-feu ».

En Sibérie, les Voguls perpétuèrent ce souvenir à travers les siècles et les millénaires. «
Dieu envoya un océan de feu sur la Terre. » Dans l’Inde de l’est, les tribus aborigènes
rapportent que dans un lointain passé, de l’ « eau de feu » tomba du ciel. A de très rares
exceptions près, tous les hommes moururent. Le papyrus (égyptien) Ipuwer décrit ce feu
dévorant. « Les portails, les colonnes, et toutes les murailles se retrouvèrent consumées
par le feu. Le ciel est chamboulé. » Le papyrus dit que ce feu extermina presque toute
l’humanité.

Tremblement de Terre, pages 62-65

La raison pour laquelle les Israéliens eurent plus de chance que les Egyptiens réside
probablement dans le fait que leurs demeures étaient construites avec un matériau
différent. Comme ils occupaient une région marécageuse où ils travaillaient l’argile, les
prisonniers devaient vivre dans des huttes faites de glaise et de roseaux, plus élastiques
que la brique et la pierre. Dans les annales mexicaines, il est dit qu’au cours d’une
catastrophe accompagnée d’ouragans et de séismes, seules les personnes qui vivaient dans
de petites cabanes de rondins eurent la vie sauve. Les bâtiments plus grands furent
balayés. Ils remarquèrent que ceux qui vivaient dans de petites maisons s’en tirèrent, tout
comme les jeunes mariés pour lesquels la tradition voulaient qu’ils habitent dans de petites
cabanes faisant face à celle de leurs beaux parents.

L’Exode (12 : 29) déclare « Par ma foi. Les enfants des princes sont violemment heurtés
contre les murs ... les enfants des princes sont projetés dans les rues . » La population prit

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 Mondes en Collision

la fuite. Ipuwer écrivit que « les hommes fuient... ils fabriquent des tentes, comme les
hommes des montagnes. » La population d’une ville détruite par un séisme passe
généralement la nuit dehors.

Cela se produisit dans la nuit du 14ème jour du mois d’Abib. (Exode 12 : 6 et 13 : 4) C’est
la nuit de la Pâque, car les juifs célébraient autrefois la Pâque dans la nuit du 14 Abib.
Alors que les Hébreux comptaient les heures depuis le lever de Soleil, ce qu’ils font
encore aujourd’hui, les Egyptiens se basaient eux sur le coucher du Soleil. Pour les
Egyptiens, on était le 13. Nous avons là la réponse à la superstition qui plane sur le
nombre 13, et surtout sur le 13ème jour, supposé être un jour de malchance et de mauvaise
augure. (Il n’existe aucun) rapport de cette croyance datant d’avant l’Exode.

Le Raz de Marée, pages 70-75

Le ralentissement et l’arrêt de la rotation terrestre provoquerait une récession des eaux

sous forme de raz de marée vers les pôles, mais le corps céleste en présence perturberait
cette récession en attirant les eaux de son côté. Il y a cette constante dans les traditions de
nombreux peuples que les eaux se déchirèrent, qu’elles se soulevèrent très haut et
envahirent les continents.

Dans leurs légendes, les peuples du Pérou racontent que pendant un certain temps il n’y
eut plus de Soleil dans le ciel, que les océans s’éloignèrent d’abord du rivage puis que
dans un terrible vacarme ils vinrent à nouveau déferler sur les continents. Les indiens
Choctaw de l’Oklahoma rapportent: « La Terre fut plongée dans l’obscurité pendant
longtemps. » A la fin, une lumière noire apparut vers le nord, « mais c’était des vagues
hautes comme des montagnes, qui nous arrivaient dessus à toute vitesse. » Selon l’épopée
Lapland, après que la muraille d’eau se soit abattue sur le continent, des vagues
gigantesques continuèrent de déferler et les cadavres étaient violemment secoués dans ces
eaux noires.

La traversée de la Mer Rouge par les Hébreux (raconte que) le fond de la mer était à nu et
que les eaux furent rejetées de chaque côté et soulevées comme pour former deux
murailles. La version de la Bible des Septante dit que les eaux restèrent aussi immobiles
qu’un « mur » et le Coran, en référence à cet événement, parle de « montagnes ». Dans la
vieille littérature des rabbins, on dit que les eaux semblaient suspendues comme si elles
avaient été faites de « verre, solide et massif ».

L’ouragan, pages 67-69

Le Manuscrit Troano ainsi que d’autres documents mayas décrivent une catastrophe
cosmique au cours de laquelle l’océan envahit le continent, lors qu’un ouragan terrible
balaya les terres. L’ouragan démantela toutes villes et toutes forêts et les emporta dans sa

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Mondes en Collision

course. Une violente tornade descendit du ciel et chahuta les décombres. La fin du monde
était envoyé par Hurakan. Le mot ouragan vient de là, qui désigne un vent fort.

Le thème de l’ouragan cosmique est repris maintes et maintes fois dans les Vedas hindous
et dans l’Avesta persan. La 11ème tablette de l’Epopée de Gilgamesh dit que pendant 6
jours et 6 nuits l’ouragan, le déluge et la tempête balayèrent les terres sans discontinuer et
que l’humanité périt presque toute en même temps. Les Maoris racontent qu’au cours
d’une formidable catastrophe des vents puissants, des bourrasques redoutables, des nuages
épais, noirs, embrasés, et qui se déplaçaient à des vitesses affolantes, éclatèrent au hasard
pour fondre sur la création, ... et qu’ils balayèrent des forêts entières et cinglèrent les eaux
pour les soulever en des vagues dont les crêtes atteignaient les sommets des montagnes.

Les polynésiens vénèrent un dieu appelé Taafunua. En arabe, Tyfoon est une trombe de
vent et Tufan est le Déluge ; et on trouve le même mot Ty-fong chez les Chinois. Il
semble que le bruit de l’ouragan ... n’était pas très différent de celui désigné par le mot
Typhon.

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Le papyrus du scribe Ipuwer

Le papyrus du scribe égyptien Ipuwer

décrit avec une précision biblique
la catastrophe de l'Exode

Ce papyrus, très endommagé, est actuellement conservé au Musée de

Leiden en Hollande sous la référence 344. Découvert près de Memphis,
en Egypte, au début du 19ème siècle, il a été traduit en 1909 par un
grand égyptologue anglais, Sir Alan Henderson Gardiner, spécialiste de
l'écriture hiératique. Le texte de ce papyrus représenté ci-dessous est
écrit en cursive égyptienne antique, appelée aussi hiératique, une
écriture dérivée des hiéroglyphes sculptés dans les monuments de
l'Egypte antique.

Ce papyrus décrit de violents cataclysmes en Egypte, la famine, la

sécheresse, la fuite des esclaves emportant les richesses des égyptiens,

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Le papyrus du scribe Ipuwer

et la mort ravageant tout le pays. Ecrit par le scribe Ipuwer au cours de

la 12ème dynastie égyptienne et recopié pendant la 19ème, ce papyrus
est le récit d'un témoin oculaire d'une terrible catastrophe qui s'est
abattue sur le royaume d'Egypte.

Ce récit ressemble étrangement à celui de la Torah des hébreux (Livre

de l'Exode) décrivant les effets des 10 plaies d'Egypte. Le papyrus
Ipuwer et le Livre de l'Exode peuvent se comparer à des articles de deux
journalistes antiques, l'un égyptien et l'autre hébreu, assistant horrifiés
et impuissants à la même catastrophe inexplicable.

Comparaison de deux récits antiques d'une même catastrophe

PAPYRUS IPUWER
TORAH
(Papyrus n°344, Musée de Leiden,
(Livre de l'Exode)
Hollande)

2:5-6 La peste s'est abattue sur tout le pays.

7:20 Toute l'eau du fleuve fut changée en
Il y a du sang partout.
sang.
2:10 Le fleuve est de sang.
7:21 Il y avait du sang sur toute la Terre
d'Egypte et le fleuve puait.
2:10 Les hommes ont peur de goûter l'eau.
Les humains ont soif d'eau.
7:24 Et tous les Egyptiens creusèrent le sol
aux abords du Nil pour trouver de l'eau
3:10-13 C'est notre eau! C'est notre
potable, car ils ne pouvaient boire l'eau du
bonheur! Que pouvons nous faire? Tout est
fleuve.
en ruine.

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Le papyrus du scribe Ipuwer
2:10 En vérité, les portes, les colonnes et les
murs de la ville sont détruits par le feu.
10:3-6 La Basse Egypte pleure. Le palais
entier est privé de revenus, alors que le blé
et l'orge, les oies et les poissons, lui
reviennent de droit.
6:3 En vérité, le grain a péri de tous les côtés.
5:12 En vérité, ce que l'on voyait hier a
disparu aujourd'hui. La campagne est
désertée et la cueillette du lin abandonnée.
5:5 Le coeur de tous les animaux pleure. Les
troupeaux gémissent...
9:2-3 Vois, les troupeaux sont abandonnés,
et il n'y a personne pour les rassembler.
9:11 Le pays est sans lumière.
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9:23-24 Et le feu courait le long du sol... il y
eut de la grêle et du feu mêlé à la grêle, une
grêle très forte...
9:25 Et la grêle frappa toute l'herbe des
champs et brisa tous les arbres des champs.
9:31-32 Et le lin et l'orge furent frappés, car
l'orge était en épis, et le lin en fleurs. Mais le
blé et le seigle ne furent pas frappés car ils
sont tardifs.
10:15 Et il ne resta aucune verdure sur les
arbres ou sur l'herbe des champs dans tout
le pays d'Egypte.
9:3 La main de l'Eternel frappera les
troupeaux qui sont dans les champs... et il y
aura une peste très grave.
9:19 ...rassemble à la hâte tes troupeaux, et
tout ce que tu possèdes dans les champs...
9:21 Et celui qui n'écouta pas la parole de
l'Eternel, laissa ses serviteurs et ses
troupeaux dans les champs.
10:22 Et il y eut une obscurité épaisse sur
tout le pays d'Egypte.
Le papyrus du scribe Ipuwer

4:3 (5:6) En vérité, les enfants des princes

sont précipités contre les murs. 12:29 Et il arriva, au milieu de la nuit, que
l'Eternel frappa tous les premiers-nés dans
le pays d'Egypte, depuis le premier-né du
6:12 En vérité, les enfants des princes sont
Pharaon qui était assis sur son trône,
jetés dans les rues.
jusqu'au premier-né du captif qui était dans
la prison.
6:3 La prison est en ruine.
12:30 ...il n'y avait pas de maison où il n'y
2:13 Partout le frère enterre son frère. eût un mort.

3:14 Des gémissements s'élèvent dans tout le 12:30 ...il y eut un grand cri en Egypte.
pays, se mêlant aux lamentations.

13:21 ...le jour dans une colonne de nuée

7:1 Vois, le feu s'élève dans le ciel. Ses
pour leur indiquer la route, et la nuit dans
flammes se dirigent vers les ennemis du
une colonne de feu, pour les éclairer, afin
pays.
qu'ils puissent marcher de jour et de nuit.

12:35-36 ...et ils demandèrent aux

Egyptiens, des objets d'argent, des objets
3:2 L'or et le lapis-lazuli, l'argent et la
d'or et des vêtements. Et l'Eternel fit que le
malachite, la carnélite et le bronze sont
peuple des Israélites trouvât grâce aux yeux
autour du cou des esclaves femelles.
des Egyptiens qui acceptèrent leurs
demandes. Ils dépouillèrent ainsi l'Egypte
de ses richesses.

Un véritable reportage d'une catastrophe antique

L'égyptien Ipuwer fit sur son papyrus un véritable reportage de la

catastrophe : « Le fleuve (Le Nil) est de sang, ...toute l'eau du fleuve se
changera en sang, ...la peste s'est abattue sur le pays entier. Le sang est
partout ».

La présence d'un pigment de couleur rouge dans le Nil provoqua la mort

des poissons, suivie de leur décomposition ce qui entraîna la puanteur
constatée par le rédacteur du Livre de l'Exode : « et le fleuve devint
infect, ... et tous les Egyptiens creusèrent le sol aux abords du Nil pour
trouver de l'eau potable, car ils ne pouvaient boire celle du fleuve ».

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Le papyrus du scribe Ipuwer

Et le scribe Ipuwer enchaîne : « Les hommes ont peur de goûter l'eau.

Les humains ont soif d'eau. C'est notre eau! C'est notre bonheur! Que
pouvons nous faire? Tout est en ruine ». La peau des hommes et des
animaux fut irritée par la poussière qui provoquait des pustules, la
maladie, et la mort du bétail, « une peste terrible ». Les bêtes sauvages,
effrayées par les présages du ciel, s'approchaient des villages et des
cités.

Que s'est-il passé?

Velikovsky déclare dans son livre Mondes en collision : « J'entends

établir qu'au milieu du deuxième millénaire avant notre ère, la Terre
subit l'un des plus grands cataclysmes de son histoire. Un corps céleste,
tout récemment entré dans le système solaire - une nouvelle comète -
s'approcha très près de la Terre. On peut reconstituer le récit de ce
cataclysme d'après les témoignages fournis par un grand nombre de
documents ».

L'un des premiers signes visibles de cette rencontre fut la couleur rouge
que prit la surface de la Terre, sous l'influence d'une fine poussière de
pigments couleur rouille. Dans les mers, les lacs et les rivières, ce
pigment donna à l'eau la couleur du sang. Sous l'effet de ces particules,
ou de quelque autre pigment soluble, le monde devint rouge. Le
Manuscrit Quiché des Mayas nous rapporte que dans l'hémisphère
occidental, aux temps d'un grand cataclysme où la Terre trembla et où le
mouvement du Soleil s'interrompit, l'eau des rivières fut transformée en
sang.

Fermer cette Fenêtre

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DESENTRAÑANDO LA HISTORIA OCULTA DE LA TIERRA

IMMANUEL VELIKOVSKY
Immanuel Velikovsky nos ofrece un genial estudio comparativo de diversos antecedentes históricos ,
que nos permite deducir que el planeta Tierra ha estado expuesto a periódicas catástrofes que han
moldeado su geología , y que ha marcado dramáticamente la historia de la humanidad . A continuación
ofrecemos algunos de sus mas destacados extractos

La mas increíble historia de milagros es relatada por Joshua ben Nun , quien en busca de los reyes
cananitas en Beth - Horon imploró al Sol y la Luna que permanecieran detenidos . Y en presencia de
Israel dijo : " Sol , has de permanecer quieto sobre Gibeon , y tú , Luna , en el valle de Ajalon . Y el Sol y
la Luna se quedaron quietos , hasta que el pueblo se hubo vengado de sus enemigos . Acaso no está
escrito en el Libro de Jasher ? Así el Sol y la Luna se quedaron detenidos en medio del cielo , y no
descendieron en todo el día " ( Joshua 10:12-13 )

Esta historia está mas allá de la credibilidad de la persona mas imaginativa y creyente . Grandes olas de
océanos agitados pueden haber arrollado a algunos y sido clementes con otros . La tierra puede haberse
abierto y tragado a las gentes . El Jordan pudo haber sido bloqueado por un banco que repentinamente
cayó al lecho del río . Las Murallas de Jericó pudieron haber sido derribadas , no por el sonido de
trompetas , sino por efecto de un sismo

Pero de allí a que el Sol y la Luna se hayan detenido en su viaje a través del firmamento , sólo podría ser
fruto de la fantasía y la imaginación del poeta : una metáfora , un evento imposible sólo sujeto a la
creencia que sólo se podría creer como una manifestación de la voluntad del Ser Supremo

De acuerdo a nuestros conocimientos actuales - no al conocimiento de la época en que el Libro de

Joshua o de Jasher fuera escrito - esto sólo pudo suceder si la Tierra hubiera cesado de rotar por un
período de tiempo . Es posible tal perturbación ? . No existe registro alguno de tal evento en los anales
de la Tierra . Cada año dura 365 días , 5 horas y 49 minutos

Que la Tierra pudiera romper su régimen normal de rotación podría ser factible , pero sólo en el
improbable evento de que nuestro planeta se encontrara con otro cuerpo celeste de masa suficiente como
para interrumpir el eterno movimiento de la Tierra

Es cierto que los meteoritos y aerolitos salen al paso de nuestra Tierra constantemente , a veces por
miles o decenas de miles . Pero nunca se ha llegado a percibir una alteración en la constante rotación de
la Tierra

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Pero esto no quiere decir que un gran cuerpo celeste , o un grupo de ellos , pueda alguna vez haber
enfrentado a la esfera terrestre . La gran cantidad de asteroides localizados entre Marte y Júpiter sugiere
que en tiempos remotos un planeta desconocido debe haber ocupado su posición : en la actualidad sólo
quedan estos meteoritos que siguen su ronda en la misma órbita que el destruido planeta debe haber
ocupado alrededor del Sol . Es posible que un gran cometa se haya abalanzado sobre él y lo haya
destrozado

Que un cometa pueda impactar a la Tierra es una idea improbable , pero no imposible . El mecanismo
celeste trabaja con precisión casi absoluta . Pero cometas por miles , por millones , de órbitas inestables ,
extraviados en la inmensidad del universo , se desplazan como un enjambre , y pueden llegar a
interrumpir nuestra armonía . Algunos de ellos pertenecen a nuestro propio sistema . Retornan
periódicamente , pero no con una frecuencia precisa ya que están sujetos a las perturbaciones
gravitacionales de cuerpos mayores cuando pasan por la vecindad de ellos . Pero otros innumerables
cometas , visibles sólo con telescopio , llegan viajando desde el espacio inconmensurable a gran
velocidad y luego desaparecen , posiblemente para siempre . Algunos son visibles por algunas horas ,
otros por días e incluso meses

Puede ser posible que la Tierra , nuestra vieja y querida Tierra en que posamos nuestros pies , pudiera
ser arrollada por una gran masa de meteoritos que atraviese como un tren a gran velocidad por el interior
del Sistema Solar ?

Esta posibilidad ha sido fervorosamente analizada durante el último siglo . Desde la época de
Aristóteles , quien afirmara que un meteorito que cayera en Aegospotami cuando se vio un cometa arder
en los cielos , había sido levantado del suelo por el viento y dejado caer en ese lugar , hasta 1803 cuando
el 26 de Abril una lluvia de meteoritos cayó sobre l'Aigle en Francia y fue investigada por Biot y la
Academia Francesa de Ciencias , los científicos - pasando por Copérnico , Galileo , Kepler , Newton y
Huygens - nunca pensaron que tal lluvia de rocas cayendo desde el cielo fuera posible , Y esto a pesar de
que en muchas ocasiones meteoritos cayeron desde el cielo ante los ojos de la multitud , tal como
aconteció el 7 de Noviembre de 1492 ante el Emperador Maximiliano y su corte en Ensisheim , Alsacia

Poco después de 1803 la Academia de Ciencias de París rehusó creer que , en otra ocasión , había
llovido piedras del cielo . La caída de meteoritos el 24 de Julio de 1790 en el sudoeste de Francia fue
declarada " un fenómeno físicamente imposible " . Sin embargo , desde 1803 los científicos sí han creído
que piedras cayeron del cielo . Si han caído meteoritos y ocasionalmente una lluvia de piedras también ,
no podría un cometa estrellarse con la superficie de la Tierra ? . Se calculó que era posible , aunque
bastante improbable

Si la cabeza de un cometa pasara muy cerca de la Tierra como para afectar su rotación o su órbita ,
probablemente ocurriría otro fenómeno : una lluvia de meteoritos que aumentaría hasta convertirse en un
torrente . Las piedras que lograran pasar a través de la atmósfera caerían sobre nuestras casas y nuestras
cabezas . En el Libro de Joshua hay dos versos anteriores a aquel pasaje en que el Sol permanece
inmóvil en los cielos por un gran número de horas sin moverse de Occidente , que dice :

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" Cuando los reyes Cananita abandonaron Israel y estaban en camino a Beth-Horon . . .
el Señor dejó caer grandes rocas del cielo sobre Azekah , y ellos murieron : muchos mas
murieron por las rocas de Barad caídas del cielo que por las espadas de los hijos de
Israel " ( Joshua 10:11 )

Seguramente el autor del Libro de Joshua no era consciente de la conexión entre estos dos fenómenos .
No podemos esperar que haya conocido la naturaleza de los aerolitos , las fuerzas de atracción que rigen
los cuerpos celestes y todo lo demás . Puesto que el Libro registra que ambos acontecimientos
sucedieron en conjunto , es poco probable de que hayan sido materia de la imaginación

Meteoritos cayeron en torrente sobre la Tierra . Deben haber caído en grandes cantidades , ya que
abatieron mas guerreros que las espadas de sus adversarios . Tal torrente sólo se explica si un tren de
meteoritos o la cola de un cometa hubiera envestido nuestro planeta

La cita bíblica del Libro de Jasher es escueta y puede dejar la impresión de que el fenómeno del Sol
inmóvil habría sido un fenómeno local , que afectó sólo a Palestina entre los valles de Ajalon y Gibeon .
Pero el carácter universal de este prodigio se retrata en la Plegaria de Gracias adscrita a Joshua :

" Sol y Luna se quedaron quietos en el cielo , y permanecieron en su ira contra nuestros
opresores . . .
" Todos los principes de la Tierra se pusieron de pie , los reyes de las naciones se
reunieron . . .
" Y les destruyo en su furia , y les arruino en su enojo . . .
" Naciones estremecidas por temor a El , todos los reinos estremecidos por su furia . . .
" Y descargo su furia en contra de ellos , y les estremecio con su ira . . .
" La Tierra se estremecio y temblo con ruido de tempestad . . .
" Y les persiguio en la tormenta , y les consumio en su huracan . . .
" Sus moradas ya no eran mas que basura . . . " ( Ginzberg , Leyendas , IV , 11 - 12 )

El amplio radio que la furia de los cielos descargó sobre la Tierra queda enfatizado en la frase : " Todos
los reinos estremecidos . . . "

Un torrente de grandes piedras cayendo del cielo , un terremoto , un huracán , una perturbación en el
movimiento de la Tierra . . . Estos cuatro fenómenos van juntos . Parece que un gran cometa pasó muy
cerca de nuestro planeta e interrumpió su movimiento . Una parte de su cola irrumpió a través de la
atmósfera y barrió la Tierra con gran ruido y resplandor

Podemos afirmar en base al Libro de Joshua que en un momento en la mitad del segundo milenio antes
de nuestra era el movimiento de la Tierra fue interrumpido por la presencia de un gran cometa ? . Tal
afirmación tiene tantas implicancias , que no puede ser lanzada sin una base firme . Sin embargo ,
declaro que hay abundante y sólida evidencia , y que el presente trabajo descubre insospechadas
relaciones entre gran cantidad de documentos y referencias que sostienen la tesis que presentamos en
este libro

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Tenemos ante nosotros un problema mecánico . Los puntos de las capas externas de la Tierra localizados
encima del Ecuador giran a mayor velocidad lineal que aquellos localizados hacia el interior o mas cerca
de los polos . En consecuencia , si la Tierra quedara detenida en su movimiento ( o retardada ) las capas
interiores quedarían detenidas ( o con movimiento mas lento ) en su rotación , mientas las capas
exteriores o cercanas al Ecuador tenderían a seguir rotando . Esto generaría un fuerte roce entre varios
estratos fluidos o semi-fluidos , generando calor . Las capas sólidas de la periferia de la corteza terrestre
se resquebrajarían y se separarían , provocando que cadenas montañosas o continentes enteros se
levantaran o se sumergieran

Como demostraré mas adelante , se erigieron montañas y otras desaparecieron del nivel del terreno . Se
calentaron los océanos y los continentes . El mar hirvió y la roca se hizo líquida en muchos lugares . Los
volcanes se despertaron y los bosques ardieron . Acaso una súbita detención en la rotación de la Tierra ,
que normalmente gira a un poco mas de 1,000 mi/hr en el Ecuador , no implicaría una total
destrucción ? . Puesto que el mundo sobrevivió , debe haber existido algún mecanismo que atenuó los
efectos de la detención de la Tierra , si es que así ocurrió , o hubo una gran disipación de energía en
forma diferente al calor , o ambos . O bien , si la rotación de la Tierra persistió inalterable , los polos y el
eje terrestre deben haber sido desplazados en presencia de un fuerte campo magnético , de manera que el
Sol parece haber perdido su movimiento en el cielo durante muchas horas . Estas alternativas son
desarrolladas en el Epílogo de este libro

Al Otro Lado Del Mundo

El Libro de Joshua , compilado del todavía mas antiguo Libro de Jasher , relata el orden de los eventos :
" Joshua subió desde Gilgal durante toda la noche . . . A primera hora de la mañana cayó sobre sus
desprevenidos enemigos en Gibeon , y los persiguió a lo largo del camino que lleva a Beth - Horon . . .
Cuando éstos huían , grandes piedras cayeron del cielo . . . En el mismo día ( el día en que el Señor
entregó a los Amoritas ) el Sol permaneció detenido en el cielo sobre Gibeon y la Luna encima del valle
de Ajalon "

Esta descripción de la posición de las luminarias implica que el Sol ocupaba una posición adelantada a la
Luna . El Libro de Joshua afirma que las luminarias se quedaron quietas en medio del cielo

Considerando la diferencia de longitud , debe haber sido temprano en la mañana o todavía noche en el
Hemisferio Occidental

Podemos partir de este punto e investigar libros históricos y tradicionales de los aborígenes de América
Central

Los marinos de Colón y Cortés al llegar a América encontraron allí pobladores cultos que ya tenían sus
propios libros . La mayor parte de estos libros fue quemada en el siglo XVI por los monjes dominicos .
Muy pocos manuscritos antiguos sobrevivieron , y son actualmente preservados en las bibliotecas de
París , el Vaticano , del Prado y Dresden . Se les llama " códigos " , y sus textos han sido estudiados y

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parcialmente descifrados . Sin embrago , entre los aborígenes de la época de la conquista y de los siglos
siguientes hubo hombres instruidos que tuvieron acceso al conocimiento escrito por sus antepasados en
caracteres criptográficos

En los Anales de Cuauhtitlan de México - la historia del imperio Culhuacan , escrita en Nahua - del siglo
XVI , se consigna que en un remoto pasado la noche no terminó por largo tiempo

La Biblia menciona que el Sol se quedó quieto en el cielo por largo tiempo . El Midrashim , cuerpo de
libros no incluido en la Biblia relata que el Sol y la Luna se quedaron quietos por un periodo de 36 itim ,
o 18 horas , y en consecuencia el lapso transcurrido entre la salida y la puesta del Sol sería de
aproximadamente 30 horas

En loa anales mexicanos se establece que el mundo quedó privado de luz y que el Sol no salió durante
una prolongada noche , cuya duración no pudo ser medida por falta de los medios adecuados

Sahagun , el sabio español que visitó América una generación después de Colón , quien recopilara las
tradiciones aborígenes , escribió que en un evento cósmico del pasado el Sol sólo se elevó un poco sobre
el horizonte y se quedó allí sin moverse por largo tiempo , mientras la Luna permaneció quieta

En primer lugar me estoy refiriendo al Hemisferio Occidental , ya que las historias bíblicas no eran
conocidas por los aborígenes cuando América fue descubierta . Además , las tradiciones preservadas por
Sahagun no tienen trazas de haber sido manipuladas por los misioneros . El ellas no hay huellas que
sugieran la presencia de Joshua ben Nun y sus guerras contra los reyes Canaanitas . Y la posición del Sol
difiere de la del texto bíblico , pero concuerda con ella para el Hemisferio Occidental

Es posible seguir un sendero alrededor de la Tierra y explorar lo que afirman diversas tradiciones con
respecto a una eventual detención del Sol y la Luna , o la prolongada ausencia de ellos frente a
determinadas constelaciones , mientras la Tierra sufría en bombardeo de rocas caídas del cielo . Pero
tendremos que postergar este viaje . Hubo mas de una catástrofe cuando , según la memoria de la
humanidad , la Tierra detuvo su cronómetro y se negó a continuar girando alrededor de su eje . Primero
será necesario diferenciar la ocurrencia de diversos eventos , algunos de ellos anteriores al citado , otros
posteriores a éste , que tuvieron mayor o menor incidencia que el evento referido

Tradiciones pre-colombinas de la América Central nos informan de que 52 años antes de una catástrofe
parecida a la referida por Joshua , ocurrió otra catástrofe de grandes proporciones . Es obvio entonces
mencionar las narraciones de las Escrituras que se remontan a las antiguas tradiciones de los israelitas ,
para averiguar si contienen algunos puntos de correspondencia

En las Escrituras se consigna que los judíos vagaron por el desierto por 40 años . Luego , una cantidad
de años antes de que el Sol se hubiere detenido por la perturbación en el movimiento de la Tierra ,
ocurrió la conquista de Palestina . Parece razonable entonces preguntarse si esta fecha de 52 años antes
del evento pudiera ser coincidente con la fecha del Exodo

En mi reciente trabajo Edades en Caos describo en extensión la catástrofe que azotó a Egipto y Arabia .

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En ese trabajo explico que el Exodo tuvo lugar durante un gran acontecimiento natural que conllevó al
término del Imperio Medio . También menciono que documentos egipcios contemporáneos describen el
mismo desastre acompañado por " las 7 plagas de Egipto " , y que numerosas tradiciones de la Península
Arábica relatan similares fenómenos en estas tierras y en las costas del Mar Rojo . En aquel trabajo
también cito la idea de Beke que apunta a que el Monte Sinaí habría sido un volcán humeante . Sin
embargo , señalo que la magnitud de la catástrofe debe haber excedido lejos los efectos de la erupción de
un gran volcán , por sí solo , y me planteo el desafío de responder a la pregunta : De qué naturaleza y
magnitud fue la catástrofe , o serie de catástrofes , acompañada de las " plagas " ? , y de publicar una
investigación de las grandes catástrofes ocurridas en el pasado . Ambos trabajos - una reconstrucción de
la historia y una reconstrucción de la historia natural - han sido concebidos en el corto intervalos de ½
año . Me ha impulsado el deseo de establecer una correcta cronología antes de asociar los eventos
naturales con la historia humana , lo que me condujo a terminar primero Edades en Caos

Aquí haré uso de material histórico detallado en Edades en Caos . El propósito es sincronizar los eventos
ocurridos con las historias de los países asentados alrededor del Mediterráneo Oriental , para
correlacionarlos con los eventos ocurridos en otras partes alrededor del mundo y explicar la naturaleza
de dichos eventos

El Mundo Rojo

A mitad del segundo milenio antes de nuestra era , como me propongo demostrar , la Tierra sufrió una
de las mayores catástrofes de su historia . Un cuerpo celeste que poco antes se había hecho miembro del
Sistema Solar - un nuevo cometa - se acercó mucho a la Tierra . Este evento puede ser documentado por
gran cantidad de testimonios

El cometa avanzó hacia su perihelio y primero tocó a la Tierra con su cola gaseosa . Mas adelante
mostraré que fue acerca de este cometa que Servio escribió : " No se quemaba , pero era de color rojo
sangre . . . "

Uno de los primeros signos visibles de este encuentro fue una coloración roja de la superficie de la tierra
por un fino polvo con apariencia de óxido . Por la presencia de este óxido ferroso u otro elemento , la
tierra se tornó roja

El Manuscrito Quiché de los Mayas narra que en el Hemisferio Occidental , en los días del gran
cataclismo , cuando la tierra tembló y el Sol se detuvo en su camino , el agua y los ríos se tornaron rojos

Ipuwer , el egipcio testigo de la catástrofe , deja en el papiro sus lamentos : " El río era de sangre . . . " ,
y sus correspondientes del Libro del Exodo (7:20) : " Todas las aguas del río se convirtieron en
sangre . . . " . El autor del papiro también escribió : " Había sangre sobre toda la tierra de Egipto . . . "

La presencia del pigmento hematoide causó la muerte y descomposición de los peces del río , que
hedían . " Y el río hedía . . . " ( Exodo 7:21 ) . " Y los egipcios cavaban las riveras del río en busca de

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agua para beber , porque no era posible beber de las aguas del río . . . " ( Exodo 7:24 ) . Y el papiro
relata : " Los hombres hacía muecas de repulsión al saborear el agua , sedientos en busca de agua para
beber . . . " , y " Es nuestra agua ! . . . Es nuestra felicidad ! . . Qué vamos a hacer ahora ? . . . Todo es
ruina . . . "

La piel de hombres y bestias se irritaba por el polvo , que les causaba heridas , enfermedades y la muerte
del ganado - " una mortal epidemia " . Los animales salvajes , asustados por loe portentos en el cielo , se
acercaron a lo poblados y ciudades

La mas alta de las montañas tracias recibió el nombre de " Hameo " , y Apolodoro relata que según las
tradiciones tracias la montaña recibió este nombre en relación con " la corriente de sangre que manaba
de la montaña " cuando Zeus libró la batalla contra Tifón , y Tifón fué golpeado por un rayo . Se dice
que hay en Egipto una ciudad bautizada con el mismo nombre , por similar motivo

La mitología que personifica las fuerzas en juego en el drama cósmico también describe al mundo
coloreado de rojo . En uno de los mitos egipcios se asocia el tinte rojizo con la sangre de Osiris , el
mortalmente herido planeta - hombre . Otro mito es la sangre de Set o Apophis . En Babilonia el mito
reza que el mundo fue coloreado de rojo por la sangre del malvado Tiamat , monstruo celeste

La epopeya finlandesa Kalevala describe de que manera , en los días de la catástrofe , el mundo fue
regado con leche roja . Los Altai Tatars narran un evento en que " la sangre tornó a todo el mundo rojo
" , y continúa la conflagración . Los Himnos Órficos hacen referencia a una época en que la cúpula
celeste , el " poderoso Olimpo " tembló de miedo . . y a Tierra se estremecía , y "los mares se agitaban
en su color púrpura . . . "

Existe un antiguo debate : Porqué el Mar Rojo se llama así ? . Si un mar se llama Blanco ó negro , puede
entenderse por el brillo del hielo o la nieve , o por el color oscuro de sus aguas . El Mar Rojo tiene un
color azul profundo . En vista de la falta de una mejor explicación , se ha postulado las formaciones de
coral o algunos pájaros de color rojos en sus costas , como explicaciones para el nombre

NOTA : H. S. Palmer , Sinai ( 1892 ) : probablemente en aquellos tiempos la tierra montañosa de Seir ,
en la cual los israelitas vagaron , recibió en nombre de Edom ( Roja ) , y Eritrea ( erythraios : rojo en
griego ) su nombre . El Mar Eritreo es una antigua denominación para el mar del Golfo de Arabia en el
Océano Indico , que también se aplicó al Mar Rojo

Al igual que en Egipto , las aguas de la superficie del Mar del Cruce tenía un tinte rojo . Parece que
Rafael no se equivocaba cuando , pintando su escena del cruce , las teñía de un tinte rojo

Por supuesto , no ha sido porque tal o cual montaña o río estuviera enrojecido en forma particular que se
ganó el nombre de " rojo " o " sangriento " , para distinguirlo de otras montañas o mares . Pero
multitudes de hombres , de todas partes , que presenciaron el evento y salieron con vida para contarlo ,
adscribieron los nombres de " rojo " ó " Hameo "

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El fenómeno de la " lluvia de sangre " también ha sido observado en algunas latitudes , y en tiempos
recientes en menor escala . De acuerdo con Plinio , una de estas ocasiones fue en época de los
consulados de Manio Acilio y de Gayo Forcio

NOTA : Otra instancia , según Plutarco , ocurrió durante el reino de Rómulo . Cabe mencionar que
Rómulo y remo fundaron Roma en época contemporánea a la Guerra de Troya , es decir , cerca de la
época del llamado " Gran Eclipse " y " El Gran Terremoto " , el 15 de Junio del 762 AC , fecha marcada
como el comienzo de la secuencia de este " cometa " Hiperbórea , como se analiza en otra parte de estos
ensayos

También los babilonios registraron el fenómeno del polvo rojo y la lluvia roja cayendo del cielo .
Fenómenos de lluvia sangrienta han quedados consignados en los anales de diversos países . Este polvo
rojo soluble en agua que cae en la forma de gotas no se origina en las nubes , sino que debe tener su
origen en erupciones volcánicas o provenir del espacio exterior . La caíde de polvo de meteoritos se
verifica cuando se ha producido la caída de un meteorito , como lo testifican las nieves de las montañas
y las regiones polares

Granizan Rocas

Después del polvo rojo , " un fino polvo " , como " cenizas de un horno " , que " cayó sobre todas las
tierras de Egipto " , una lluvia de meteoritos voló hacia la Tierra . Nuestro planeta se sumergió mas
profundamente en la cola del cometa . El polvo fue el anunciador de la lluvia de ripio . Llovió un
granizo ripioso " como nunca antes se vio desde la fundación de Egipto " ( Exodo 9:18 ) . Piedras de "
barad " , traducido aquí como granizo , tal como se menciona en muchos pasajes de las Escrituras , es el
término usado para meteoritos . Fuentes Midrashicas y Talmúdicas nos informan además que las piedras
que llovieron sobre Egipto estaban incandescentes . En consecuencia , no se trataba de simples granizos
congelados , sino de meteoritos

NOTA : El Libro de Joshua dice que " grandes rocas " cayeron del cielo , y las nombra como " rocas de
barad " . En el antiguo Egipto la palabra para " granizo " , AR , también se aplica a un lluvia de arena y
piedras . En el conflicto entre Horus y Set , se menciona a Isis enviando al éste último una lluvia de AR
N SA , " una lluvia de arena " . A. Macalister " Hail " , en Hastings , Diccionario de la Biblia ( 1901 -
1904 )

En las Escrituras se dice que estas piedras estaban " llenas de fuego " ( Exodo 9:24 ) , significado que
discutiremos en la siguiente sección , y que su caída fue acompañada de " fuertes ruidos " ( KOLOT ) a
ser entendidos como " truenos ", traducción que es sólo figurativa y no literal ya que la palabra para "
truenos " es RAAM , que en este caso no se usa . La caída de meteoritos va acompañada de truenos y
ruidos explosivos , siendo estos tan " potentes " que , de acuerdo con la narrativa de la Escrituras , las
gentes del palacio estaban tan aterrorizadas la destrucción causada por los meteoritos ardientes como por
el estremecedor sonido que les acompañaba ( Exodo 9:28 )

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El polvo rojos ya había ahuyentado a las gentes , y se había dado la orden de proteger a hombre y bestias
en lugares seguros : " Reúnan a las gentes y las bestias del campo , no regresen a sus casas , porque la
lluvia de rocas caerá sobre ellos , y ellos morirán " ( Exodo 9:19 ) . " Y aquel que no atendió a la
palabra del Señor dejó a sus bestias y sirvientes en el campo " ( Exodo 9:21 )

Igualmente , el testigo egipcio afirma : " El ganado es abandonado y no hay nadie que lo reúna . Cada
hombre se preocupa de proteger a aquellos que llevan su nombre " . Las rocas y el fuego dispersaron al
ganado que huyó espantado . Ipuwer también escribió : " Los árboles están destruidos " , " No se
encuentra frutas ni hierbas " , " El grano ha sido destruido por todas partes " , " Ha perecido lo que
ayer estaba en pie . La tierra ha quedado removida como por el paso de un rastrillo " . En un solo día
los campos se convirtieron en terrenos desolados . Y el Libro del Exodo reza : " Y el granizo ( rocas de
barad ) arrancó cada hierba y desgarró cada árbol del campo "

La descripción de tal catástrofe es también encontrada en el Visuddhi - Magga , texto budista sobre los
ciclos del mundo . " Cuando un ciclo del mundo es destruido por el viento . . . Se levanta en el comienzo
una gran nube destructora . . . Se levanta un viento destructor del ciclo del mundo , y primero aparece
un fino polvo , luego un polvo grueso , luego arena fina , luego arena gruesa , luego ripio , piedras ,
hasta grandes rocas del tamaño de poderosos árboles en la cima de los cerros " . El viento " pone el
terreno al revés " , extensas áreas " se quiebran y son lanzadas hacia arriba " , " todas las mansiones de
la Tierra " son destruidas en gran catástrofe cuando " mundos se enfrenan con otros mundos " ( Ciclos
del Mundo , Visuddhi - Magga , Warren , Traducciones Budistas , p. 328 )

Los Anales de Cuauhtitlan de México describen una catástrofe cósmica acompañada por una lluvia de
piedras . También , en las tradiciones orales de los indios , el fenómeno se repite una y otra vez : En
alguna época antigua del cielo " llovió , no agua , sino fuego y rocas incandescentes " , crónica que no
difiere de las tradiciones hebreas

Naphta

El petróleo crudo se compone de dos elementos , carbono e hidrógeno . Las principales teorías del
origen del petróleo son : 1 ) Teoría Inorgánica : Hidrógeno y carbono se unieron bajo gran presión y
calor en las formaciones rocosas , y 2) Teoría Orgánica : Hidrógeno y carbono que componen el petróleo
son remanentes de plantas y animales , especialmente de origan marino o pantanoso . La teoría orgánica
implica que cuando comenzó el proceso ya existía abundante vida , por lo menos en el fondo de los
océanos

NOTA : Aún antes de Plutarco ya había gran discusión acerca del origen del petróleo . refiriéndose a la
visita de Alejandro a las fuentes de petróleo en Irak , Plutarco dijo : " Ha habido gran debata acerca del
origen de este naphta " . Pero en el extenso texto de Plutarco falta una frase que contiene uno de dos
puntos de vista opuestos . El texto que queda reza : " . . . o si la substancia líquida que alimenta la llama
fluye del suelo que es rico y productivo de fuego " . ( Plutarco , Vidas , trad. B. Perrin , 1919 , " La Vida
Después de Alejandro " )

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Las colas de los cometas están principalmente compuestas de gases de carbono e hidrógeno . Puesto que
en el espacio no hay oxígeno no entran en combustión . Pero estos gases inflamables , al pasar por una
atmósfera que contiene oxígeno , entrarían rápidamente en combustión . Si gases de carbono o
hidrógeno , o vapores conformados por una mezcla de ambos ingresaran a la atmósfera en forma
masiva , parte de ellos se quemaría consumiendo todo el oxígeno disponible en la vecindad . El resto que
quedara de la combustión gradualmente se condensaría y se convertiría en líquido . Al caer este líquido a
la tierra , penetraría a través de los poros del terreno hacia los resquicios de las conformaciones rocosas .
Al caer sobre el agua , permanecería flotando mientras se extingue el fuego de la atmósfera y una nueva
provisión de oxígeno arriba desde otras regiones

La caída de un líquido pegajoso mezclado con densos vapores ha quedado plasmada en tradiciones
orales y escritas de los habitantes de ambos hemisferios

El sagrado Popul - Vuh de los mayas narra : " Todo era ruina y destrucción . . . el mar se encaramaba a
las alturas . . . fue una gran inundación . . . las gentes perecían ahogadas en un líquido viscoso que caía
desde el cielo . . . la faz de la tierra se puso obscura y la lluvia pegajosa perduraba por días y
noches . . . y ardía una gran hoguera encima de sus cabezas " . Toda la población de la comarca quedó
aniquilada

El Manuscrito Quiché perpetuó el cuadro de la población de México pereciendo bajo la lluvia viscosa : "
Descendió del cielo una lluvia bituminosa y de substancia pegajosa . . . La tierra estaba obscura y llovía
día y noche . . . Y los hombres corrían como enloquecidos en todas direcciones . Trataban de trepar a
los techos y las casas se desplomaban . Intentaban subir a los árboles , pero salían despedidos y caían
lejos . Y cuando trataron de escapar a las cavernas , éstas se habían súbitamente cerrado "

Una narración similar es preservada en lo Anales de Cuauhtitlan . La era que terminó con la lluvia de
fuego fue llamada Quiauh - Tonatiuh , que significa " el sol de la lluvia de fuego "

Y muy lejos de allí , en el hemisferio opuesto , en Siberia , los Vogules han mantenido a través de los
siglos y milenios sus memorias : " Dios envió un mar de fuego sobre la tierra . . . " . La causa del fuego
es llamada " el agua de fuego "

Medio meridiano hacia el sur , en las Indias Orientales , las tribus originales relatan que en el remoto
pasado Sengle - Das o " el agua de fuego " llovió del cielo , y con raras excepciones los hombre
perecieron

La octava plaga descrita en el Libro de Exodo era " Barad " ( meteoritos ) y el fuego que traía el consigo
el Barad tan terrible como nunca hubo igual sobre la tierra de Egipto desde que fue creada la nación
( Exodo 9:24 ) . Había portentosos truenos y Barad , "y el fuego corría por el suelo " ( Exodo 9:23 )

El Papiro Ipuwer describe a este voraz fuego : " Portales , columnas y paredes son consumidas por el

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fuego . El cielo lleno de confusión " . El Papiro afirma que este fuego casi " exterminó al género humano
"

El Midrashim , en cantidad de textos , afirma que naphta en conjunto con rocas ardientes cayeron sobre
Egipto . " Los egipcios rehusaron el permiso para partir a los israelitas , y El virtió naphta sobre ellos ,
quemantes ampollas " . Fue " una corriente de ardiente naphta " . Naphta significa petróleo , en arameo
y en hebreo

La población de Egipto fue " perseguida por extrañas lluvias , granizo e inexorables meteoros , y
finalmente consumida por el fuego : porque lo que era mas sorprendente , en el agua que todo lo cubría
el fuego ardía todavía con mayor fuerza " , que es la característica del petróleo inflamado . En el registro
de las plagas en Salmos 105 , se le designa como " fuego llameante " , y en Daniel ( 7:10 ) como " río de
fuego " o " corriente ardiente "

En el Passover Haggadah se dice que " poderosos hombres de Pul y Lud ( Libia y Asia Menor ) fueron
destruidos por destructiva conflagración durante el Paso"

En el valle del Eufrates los babilonios a menudo se referían a la " lluvia de fuego " , vívida en sus
memorias

Todos aquellos países cuyas tradiciones hablan de lluvias de fuego poseen en la actualidad depósitos de
petróleo : México , las Indias Orientales , Siberia , Irak y Egipto

Todavía durante un período de tiempo después de la lluvia del líquido viscoso , éste puede haber flotado
encima de la superficie de los mares , empapado la superficie del terreno , haberse inflamado una y otra
vez . " Por siete inviernos y siete veranos el fuego se ha ensañado . . . ha quemado la tierra " , narran los
Vogules de Siberia

La crónica de los judíos vagando en el desierto contiene cantidad de referencias a fuegos surgiendo del
terreno . Los israelitas viajaron por 3 días alejándose de la Montaña de la Ley , y ocurría que " el fuego
del Señor se encendía entre ellos , y les consumía en el extremo del campo " ( Números 11:1 ) . Los
israelitas continuaron su camino . Luego sobrevino la revuelta de Korah y sus aliados . " Y la tierra
abrió su boca y se los tragó . . . Y todo israelita que estaba con ellos fue quebrantado llorando por
ellos . . . Y vino el fuego del Señor y consumió a los 250 hombres que ofrendaban incienso " . Cuando
ellos encendieron el incienso , los vapores que surgían de entre las rocas se inflamaron y explotaron

Desconociendo la manera de manipular este suelo rico en componentes inflamables , los sacerdotes
judíos cayeron presa del fuego . Los dos hijos mayores de Aarón , Nadab y Abihu , " murieron ante el
Señor , cuando ofrendaron extraño fuego ante el Señor , en las cerranías del Sinaí " . Este fuego fue
considerado extraño porque antes no lo conocían , y porque era de origen extraño

Si cayo petróleo sobre el desierto de Arabia y sobre la tierra de Egipto y allí se quemó , vestigios de esta

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conflagración deberían ser encontrados en algunos de los sepulcros construidos antes del final del
Imperio Medio , dentro de los que el petróleo o alguno de sus derivados se debe haber escurrido

Leemos en la descripción de la tumba de Antefoker , visir de Sesostris I , faraón del Imperio Medio : "
Un problema ha sido puesto ante nosotros por una conflagración , claramente deliberada , que ha
violentado la tumba y a muchas otras . . . El material combustible no sólo debe haber sido abundante ,
sino de naturaleza liviana , puesto que un feroz incendio que rápidamente se propaga parece por sí
mismo explicar el hecho de que tumbas que han sido profundamente quemadas no muestran huella de
ennegrecimiento , excepto en su parte inferior , ni están tiznadas , restos que siempre deja la
combustión . Estas condiciones son bastante confusas "

" Y qué es lo que nos dice la historia natural ? " se pregunta Filón en su Eternidad del Mundo , y
responde : " Destrucción de las cosas de la Tierra , destrucciones no completas pero extensivas , son
atribuibles a dos causas principales , los tremendos poderes del fuego y del agua . Estos dos visitantes ,
se nos dice , descienden en turnos después de muy largos ciclos de tiempo . Cuando el agente es la
conflagración , la corriente de fuego enviado del cielo es vertida desde las alturas y se esparce
cubriendo muchas regiones y ruedo por encima de muchas partes de la inhabitada Tierra "

La lluvia del agua de fuego contribuyó así a proporcionar petróleo a la Tierra . El combustible de roca
que extraemos del terreno parece ser , al menos en parte , " combustible de estrellas " descendido en
edades no tan lejanas , notablemente en la era en que terminó a mitad del segundo milenio antes de
nuestra era

Los sacerdotes de Irán veneraban el fuego que surgía de la tierra . Los seguidores de Zoroastro y los
mazdeístas son también llamados adoradores del fuego . El fuego del Cáucaso era tenido en gran estima
por todos los habitantes de las tierras adyacentes . La leyenda de Prometeo se origina en esta zona y
tiene relación con el Cáucaso . El fue encadenado a una roca por traer el fuego a los hombres . El
carácter alegórico de esta leyenda gana contenido cuando consideramos las palabras de Agustín en
cuanto a que prometeo era contemporáneo de Moisés

Torrentes de petróleo cayeron sobre el Cáucaso y fueron consumidos . El humo del fuego del Cáucaso
todavía era visualizado por Ovidio , quince siglos después , cuando describe la incineración del mundo

Los continuos incendios en Siberia , el Cáucaso , el desierto de Arabia y muchos otros lugares , fueron
fenómenos que concurren a la gran conflagración en aquellos días en que la Tierra fue asaltada por
vapores de carbono e hidrógeno

En los siglos siguientes el petróleo fue adorado , quemado en lugares sagrados . También se le usó con
propósitos domésticos . Luego llegaron eras en que estuvo en desuso . Sólo en la mitad del siglo pasado
el hombre comenzó a explotar este aceite , parcialmente dejado por el cometa de tiempos del Exodo . El
hombre hizo uso de este regalo , y hoy en día los caminos están repletos de vehículos propulsados por
petróleo . El hombre se elevó hacia las alturas , cumpliendo el antiguo sueño de volar como un pájaro .

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También para este propósito , hace uso de los restos dejados por la estrella intrusa que virtió fuego y
gases pegajosos sobre nuestros antepasados

Las Tinieblas

La Tierra entró mas profundamente en la cola del cometa , aproximándose a su cuerpo . Este
cercamiento , si hemos de creer a nuestra fuetes , fue seguido de una perturbación en el movimiento de
rotación de la Tierra . Horrendos huracanes azotaron la superficie de la Tierra debido al cambio o
inversión de la velocidad angular de rotación y también por los gases , polvo y cenizas del cometa

Numerosas fuentes rabínicas describen la calamidad de la oscuridad . Dicho material puede ser
correlacionado como sigue :
Un viento excepcionalmente potente perduró por 7 días . Todo el tiempo la Tierra estuvo sumergida en
la oscuridad . " En los días cuarto , quinto y sexto , la oscuridad era tan densa que ellos ( los pobladores
de Egipto ) no se podían mover de sus lugares " . " La oscuridad era de naturaleza tal , que no se podía
paliar por medios artificiales . La luz del fuego estaba extinguida por la violencia de la tormenta , o
bien había sido ocultada y tragada por la densa oscuridad . . Nada se podía distinguir a la vista , y
nadie se podía aventurar a tomar alimento , y todos yacían recostados en el piso , sus sentidos
adormecidos como en trance . Así permanecieron , sobrepasados por la aflicción "
La oscuridad era tan grande que " sus ojos estaban enceguecidos por ella y sus respiraciones
bloqueadas " , " no era de origen terrenal " . La tradición rabínica , contradiciendo el espíritu del relato
de las Escrituras , establece que durante la plaga de la oscuridad la vasta mayoría de los israelitas pereció
y que sólo una pequeña fracción de la población israelita original de Egipto quedó , para salir de Egipto .
Se dice que cuarenta y nueve de cada cincuenta israelitas pereció en esta plaga

Una placa de granito negro encontrada en el - Arish sobre la frontera entre Egipto y Palestina porta una
inscripción jeroglífica que dice : " La Tierra estaba sumida en gran aflicción . El mal cayó sobre la
Tierra . . . Había gran destrucción en la residencia . . . Nadie podía abandonar el palacio ( no había
salida ) durante 9 días , y durante estos 9 días la desolación era tan grande que ni hombre ni dioses ( la
familia real ) podía ver las caras de quienes les rodeaban "

Este relato emplea la misma descripción de la oscuridad que el Exodo 10:22 : " Y había una oscuridad
tan gruesa en toda la tierra de Egipto de aquellos días . No se podían ver el uno al otro , ni levantarse
de su lugar por un plazo de 3 días " . La diferencia en la cantidad de días ( 3 y 9 ) en relación a las
fuentes rabínicas , donde el tiempo de duración del fenómeno se declara como 7 días , no tiene mayor
relevancia si consideramos la subjetividad en la apreciación del tiempo que debe haber imperado bajo
aquellas condiciones . También la apreciación de la impenetrabilidad de la oscuridad es de carácter
subjetivo . Las fuentes rabínicas afirman que parte del tiempo hubo un poco de visibilidad , pero que
hubo 3 días en que no era posible ver nada

Debemos tener en mente que , como en la cita que señalamos , un día y una noche de oscuridad o de luz
pueden ser descritos como un días o como dos días , indistintamente

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El hecho de que ambas fuentes hebrea y egipcia se refieran al mismo evento puede ser probado también
por otros medios . Luego de la prolongada oscuridad y los huracanes , el faraón , según la narración en la
placa de granito , persiguió a los "gestores del mal " , "hasta un sitio llamado Pi - Khiroti " . Este mismo
sitio es mencionado en el Exodo 14:9 : " Pero los egipcios les persiguieron , todos los caballo y carros
del faraón . . . y les encontraron acampando cerca del mar , cerca de Pi - ha - Kiroth "

La inscripción en el granito también narra la muerte del faraón durante la persecución en excepcionales
circunstancias : " Cuando la Majestad luchó con los gestores del mal en estas aguas , en el lugar donde
las aguas se agitaban , los gestores del mal no prevalecieron sobre su Majestad . Su Majestad se lanzó
dentro de las arremolinadas aguas " . Es el mismo apoteosis narrado en Exodo 15:19 : " El caballo del
faraón entró con su carro y con su caballería en el mar , y el Señor nuevamente trajo las aguas del mar
por encima de ellos "

Si " la oscuridad de los egipcios " fue causada por la detención de la rotación de la Tierra y el
desplazamiento de su eje con el agravante de la caída de polvo y piedras del cometa , entonces todo el
globo debe haber sufrido el efecto de dos fenómenos concurrentes : en los extremos oriental y occidental
debe haber reinado un día prolongado y radiante

Naciones y tribus en muchas partes del mundo , en el sur , en el norte , y al oeste de Egipto , mantienen
antiguas tradiciones de una catástrofe cósmica durante la cual el Sol no alumbraba . Pero en otras partes
del globo mantienen que el Sol no se puso por un lapso de tiempo de varios días

Las tribus de Sudán al sur de Egipto afirman en sus narraciones que hubo un momento en que la noche
era interminable

El Kalevala , la epopeya de los finlandeses , cuenta que cuando llovió rocas de hierro del cielo , el Sol y
la Luna se escondieron ( fueron robados del cielo ) y no se volvieron a mostrar . Después de un período
de oscuridad , un nuevo Sol y una nueva Luna aparecieron en el cielo . Cayo Julio Solino escribe que "
siguiendo al diluvio que se reporta en los días de Ogyges , una pesada noche se extendió sobre la Tierra
"

En los manuscritos de Avila y de Molina , quienes recolectaron las tradiciones de los indios del Nuevo
Mundo , se relata cómo el Sol no apareció por varios días . Una colisión entre cuerpos celestes precedió
al cataclismo . las gentes y los animales trataron de escapar hacia las cavernas de las montañas . "
Apenas pudieron llegar allá cuando el mar , rompiendo con todas las barreras y luego de un choque
escalofriante , comenzó a levantarse sobre la costa del Pacífico . Pero cuando el mar se levantaba ,
llenando los valles y planicies aledaños , la montaña de Ancasmarca también se elevó como un barco
que flota sobre las olas . Durante los 5 días que duró el cataclismo , el Sol no mostró su rostro y la
Tierra permaneció en la oscuridad " . Así las tradiciones peruanas describen el momento en que el Sol
no apareció durante 5 días . En el proceso , la geografía cambió y el mar se precipitó sobre las tierras

Al este de Egipto , en Babilonia , la XI tabla de la Epopeya de Gilgamesh se refiere a los mismos

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eventos . Del horizonte se levantó una oscura nube que se abalanzó sobre la tierra . La tierra estaba
calcinada con el calor de las llamas . " Desolación . . . que se levantaba hasta el cielo . Todo lo que antes
brillaba se ha tornado en oscuridad . . . Un hermano no podía distinguir a su hermano . . . Seis días . . .
el huracán , la inundación, la tempestad , continuaron barriendo la tierra . . . y los humanos fueron
regresados a la arcilla "

El libro iranio Anugita revela que por un total de 3 días y 3 noches llegó a su fin una era del mundo , y el
libro Bundahis en un contexto que describiré mas adelante y que demuestra la íntima relación entre los
eventos cataclísmicos que aquí presento , cuenta que en plena mitad del día cayó una oscuridad tan
profunda como si fuera la noche mas oscura. De acuerdo al Bundahis . ésta fue causada por una guerra
entre las estrellas y los planetas

Una noche tortuosa , empeorada por el polvo que se precipitada desde espacio interplanetario , abrazó a
Europa , Africa y América , y también a los valles de Eufrates y el Indo . Si la Tierra no detuvo su
rotación , sino tan sólo giró mas lento o cambió su orientación , debe haber habido algunos lugares en
que un largo día debe haber sido seguido de una prolongada noche . Irán está en una posición donde si
creemos la tradición irania , el Sol estuvo ausente por un período de 3 días y luego brilló por otro
período de 3 días . Mas al oriente debe haber habido un prolongado día correspondiendo a una
prolongada noche en el occidente

Según el Bahaman Yast , en el momento del término de la era en Irán Oriental y la India el Sol
permaneció brillando en el cielo por 10 días

En China , durante el reinado del emperador Yahou , una gran catástrofe marcó el fin de una edad del
mundo . El Sol no se ocultó durante 10 días . Los eventos de la época del emperador Yahou merecen
cuidadosa atención . Mas adelante desarrollaré este tema

NOTA : La manera en que los egipcios estimaron el tiempo en que el Sol estuvo ausente debe haber sido
parecido al método usado por los chinos . Es probable que ambos pueblos contaran los días de
perturbación como 5 días y 5 noches . ya que pasó un lapso de tiempo de 10 días desde la salida del Sol
en uno o la puesta del Sol en otro

El Gran Cataclismo

La Tierra , forzada a interrumpir su movimiento regular , reaccionó a la aproximación del cometa . Un

inmenso choque estremeció la litósfera , propagándose por todo el globo

Ipuwer fue testigo y sobrevivió al cataclismo . " Los pueblos fueron destruidos . El Alto Egipto se ha
convertido en desolación . . Todo está en ruinas " . " La residencia se desplomó en un minuto " . Sólo un
gran terremoto pudo haber desplomado la residencia en un minuto . La palabra egipcia para " desplomar
" se usa en el sentido de " demoler una pared "

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Esta fue la décima plaga . " Y el faraón se levantó en medio de la noche , él y sus sirvientes , y todos los
egipcios . Y un gran grito resonaba por todo Egipto , porque no quedaba ninguna casa donde no
hubiera muerte " ( Exodo 12:30 ) . Las casas cayeron , azotadas por violento soplo . " El ángel del Señor
pasó por sobre las casas de los hijos de Israel en Egipto cuando arrasó a los egipcios y desplomó
nuestras casas " ( Exodo 12:27 ) . Nogaf , que significa " arrasó " , es la palabra usada para referirse a
una violenta embestida , como por ejemplo la cornada de un toro . El Passover Haggadah reza : " Los
promogénitos de los egipcios fueron aplastados a la medianoche "

El probable motivo por el cual los israelitas parecen haber sido mas afortunados que los egipcios frente a
esta plaga radica en el material de construcción que usaban pare erigir sus moradas . Ocupando un sector
mas seco y construyendo con arcilla , el pueblo cautivo debe haber vivido en chozas construidas con
arcilla y totora ,que son mas livianas y flexibles que el ladrillo o la piedra . " El Señor pasará sobre la
puerta y no sufriremos porque el destructor venga y derrumbe nuestras casas " . Un ejemplo de la
acción selectiva de un agente natural sobre varios tipos de construcción también es narrado en los anales
Mexicanos . En medio de una catástrofe acompañada por un huracán y un terremoto , sólo las gentes que
habitaban pequeñas cabañas de madera quedaron ilesas . Los grandes edificios fueron barridos . "
Encontraron que aquellos que vivían en pequeñas casas habían resultado ilesos , así como las parejas
recién casadas que según la costumbre vivían por algunos años en cabañas enfrente de los suegros "

En Edades en Caos ( mi reconstrucción de la historia antigua ) demostraré que " recién nacidos
" ( Bkhor ) en el texto de las plagas bíblicas es una corrupción de " escogidos " ( Bchor ) . La flor de
Egipto sucumbió en la catástrofe

" En verdad : los hijos de los príncipes yacen aplastados contra las paredes . . . los hijos de los
príncipes están esparcidos por las calles " , " la prisión ha quedado en ruinas " , escribió Ipuwer ,
recordándonos que tanto los príncipes en sus palacios como los cautivos fueron víctimas del desastre
( Exodo 12:29 )

Para confirmar mi interpretación de la décima plaga como un terremoto , lo cual debería ser obvio de la
expresión " las casas cayeron desplomadas " , encuentro un pasaje de Arpatanus en el que describe la
noche anterior al Exodo , el que es citado por Eusebio : " hubo una tormenta de granizo y un terremoto
durante la noche , y quienes huían del terremoto fueron aniquilados por la granizada , y quienes se
cobijaban del granizo fueron aplastados por el terremoto . En aquel tiempo las casas se hundieron , y la
mayoría de los templos "

También Jerónimo ( San Jerónimo ) escribe en una epístola que " en aquella noche en que aconteció el
Exodo , todos los templos de Egipto fueron destruidos ya sea por un gran temblor o por los rayos " .
Igualmente en el Midrashim : " La séptima plaga , la plaga de meteoritos : terremoto , fuego y
meteoritos " . Se dice también de las estructuras que fueron erigidas por los esclavos judíos en Pithom y
Ramsés , colapsaron o fueron tragadas por la tierra . Una inscripción que data del comienzo del Nuevo
Imperio se refiere a un templo del Imperio Medio que " fue tragado por la tierra " al final del Imperio
Medio

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Entonces la cabeza del cuerpo celeste se aproximó muy cerca de la Tierra , mostrando su rostro a través
de la oscura envoltura gaseosa y , de acuerdo con el Midrashim , la última noche en Egipto se hizo tan
luminosa como el mediodía en un solsticio de varano

La población huía espantada . " Los hombre huían . . . Levantan carpas como lo exploradores en los
cerros " , escribe Ipuwer . La población de una ciudad destruida por un terremoto usualmente pasa la
noche en los campos . El Libro del Exodo describe una apresurada huída nocturna desde Egipto en la
noche de la décima plaga . Una multitud amorfa de judíos y gentiles huye de Egipto , para pasar la noche
en Sukkoth ( chozas )

" Rayos y relámpagos iluminaban la tierra , mientras el terreno temblaba y se estremecía . . . Las gentes
eran sacudidas como motas de hierba en manos de Moisés y Aarón " . Ellos fueron sacados de Egipto
por un portento que les pareció un brazo que aprieta - " por un brazo que les aprieta y por gran espanto
" , ó " con poderosa mano , y con fuerte brazo , y con terrible fuerza , y con signos , y con otras
maravillas "

" A la medianoche " todas las casas de Egipto fueron barridas . " No hubo casa que no fuera abatida " .
Esto aconteció en la noche del 14 del mes de Aviv ( Exodo 12:26 y 13:4 ) . Es la noche de la Pasada . Y
parece que los judíos originalmente celebraban la Pasada por la tarde del 14 de Aviv

El mes de Aviv es llamado " el primer mes " ( Exodo 12:18 ) . Thout era el nombre egipcio para el
primer mes . Para los israelitas éste se convirtió en festivo , pero para los egipcios era un día de tristeza y
duelo . " El décimo tercer día del mes de Thout es un muy mal día . Nada se debe hacer en este día . Es
el día en que Horus se trenzó en combate con Set "

Los hebreos contaban ( y todavía cuentan ) el comienzo del día a partir de la puesta del Sol . Los
egipcios lo hacen desde el amanecer . Como la catástrofe tuvo lugar a la medianoche , para los israelitas
era el día 14 de mes , mientras que para los egipcios era el día 13

Pero un cataclismo provocado por contacto o colisión con un cometa debe haber tenido efecto en todo el
mundo . Un terremoto es un fenómeno que ocurre de vez en cuando . Pero un terremoto que acompaña a
un contacto cósmico tendría que haber permanecido en la memoria de todos los sobrevivientes de la
Tierra

En el calendario del Hemisferio Occidental , en el día 13 del mes llamado Olin , " movimiento " ó "
temblor " , se dice que un nuevo Sol dió comienzo a una nueva era . Los aztecas como los egipcios
contabilizaban los días a partir de la salida del Sol

Aquí podemos ver , de pasada , que la respuesta a la interrogante concerniente al origen de la

superstición con respecto al número 13 , y en especial al día 13 , como desafortunado y poco
auspicioso . Es todavía la creencia de muchas personas supersticiosas de todo el mundo y desde hace
miles de años , que se expresa en estos términos : " El décimo tercer día es un día muy malo . Nada

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debes hacer en ese día " . No creo que existe ningún otro antecedente que explique esta creencia desde
los tiempos del Exodo . Los israelitas nunca compartieron esta superstición del número 13 como
maligno ( ó 14 )

(continued, part 2)

La Batalla en los Cielos

En el mismo momento en que los mares se levantaban en inmensas marejadas , un espectáculo cósmico
se desató en los cielos ante los ojos de los horrorizados testigos sobrevivientes , en la forma de una
gigantesca batalla . Debido a que la batalla fue visible en todas partes de alrededor la Tierra , y debido a
la imborrable huella dejada en las mentes de los espantados humanos , podemos reconstruirla con cierto
detalle

Cuando la Tierra cruzó a través de los gases , polvo y meteoritos de la cola del cometa , y su movimiento
de rotación fue perturbado , procedió en una órbita también alterada . Emergiendo de la oscuridad , el
Hemisferio Oriental se enfretó a la cabeza del cometa . Esta cabeza del cometa había pasado cerca del
Sol poco tiempo atrás presentando un aspecto incandescente . La noche en que el gran cataclismo azotó
a la Tierra fue , según fuentes rabínicas , brillante como un día del solsticio de verano . Por su
proximidad a la Tierra , el cometa por un instante dejó su propia trayectoria para seguir a la Tierra
durante un trecho . La gran esfera del cometa se retrató , enmarcada en la oscura columna de gases como
humeante telón de fondo , y la Tierra nuevamente pasó a través de la atmósfera del cometa , esta vez a la
altura de su cuello . Se desatan incesantes y majestuosas descargas eléctricas , entre la atmósfera del
cometa y la atmósfera de la Tierra . Hubo un intervalo de unos 6 días entre estos dos encuentros
cercanos . Al emerger de los gases del cometa , la Tierra parece haber cambiado su dirección de
rotación , y la columna de humo se ha trasladado al lado opuesto del horizonte . La oscura columna que
representa a la cola del planeta tiene el aspecto de una gigantesca serpiente en movimiento

Cuando las aguas de los mares alcanzan su máxima altura , y los mares se separan , inmensa descarga
eléctrica vuela como una chispa gigante entre la tierra y el orbe del cometa , instantáneamente
empujando hacia abajo las olas marinas que se empinan por millas de altura . Entretanto , la cola del
cometa y su cabeza , habiendo adquirido cargas eléctricas por su contacto cercano con la Tierra ,
intercambian violentas descargas eléctricas . Se veía como una gran batalla entre el brillante globo y la
oscura columna de humo . Al descargar sus potenciales eléctricos , la cola y la cabeza del cometa
parecen atraerse y repelerse mutuamente repetidas veces . La cola con forma de serpiente , ya libre de la
inmediata influencia de la Tierra , se distiende en diversas direcciones y pierde su forma de columna .
Ahora tiene la apariencia de un animal furioso con varias patas y muchas cabezas . Las descargas
separan la columna en pedazos , mientras nuevos meteoritos caen sobre la Tierra . Ante los ojos
humanos , aparece como si el oscuro monstruo hubiera sido derrotado por el brillante globo y se
desplomara sobre el mar u otra parte en que los meteoritos estuvieran lloviendo . Los gases de la cola
envuelven a la Tierra a continuación . El globo del cometa , que perdió parte de su atmósfera y gran
parte de su potencial eléctrico , se aleja de la Tierra , pero todavía ambos cuerpos no han cesado de estar

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en conexión gravitacional . Aparentemente después de 6 días el cometa se retira y empieza a perder su

tamaño ante la vista . Una nueva aproximación del cometa no es fácilmente visible , porque la Tierra se
encuentra envuelta en nubes de polvo dejadas por el cometa en su primera aproximación , así como en
los gases expelidos por los volcanes . Con renovadas descargas eléctricas , el cometa y la Tierra se
separan definitivamente

Esta forma de comportamiento de los cometas cobran gran importancia en los problemas de mecánica
celeste . El hecho de que un cometa que se enfrenta a un planeta pueda quedar acoplado y arrastrado de
su propia órbita , forzado en un nuevo curso y finalmente liberado de la influencia del planeta , ha sido
probado por el cometa Lexell , el cual en 1767 fue capturado por Júpiter y sus lunas . No fue hasta 1779
que se liberó de este acoplamiento . Un fenómeno que no ha sido observado en tiempos modernos , es la
descarga eléctrica entre un planeta y un cometa , ni entre la cabeza de un cometa y su cola

Estos eventos en los cielos fueron observados por las gentes de la Tierra como una aparente lucha entre
un monstruo maligno con forma de una serpiente y un dios luminoso que enfrentó al monstruo salvando
al mundo . La cola del cometa , agitándose hacia todos lados bajo las descargas del globo llameante ,
parecía ser un ente separado y sin conexión con la cabeza del cometa . Un estudio detallado de las
tradiciones religiosas y del folklore que reflejan este evento sería demasiado largo para el espacio de que
aquí disponemos . Pero es difícil encontrar algún pueblo o tribu cuyas tradiciones y leyendas no hagan
referencia a estos eventos

Ya que las descripciones de la batalla entre Marduk y Tiamat , el dragón , o Isis y Set , o Vishnu y la
serpiente , o Krishna y la serpiente , u Ormuz y Ahriman , siguen idéntica trama y tienen muchos
detalles en común , con la batalla entre Zeus y Tifón , procederé a referirme a la descripción que nos
ofrece Apolodoro de esta batalla

Tifón " se erguía por encima de todas las montañas , y su cabeza parecía a ratos rozar las estrellas .
Una de sus manos llegaba al este y la otra al oeste , y de ellas se proyectaban cientos de cabezas de
dragón . Colgaban de sus nalgas colosales víboras enroscadas que emitían continuo siseo . . . todo su
cuerpo tenía alas . . . y sus ojos emitían destellos de fuego . Así era el enorme Tifón cuando , arrojando
rocas encendidas , alcanzaba al mismo cielo con silbidos y gritos , vomitando una corriente de fuego
que salía de su boca ". Hasta el cielo de Egipto Zeus persiguió a Tifón " sosteniéndose en el cielo " . "
Zeus atacó a Tifón con sus rayos desde la distancia , y al acercársele le golpeó con inquebrantable hoz ,
y cuando huía le persiguió hasta el monte Casio , que se empina por sobre Siria . Allí , al ver que el
monstruo padecía herido , se trenzó con él . Pero Tifón se enroscó a su alrededor aprisionándolo con
sus tentáculos . . . " . " Habiendo recuperado su poder Zeus bajó súbitamente de los cielos en un
carruaje de caballos alados , fulminándolo con sus rayos . . . Así perseguido , Tifón se desplazó hacia
Tracia y luchando sobre el monte Haemus levantó montañas completas . . . una corriente de sangre
manó de la montaña , y se cuenta que desde entonces el monta lleva el nombre de Haemus
( sangriento ) . Y cuando se retiraba por sobre el mar de Sicilia , Zeus erigió al monte Etna en Sicilia en
su contra . Aquella es una gran montaña , desde la que hasta nuestros días vomita el fuego desatado por
los rayos que en esa época fueron lanzados "

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La lucha dejó profundas cicatrices en todo el mundo antiguo . Algunos lugares fueron especialmente
asociados con los eventos de la batalla cósmica . La costa egipcia del Mar Rojo recibió el nombre de
Tifonia . Strabo narra también que los Arimi ( Arameos o Sirios ) fueron horrorizados testigos de la
lucha de Zeus contra Tifón . Y Tifón , " quien , agregan era un dragón , al ser golpeado por los rayos ,
huyó en busca de una pendiente subterránea ", y no sólo cortó surcos en la tierra y formó los cauces de
los ríos , sino que descendiendo bajo tierra , hizo que las fuentes surgieran

Descripciones similares provienen de varias partes del mundo antiguo , en que las naciones relatan la
experiencia de sus antepasados que presenciaron la gran catástrofe acontecida en la mitad del segundo
milenio

Por aquellos tiempos los israelitas aún no habían alcanzado una concepción definidamente monoteísta
y , tal como otros pueblos , vieron en el gran evento una lucha entre el bien y el mal . El autor del Libro
de Exodo , suprimiendo esta concepción de los antiguos israelitas , presentó el portento de fuego y humo
que se movía como una columna , como un ángel y mensajero del Señor . Sin embargo , muchos pasajes
de otros libros de las Escrituras preservaron el espectáculo tal como éste había impresionado a otros
testigos . Rahab es la expresión hebrea para el contendor del Altísimo . " Oh , Señor de las Huestes ,
quién es puede ser tan fuerte como Tú ? . . . Tú , que has dispersado a tu contendor en pedazos . . . Los
cielos te pertenecen , la Tierra también es tuya : para que sea la plenitud , Tú los has creado . El norte y
el sur has creado ". La oración de Isaías dice : " Despierta , despierta , esgrime tu fuerza , Oh brazo del
Señor . Despierta como lo hiciste en los antiguos tiempos , en las generaciones de los antiguos . No has
cercenado al contendor y herido al dragón ? . No eres Tú quien ha secado los mares , las aguas de las
grandes profundidades ? . El que ha construido un camino en las profundidades del mar para que pasen
los redimidos ? ". De estos pasajes queda claro que la batalla del Señor con el Rahab no fue una batalla
primaveral anterior a la Creación , como creen algunos eruditos

E Isaías profetizó el futuro : " En el día del Señor , con su lacerante y su grande y su poderosa espada ,
castigará al leviatán de la retorcida serpiente , y destruirá al dragón que yace en el mar " ( Isaías 27:1 )

La " serpiente retorcida " está presente en muchas representaciones antiguas , desde China , a Persia , a
Asiria , a Egipto . a México . Con el levantamiento del concepto monoteísta , los israelitas miraron a la
serpiente retorcida como al oponente del Altísimo , aún una creación del Señor

" El desplazó el norte hacia el vacío , y colgó la Tierra de la nada . . . Tiemblan los pilares de los
cielos . . . El dividió los mares con su poder . . . El separó en pedazos las cabezas del leviatán . . . El
trazó la fuente y la marejada . . . El secó poderosos ríos " ( Job 26:7-13 , Salmos 74:12-15 )

El mar fue separado , la tierra cortada en abismos , grandes ríos desaparecieron , otros aparecieron . La
Tierra emitió sonidos por muchos años , y las gentes creyeron que el feroz dragón había sido golpeado y
caído bajo la tierra y allí emitía sus quejidos

(continued, part 2)

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DESENTRAÑANDO LA HISTORIA OCULTA DE LA TIERRA

IMMANUEL VELIKOVSKY
Descargas Eléctricas

Ocurrió un fenómeno muy significativo . La cabeza del cometa no se estrelló con la Tierra , sino que
intercambió enormes descargas eléctricas con ella . Un tremendo arco emanó en el momento de su
mayor acercamiento , en el momento en que los mares se empinaban hacia las alturas y antes de que se
desplomaran a su altura normal , seguido por una lluvia de peñascos y gases prevenientes de la cola ,
acaso del mismo cuerpo del cometa

" Y el Angel de Dios , que se presentó ante la tierra de Israel , se movió y fue detrás de él . Y el pilar de
la nube se desplazó frente a su rostro y permaneció detrás de él . . . y estaba la nube y la oscuridad ,
pero emanó luz en medio de la noche" . Un potente soplo y relámpagos desgarraron la nube . Por la
mañana las aguas se levantaron como un inmenso muro y se retiraron . " Y los hijos de Israel entraron
en medio del mar sobre terreno seco . Y las aguas eran como muros , a su costado izquierdo y a su
costado derecho . Y los egipcios les persiguieron . . . Y aconteció que por la mañana el Señor miró a las
huestes de los egipcios a través del pilar de fuego de la nube , y atacó a las huestes de los egipcios , y
arrancó las ruedas de sus carros . . . y las aguas retornaron , y cubrieron los carruajes , y a los jinetes ,
y a las huestes del faraón que entraron en el mar detrás de ellos . No quedó nada mas que alguno de
ellos "

Las inmensas marejadas fueron provocadas por la presencia del cuerpo celeste próximo a la Tierra . Los
mares se desplomaron cuando ocurrió una descarga eléctrica entre la Tierra y el cuerpo celeste

Arpatanus , autor del ahora desaparecido De Los Judíos , aparentemente sabía que las palabras " El
Señor miró a las huestes de los egipcios a través del pilar de fuego y de la nube ", se referían a un gran
rayo . Eusebio cita a Apartanus : " Pero cuando los egipcios . . . les perseguían , un fuego , se dice , vino
sobre ellos desde el frente , y el mar inundó nuevamente el paso , y todos los egipcios fueron destruidos
por el fuego y la inundación "

Las grandes descargas eléctricas de fuerza interplanetaria son conmemoradas en las tradiciones ,
leyendas y mitologías de las naciones de todo el mundo . Dios - Zeus de los griegos , Odin de los
nórdicos , Ukko de los finlandeses , Perun de los paganos rusos , Wotán de los germanos , Mazda de los
persas , Marduk de los babilonios , Shiva de los hindúes - se describe esgrimiendo rayos en sus manos ,
y se describe al dios descargando sus rayos sobre el mundo acosado por las aguas y el fuego

Igualmente , muchos salmos de las escrituras conmemoran las grandes descargas . " Entonces la tierra
se estremeció y tembló . También los cimientos de las montañas se movieron y fueron estremecidos . . .
El también hizo que los cielos se encorvaran y bajaran . . . voló sobre las alas del viento . . . Ante el

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resplandor que estaba frente a él , sus gruesas nubes pasaron , lluvia de piedras y brasas encendidas .
El Señor también descargó rayos en el cielo , y el Altísimo dejó oír su voz . Lluvia de piedras y brasas
encendidas . .. y disparó relámpagos . . . Cuando los vientres de los mares fueron visibles y los
cimientos del mundo quedaron al descubierto ". " La voz del Señor es poderosa . . . La voz del Señor
desplomó los cedros . . . La voz del Señor dividió las llamas del fuego . . . La voz del Señor estremeció a
la naturaleza . La voz del Señor estremeció a la naturaleza de Kadesh ". " Los reinos eran removidos .
El dejó oír Su voz y la tierra se derritió ". " Las aguas le vieron . Estaban atemorizadas . Las
profundidades también se revolvían . . . Los cielos emitieron un sonido : Tus flechas fueron disparadas .
La voz de Tu trueno estaba en los cielos , los relámpagos llenaban el universo : la Tierra temblaba y se
estremecía " . " Las nubes y la oscuridad hacen ronda en derredor . . . Sus relámpagos iluminaron el
mundo : la Tierra vio , y tembló "

Es muy fácil sumar la cantidad de citas de otros pasajes de las Escrituras - Job , la Canción de Deborah ,
los Profetas

Al desplomarse la doble pared de aguas , la hueste egipcia fue barrida . La fuerza del impacto proyectó
al ejército del faraón por los aires . " Vengan y vean los actos de Dios : El es terrible con los hijos de los
hombres . Volvió el mar en tierra seca . Ellos atravesaron el mar caminando . . . Ahora hace que los
hombre vuelen por los cielos . Hemos pasado a través del fuego y el agua "

Que la hueste egipcia fuera lanzada por los aires por una avalancha de agua también se menciona en las
fuentes egipcias que he citado anteriormente . En la inscripción en roca encontrada en el - Arish se narra
la historia de un huracán y prolongada oscuridad , cuando nadie podía abandonar el palacio , y la
persecución del faraón Taoui - Thom de los esclavos que huían , los que fueron perseguidos hasta Pi - ha
- Kiroth . " Su Majestad se lanzó al asalto en medio de las arremolinadas aguas " . Entonces , se dice , "
el fue levantado por una gran fuerza "

Aunque gran número de israelitas ya estaban fuera del alcance de las olas que se desplomaban , gran
cantidad de ellos también pereció en el desastre , tal como en los anteriores de fuego y huracán de
polvo . Que hayan perecido israelitas en el Cruce del Mar se deduce del Salmo 68 , donde se hace
mención a " mi pueblo " que ha quedado " en las profundidades del mar "

Estos maremotos también acosaron tribus enteras que habitaban en Tehama , una región costera de mil
millas de extensión en la costa del Mar Rojo

" Dios envió contra los Djorhomitas repentinas nubes , hormigas y otros signos de su ira , y muchos de
ellos perecieron . . . En la tierra de Djohainah un impetuoso torrente se los llevó a todos en medio de la
noche . La escena de esta catástrofe es conocida por el nombre de Idam ( furia ) ". El autor de este
pasaje , Masudi , árabe del siglo X , cita a un autor anterior , Omeyah , hijo de Abu - Salt : " En días
remotos los Djorhomitas habitaban Tehama , y un violento maremoto se los llevó a todos "

Igualmente la tradición relatada en Kitab Alaghani es concordante con la plaga de insectos ( hormigas de

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la variedad mas pequeña ) que forzaron a la tribu a emigrar de Hedjaz a su tierra nativa , donde fueron
destruidos por " Toufan " - un diluvio . En mi reconstrucción de la historia antigua , me propongo
establecer el sincronismo entre esto eventos y el Exodo

El Cielo se Desmorona

La lluvia de meteoritos y fuego del cielo , las nubes de polvo de origen extraterreno que bajó hasta la
tierra , y el desplazamiento de los puntos cardinales generaron la impresión de que el cielo se había
desplomado

Los antiguos pobladores de México cuentan de una edad del mundo que llegó a su fin , cuando el cielo
se desplomó y la Tierra quedó envuelta en la oscuridad

Strabo relata , en nombre de Ptolomeo , hijo de Lagus , general de Alejandro y fundador de la dinastía
egipcia que lleva este nombre , que los celtas que arribaron a las costas del mar Adriático , fueron
interrogados por Alejandro en cuanto a lo que ellos mas temían , a lo cual replicaron que no temían a
nada excepto que los cielos se desplomaran

Los chinos se refieren a un colapso del cielo que aconteció cuando las montañas se desplomaron .
Debido a que las montañas se desplomaron o fueron erigidas al mismo tiempo que el cielo se
desplazaba , los antiguo , no únicamente lo chinos , creían que las montañas sostenían al cielo

" La Tierra tembló , y los cielos cayeron . . . las montañas se derritieron ", dice la Canción de Deborah .
" La Tierra se estremeció , los cielos también cayeron en presencia de Dios : hasta el mismo Sinaí se
movió a otra parte ", nos dice el salmista ( Salmos 68:8 )

Las tribus se Samoa narran en sus leyendas una catástrofe ocurrida " en los días en que el cielo antiguo
se desplomó ". Los cielos o las nubes estaban tan bajos que la gente no podía estar en pie sin tocarles

Los finlandeses en su Kalevala cuentan que el cielo perdió pie y que una chispa de fuego creó un nuevo
sol y una nueva luna . Los lapones presentan ofrendas para que el cielo no pierda su sostén y caiga . Los
Esquimales de Groenlandia temen a que el soporte del cielo pueda desfallecer y que el cielo se caiga
matando a los seres humanos . Un oscurecimiento del Sol y la Luna precederían a dicha catástrofe

NOTA : Estas culturas están radicadas en lejanas latitudes norte del planeta . Deben haber sido quizá
espectadores de la mejor visión del evento , que los habitantes de latitudes mas al sur

Los Primitivos de Africa , tanto en las provincias orientales como occidentales del continente , cuentan
de un colapso del cielo ocurrido en el pasado . Los Ovararo relatan que hace muchos años " el grande de
los cielos " ( Eyuru ) dejó caer el cielo sobre la tierra . Casi todos murieron , quedando muy pocos con
vida . Las tribus de Kanga y Loanga también tienen una tradición del colapso del cielo que aniquiló a la
raza humana . Los Wanyoro de Unyoro también cuentan que el cielo cayó sobre la tierra y los mató a

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todos : el dios Kagra lanzó el firmamento sobre la tierra para destruír a la raza humana

Las tradiciones de los Casinaua , aborígenes del oeste del Brasil , narran lo siguiente : " Los rayos
destellaban y los truenos rugían terriblemente , y todos estaban aterrorizados . Entonces el cielo explotó
y los fragmentos cayeron y mataron a todos . El cielo y la Tierra cambiaron de lugar . Nada vivo quedó
sobre la Tierra "

En estas tradiciones se menciona los mismos elementos : los rayos y truenos , " la caída del cielo " , la
lluvia de meteoritos . Hay mucho que decir acerca del cambio de lugar de la Tierra y el cielo , y podré
manos a la obra a la brevedad

Este y Oeste

Nuestro planeta gira de oeste a este . Siempre ha sido así ? . Por su rotación de oeste a este , el Sol
parece salir por el este y ponerse en el oeste . Ha sido siempre el este el lugar de la salida del Sol ?

Existen muchos testimonios en todas partes del mundo , de que aquella parte del mundo que hoy acoge
al Sol del ocaso , un día recibió a la luz de la mañana

En su segundo libro de historia , Herodoto relata sus conversaciones con sacerdotes egipcios durante su
visita a Egipto en algún momento de la segunda mitad del siglo quinto antes de nuestra era .
Concluyendo la historia de su pueblo , los sacerdotes le informaron que el período que exiguo a su
primer rey cubrió 341 generaciones , y Herodoto calculó que , si 3 generaciones = un siglo , todo el
período comprendía un poco mas de 11,000 años . Los sacerdotes relataron que dentro de la era histórica
y desde que Egipto se convirtió en un reino , " 4 veces durante este período ( así me dijeron ) el Sol se
levantó en el lugar contrario : 2 veces se levantó donde ahora se pone , y 2 veces se puso donde ahora
se levanta "

Este pasaje ha sido objeto de exhaustivos comentarios , los autores han inventado las mas elaboradas
explicaciones posibles para el fenómeno , pero han fracasado simplemente porque no han atendido a la
aseveración literal de los sacerdotes egipcios , y sus esfuerzos de siglos han sido totalmente inútiles

NOTA : Este misterio tiene una solución . Herodoto escribió en la época del 400 AC . Podemos sumar a
dicha fecha 11,000 años , llegando a un resultado de aproximadamente 11,450 AC . Si la llegada del
planeta Nibiru consistentemente tiene por resultado un desplazamiento en el eje de la Tierra , como
parece haber ocurrido alrededor de 1,587 AC ( como ha quedado plasmado en el Libro de Joshua en
1,535 AC , 52 años después ) , entonces los cambios de eje polar precedentes deben haber acontecido
aproximadamente el 5,187 AC , el 8,787 AC y el 12,387 AC , cuya última fecha es menos de 1,000 años
antes del 11,540 AC . En consecuencia , los sacerdotes deben haberse referido a las 4 veces anteriores a
la visita de Herodoto , en que se había registrado la visita del planeta Nibiru

El famoso cronologista del sigo XVI Joseph Scaliger estudió la cuestión de si el período de Sothis , o la

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contabilidad del tiempo en años de 365 días que , comparada con el calendario juliano acumulaba un
error de 1 año cada 1,461 años , fue aludida por este pasaje de Herodoto , remarcando : " Sed hoc non
fuerit occasum et orientem mutare " ( No hubo inversión de la salida y puesta del Sol en el período de
Sothis )

Se referían las palabras de los sacerdotes a Herodoto a un lento cambio en la dirección del eje terrestre
durante un período de aproximadamente 25,000 años , generada por la rotación de la Tierra o por el
lento desplazamiento de los puntos equinocciales de la órbita terrestre ( precesión de los
equinoccios ) ? . Eso creía Alexander von Humboldt , que "el famoso pasaje del libro segundo de
Herodoto que tanto ha excitado la sagacidad de su comentaristas " . Pero esto implica una violación del
significado de las palabras de los sacerdotes , porque la precesión de equinoccios no significa que
oriente y occidente intercambien posiciones

Podemos dudar de la veracidad de las aseveraciones de los sacerdotes , o de la tradición egipcia en

general , o atacar a Herodoto por ignorancia de las ciencias naturales , pero no hay manera de conciliar
este pasaje con la ciencia actual . Sigue siendo " un notable texto de Herodoto , que desespera a sus
comentaristas "

Pomponio Mela , autor latino del siglo I , escribió : " Los egipcios se enorgullecen de ser uno de los
pueblos mas antiguos del mundo . En sus auténticos anales . . . se puede entender que desde que ellos
han existido como nación el curso de las estrellas ha cambiado de dirección 4 veces , y que el Sol ha
tenido su sitio de ocaso en el lugar en que hoy se levanta "

No deberíamos deducir que el texto de Herodoto era la única fuente de Mela . Mela se refiere
extensamente a referencias escritas egipcias . Menciona la inversión tanto en el movimiento de las
estrellas como el del Sol . Si hubiera copiado a Herodoto , probablemente no había mencionado la
inversión en el sentido de movimiento de las estrellas . En una época en que el desplazamiento del Sol ,
los planetas y las estrellas aún no era visto como resultado de la rotación de la Tierra , el cambio de
dirección del Sol no iba necesariamente conectado con un similar cambio en la dirección de otros
cuerpos celestes

Si en tiempos de Mela existían registros históricos egipcios que referían la salida del Sol por el oeste ,
deberíamos investigar las actuales fuentes literarias egipcias referentes al tema

El Papiro Mágico Harris habla de una hecatombe cósmica de fuego y agua , en que " el sur viene a ser el
norte , y la Tierra da un vuelco "

En el papiro Ipuwer también se comenta que " la tierra se revolvió como lo hace la rueda del ceramista
" , y " la Tierra quedó al revés " . Este papiro relata la terrible devastación provocada por una catástrofe
de la naturaleza . En el Papiro Hermitage ( Leningrado , 1116 B ) también se hace referencia a una
catástrofe "que puso la Tierra al revés , ocurriendo lo que nunca antes había ocurrido " . Se supone que
en ese tiempo - en el segundo milenio - las gentes no tenían noción de la rotación de la Tierra . En

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consecuencia , la expresión " puso la Tierra al revés " no era relacionada con la diaria rotación del globo
terráqueo

Tampoco estas descripciones de los papiros de Leyden y de Leningrado dejan lugar a una interpretación
figurativa , especialmente si tenemos en cuenta al Papis Harris - el giro de la Tierra va acompañado de
un intercambio entre los polos norte y sur

Harakhte es el nombre egipcio para el sol del oeste . Puesto que sólo hay un sol en el cielo , deducimos
que Harakhte es el sol que se pone . Pero porqué el sol que se pone debería ser mirado como una deidad
diferente del sol que despunta ? . La identidad del sol que sale y el que se pone son vistas por todos .
Pero las inscripciones no dejan lugar a malentendidos : " Harakhte , te levantas por el oeste "

En los textos encontrados en las pirámides se lee que la luminaria " dejó de vivir en el occidente , y
ahora brilla una nueva en el oriente "

Posterior a la inversión en la dirección , cualesquiera sea su fecha , las palabras " oeste " y " salida del
Sol " ya no fueron sinónimos , y es necesario aclarar esta referencia agregando : " el oeste que está en el
lugar del ocaso " . No era una mera acotación , como lo creyó el traductor de este texto

Desde que los jeroglíficos fueron descifrados en el siglo XVIII , sólo sería razonable suponer que desde
entonces los textos de Herodoto y Mela tendrían que haber sido escritos después de consultar los anales
egipcios

En la tumba de Senmut , arquitecto de la reina Hatchepsut , un panel en el cielo de la bóveda muestra a

la esfera celeste con los signos del zodíaco cuyas constelaciones ocupan una orientación invertida a la
del cielo sur

El fin del Imperio Medio antecedió a la reina Hatchepsut por varios siglos . El cielo astronómico
presentando una posición invertida puede haber sido una imagen venerada , obsoleta pocos siglos mas
tarde

" Un rasgo característico de la bóveda de Senmut es la posición objetable en la orientación del panel
sur " . " El centro del cuadro está ocupado por el grupo de Orión - Sirio , en el que Orión aparece al
oeste de Sirio , en lugar de al este ". La representación del panel sur es tal , que el ocupante de la tumba
que lo contempla tiene que levantar su cabeza y mirar el norte , "en lugar del sur ". " Con la invertida
representación del panel sur , Orión , la más característica constelación del cielo sur , parece estar
moviéndose hacia el este , es decir , en la dirección opuesta "

El verdadero significado de " la irrazonable orientación del panel sur " y de la " posición invertida de
Orión " parece ser : el panel sur muestra el cielo de Egipto tal como era cuando en la esfera celestial se
trocó norte y sur , este y oeste . El panel norte muestra el cielo de Egipto tal como fue en la noche de los
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No hubo tradición autóctona en Grecia que se refiera a una rotación inversa del Sol y las estrellas ?

Platón escribió en sus Diálogos , " El Político " : " Me refiero al cambio en la posición de salida y
puesta del Sol y otros cuerpos celestes , cómo en aquellos tiempos se ponían en el sector en que ahora
despuntan , y salían donde hoy se ponen . . . el dios en época de la batalla , como recuerdas , cambió
todo eso por el sistema actual como testimonio en favor de Atreus ". Luego sigue : " En ciertos períodos
el universo tiene su actual rotación circular , y en otros períodos se revuelve en la dirección opuesta . . .
De todos los cambios que acontecen en los cielos , esta inversión es el mayor y mas completo "

Plato continúa su diálogo , utilizando el pasaje anterior como introducción al mas fantástico ensayo
filosófico relativo a la inversión del tiempo . Este hecho resta importancia a la categórica afirmación del
pasaje citado

La inversión del movimiento del Sol en el cielo no fue un evento pacífico . Fue un acto de violencia y
destrucción . Platón escribe en " El Político " : " En ese tiempo hubo gran destrucción de todos los
animales , y sólo una pequeña porción de la raza humana sobrevivió "

La inversión en el movimiento del Sol ha sido comentada por muchos autores griegos antes y después de
Platón . Según un corto fragmento en un drama histórico de Sófocles ( Atreus ) , el Solo se levanta en el
este sólo desde que su curso se invirtió . " Zeus . . . cambió el curso del Sol , haciendo que se levantara
en el este y no en el oeste "

Eurípides relata en Electra : " Entonces Zeus se levantó en ira , poniendo a las estrellas pies arriba en la
vía moteada de fuego . Es verdad , y el quemante de esplendor carro del Sol , y los nublados ojos del
gris de la mañana . Y el relámpago de las ruedas de su carruaje rodando al revés tornó escarlata al
rostro del ocaso . . . el Sol . . . se ha devuelto . . . ante el látigo de su ira los mortales pagan con
aflicción "

Muchos autores en siglos posteriores se dieron cuenta de que la historia de Atreus describía algún evento
de la naturaleza . Strabo cometió un error al afirmar que Atreus era un astrónomo antiguo que
"descubrió que el Sol rota en dirección opuesta al movimiento de la esfera celeste ". Durante la noche
las estrellas se desplazan de este a oeste 2 minutos mas rápido que el Sol , que se mueve en similar
dirección durante el día . ( Cada noche las estrellas se levantan sobre el horizonte 4 minutos mas
temprano . La Tierra rota 366,25 veces en un año en relación con las estrellas , pero 365,25 veces con
respecto al Sol )

Aún en lenguaje poético tal fenómeno no podría haber sido narrado como sigue : " Y la velocidad del
alado carro del Sol se invirtió en medio de la espantosa contienda , cambiando su ruta celestial hacia el
oeste por otra dirigida hacia el lugar donde el quemante rojo se degradaba hasta el rosa ", tal como
escribiera Eurípides en otro de sus trabajos ( Orestes , II , 1001 ff )

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Séneca sabía mas que su viejo contemporáneo Strabo . En su drama Thyestes nos presenta poderosa
descripción de lo acontecido cuando el Sol se devolvió en medio de la mañana , revelando un
conocimiento mucho mas profundo de los fenómenos naturales . Cuando el Sol invirtió su curso
empañando el día en medio del Olimpo ( mediodía ) , y el Sol que se hundía contempló a Aurora , la
gente , estremecida de miedo , preguntaba : " Hemos sido elegidos , entre toda la humanidad , para
merecer aquel cielo con sus polos puestos cabeza abajo , abatiéndonos ? . Ha llegado el último día de
nuestro tiempo ? "

Los primeros filósofos griegos , especialmente Pitágoras , deben haber conocido de la inversión en el
movimiento del cielo , si efectivamente aconteció , pero Pitágoras y su escuela mantuvieron este
conocimiento en el secreto y no nos queda otra alternativa que investigar a los autores que escribieron
acerca de los pitagóricos . Aristóteles nos indica que los pitagóricos diferenciaban entre movimiento
izquierdo y derecho del cielo ( " el punto en que las estrellas se levantan es la derecha de los cielos , y el
punto donde se ponen es la izquierda " ) , y en Platón encontramos : " En dirección de izquierda a
derecha , lo que quiere decir de oeste a este " . Nuestro sol actual se mueve en dirección opuesta

En lenguaje simbólico y de filosofía astronómica , de muy probable origen pitagórico , Platón nos
describe en Timeo los efectos de una colisión de la Tierra " cogida por una tempestad de vientos " con "
fuego extraño o masa sólida proveniente del exterior ", ó " aguas de inmenso maremoto que se recogía
en medio de la espuma y luego avanzaba en fuerte corriente ". La esfera terrestre es empujada en todas
direcciones , " hacia adelante , hacia atrás , otra vez hacia la derecha y luego hacia la izquierda , hacia
arriba y hacia abajo , vagando en todas las seis direcciones "

Como resultado de tal colisión , descrita en lenguaje no tan fácil de entender , el texto representa a la
Tierra como un ser con alma : " hubo una violenta conmoción en las revoluciones del alma ", " un
completo bloqueo del curso de ella ", " remeciendo el curso de la otra ", lo " que generó todo tipo de
torsiones , y causó fracturas en sus círculos y alteraciones de toda forma posible , de manera que ellos
difícilmente podían mantenerse juntos , y se movían en forma verdaderamente irracional , a ratos en
sentido contrario , otras veces de manera oblicua , luego nuevamente cabeza abajo ". En la
terminología de Platón " la inversión de ellos " es de este a oeste , y " la inversión de los otros " es de
oeste a este . En El Político Platón presenta este lenguaje simbólico en términos muy simples , hablando
de la inversión de los puntos cardinales en los que el Sol sale y se pone

Mas adelante retornaremos al asunto del Sol que se ponía al este

Cayo Julio Solino , autor latino del siglo III de nuestra era , escribió acerca los habitantes de la frontera
sur de Egipto : " Los pobladores de este país afirman haber recibido de sus ancestros la noción de que
el Sol ahora se pone donde antes se levantaba "

Las tradiciones de los pueblos coinciden en el sincronismo de los cambios en el movimiento del Sol con
grandes catástrofes que pusieron fin a antigua eras del mundo . Estas variaciones en el movimiento del
Sol en sucesivas edades explican porqué muchos pueblos hagan uso del término " sol " para referirse a

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una " era "

" Los chinos afirman que es sólo desde que se ha establecido un nuevo orden de las cosas , que las
estrellas se mueven de este a oeste ". " Los signos del zodíaco chino tienen la extraña peculiaridad de
precederse en dirección retrógrada , es decir , contraria al movimiento del Sol "

En la ciudad siria de Ugarit ( Ras Shamrra ) se encontró un poema dedicado a la diosa - planeta Anat ,
quien " masacró a la población de Levante " y quien " intercambió la auroras y la posición de las
estrellas "

Los jeroglíficos mexicanos describen 4 movimientos del Sol , en el Nahui Ollin Tonatiuh : " Los autores
indios traducen Ollin como " movimientos del Sol . Cuando encuentran el número Nahui agregado ellos
traducen Nahui Ollin como " el Sol ( Tonatiuh ) en sus 4 movimientos " . Estos 4 movimientos se
refieren a " los 4 soles de la prehistoria " ó " las 4 edades " , con sus cambios de puntos cardinales . El
sol que se mueve hacia el este , en contraposición a nuestro sol actual es denominado por los indios
Teotl Lixco . Las gentes de México simbolizaba el cambio de dirección en el movimiento del Sol como
un juego de pelota celestial , acompañado por catástrofes y cataclismos

La inversión de este y oeste , si está acompañada de una inversión de norte y sur , convertiría a las
constelaciones del norte en constelaciones del sur , y se las mostraría en posición inversa tal como son
representadas en la bóveda de la tumba de Senmut . Las estrellas del hemisferio norte pasarían a ser las
estrellas del hemisferio sur . Esto es lo que parecen describir los mexicanos con " el alejamiento de las
cuatrocientas estrellas del sur "

Los esquimales de Groenlandia dijeron a los misioneros que en una antigua época la Tierra se revolvió y
la gente que entonces vivía transformó en " contraria "

Son numerosas las fuentes hebreas que hacen referencia al asunto . En el Tractate Sanedrín del Talmud
se comenta : " Siete días antes del diluvio , el Unico Sagrado cambió el orden primitivo y el Sol se
levantó en el Oeste y se recostó en el este " . Tevel es el nombre hebreo para el mundo en que el Sol
salía en el oeste . Arabot es el nombre del cielo cuando el Sol se pone en el oeste . Hai Gaon , autoridad
rabínica del período 935 - 1,038 en su Respuestas hace alusión a cambios cósmicos en que el Sol se
levantó en el oeste y se puso en el este

El Koran habla del Señor " de los dos estes y los dos oestes " , frase que continúa presentando
dificultades a los investigadores . Averrhoes , filósofo árabe del siglo XII , escribió acerca de los
movimientos en direcciones este ú oeste del Sol

Las referencias a una inversión del movimiento del Sol que aquí se mencionan no necesariamente tienen
que ver con la misma época : el Diluvio , el final del Imperio Medio , los tiempos de los señores
Argivos , estaban separados por muchos siglos . La tradición recibida por Herodoto en Egipto habla de 4
inversiones . Nuevamente habremos de citar estas antiguas catástrofes mas adelante en este libro

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La Polaridad Inversa de la Tierra

Una rayo , si golpea a un imán , invierte las polaridades de sus polos . El globo terrestre es un inmenso
imán . Un cortocircuito entre la Tierra y otro cuerpo celeste podría hacer que los polos magnéticos de la
Tierra invirtieran sus posiciones

Es posible detectar la orientación del campo magnético terrestre en épocas pasadas a partir de los
registros geológicos

" Cuando la lava proveniente de un volcán se enfría y hace sólida queda permanentemente polarizada
según la orientación del campo magnético terrestre en ese momento . Debido a la baja capacidad del
campo magnético de cambiar esta polarización después de que la roca se solidifica , la polarización es
permanente . Si esta premisa es válida la dirección de la polaridad puede ser determinada por medio de
pruebas de laboratorio, siempre que la orientación de la roca sea cuidadosamente marcada cuando ésta
es removida ". ( J. A. Fleming , " estudio del Magnetismo Terrestre y Exploraciones Magnéticas " de "
Magnetismo Terrestre y Electricidad " 1939 , P. 32 )

Podemos esperar encontrar rastro de una completa inversión de polaridad magnética . A pesar de que
sucesivos calentamientos de lava y rocas podría haber cambiado posteriormente esta orientación , debe
haber rocas que mantengan su polarización original . Otro autor escribe :

" Un examen de la magnetización de algunas rocas ígneas revela que éstas fueron polarizadas en
dirección opuesta a la dirección del actual campo magnético en el lugar , y muchas rocas mas antiguas
están polarizadas en forma mas débil que las mas recientes . Suponiendo que las rocas fueron
magnetizadas cuando el magma se enfrió y que las rocas mantuvieron la posición que tenían en ese
momento , Esto indicaría que la polaridad de la Tierra ha sido completamente invertida en una época
geológica relativamente reciente ". ( A. McNish , " Sobre Las Causas del Magnetismo Terrestre y SuS
Cambios " , " Magnetismo Terrestre y Electricidad " , Fleming , p.326 ). Debido a que los hechos físicos
han parecido inconsistentes con cada teoría cosmológica , el autor del este texto fue cauteloso y no
publicó mayores conclusiones en relación con éstas

La polaridad invertida de la lava indica que en tiempos geológicos recientes los polos magnéticos del
globo terrestre sufrieron una inversión , y que en ese momento hubo gran profusión de lava

Implicancias adicionales y de gran proyección serían : si la posición de los polos magnéticos tiene que
ver con la rotación de la Tierra , y si hay interdependencia entre la polaridad magnética del Sol y los
planetas

Los Puntos Cardinales se Desplazan

Las tradiciones antes citads se refieren a varias épocas . Herodoto y Mela afirman que según los anales

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egipcios la inversión de este y oeste fue repetida , el Sol salía por el oeste , después en el este , luego una
vez mas en el oeste , y nuevamente en el este

Fue la hecatombe cósmica que puso fin a una era en los días de la desaparición del Imperio Medio y del
Exodo una de estas ocasiones , y cambió la dirección de la Tierra en ese momento ? . Si no nos es
posible ir tan lejos , por lo menos podemos sostener que la Tierra no permaneció en la misma órbita , ni
sus polos permanecieron el igual posición , ni la dirección del eje terrestre fua la misma de antes . La
posición de la Tierra y su curso no quedaron establecidos en el momento en que éste entró por primera
vez en contacto con el cometa que pasaba . De acuerdo a Platón , el movimiento de la Tierra fue
cambiado " por un bloqueo en su trayectoria " y ocurrió por " una perturbación en su rotación " que "
produjo todas las alteraciones posibles " , de manera que la posición de la Tierra se hizo " por veces
inversa , en otros casos oblicua , y luego pies arriba " , y " vagó en cada una de las seis direcciones "

El Talmud y otras antiguas fuentes rabínicas narran grandes perturbaciones en el movimiento solar en
época del Exodo y el Cruce del Mar Rojo y cuando la Ley fue entregada . En el Antiguo Midrashim se
relata que 4 veces el Sol fue forzado fuera de su curso , en las pocas semanas entre el día del Exodo y el
día en que la Ley fue dispensada

La prolongada oscuridad ( y prolongado día en el lejano oriente ) y el cataclismo ( las plagas novena y
décima ) y la conflagración del mundo fueron el resultado de las perturbaciones en el movimiento de la
Tierra . Pocos días después , si seguimos la crónica bíblica , inmediatamente antes de que el huracán
cambiara su dirección , " el pilar de nubes pasó delante de su rostro y permaneció detrás de ellos " .
Esto significa que la columna de fuego y humo se desplazó apareciendo en el lado opuesto de la Tierra .
Montañas de agua abandonaron los lechos oceánicos . Una descarga eléctrica saltó entre los dos cuerpos
celestes . Y " al girar la mañana las aguas cayeron en colosal avalancha "

El Midrashim habla de una perturbación en el movimiento solar en el día del Cruce : el Sol no continuó
en su curso . En ese días , según los Salmos ( 70:8 ) , " la Tierra temerosa permaneció quieta ". Es
posible que Amos ( 8:8-9 ) esté reviviendo la memoria de este evento cuando menciona la " inundación
de Egipto " , en tiempos en que " tierras emergieron del mar , y terrenos secos fueron tragados por las
aguas " , y " el Sol se ocultó al mediodía " : También , como detallo mas adelante , Amos pudo haberse
referido a una catástrofe acontecida en época mas reciente

Además , el día en que la Ley fue entregada a los hombres , cuando nuevamente hubo una colisión de
mundos , fue de acuerdo con numerosas fuetes rabínicas , un día inusualmente largo : el movimiento del
Sol estaba perturbado . En esta ocasión y en general en los días siguientes al Cruce , las tinieblas , las
densas y cargadas nubes , los rayos y los huracanes , aparte de la devastación provocada por los
terremotos y maremotos , hacían la observación muy difícil , sino imposible . " Ellos caminan en la
oscuridad : los cimientos de la Tierra están fuera de lugar " ( Salmos 82:5 ) es la metáfora que usa el
salmista

El Papiro Ipuwer , que afirma que " la Tierra rotaba como una rueda de ceramista " y " la Tierra está al

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revés " , fue escrito por un testigo ocular de las plagas y el Exodo . El cambio se describe también en
otro papiro ( Harris ) que ya he citado antes : " El sur se hizo norte , y la Tierra se revolvió "

Si hubo una inversión completa de los puntos cardinales como resultado del evento en días del Exodo , o
sólo fue un cambio parcial , es un problema aún no resuelto . La respuesta no ha sido aparente aún para
nuestros contemporáneos al menos por varias décadas . En las tinieblas que perduraron por una
generación las observaciones eran imposibles , y bastante difíciles cuando la luz comenzó a nuevamente
a filtrarse por entre las nubes

El Kalevala relata que " temibles sombras " envuelven a la Tierra , y " el Sol a veces se sale de su
camino " . Entonces Ukko - Júpiter extrajo fuego del Sol , para iluminar a un nuevo sol y a una nueva
luna , y comenzó una nueva edad del mundo

En el Voluspa ( poema de los Eddas islandeses ) leemos : " El Sol no sabía donde estaba su hogar , la
Luna no sabía donde estaba el suyo . Las estrellas ignoraban cuales eran sus estaciones " . Entonces los
dioses pusieron orden en los cuerpos celestes

Los aztecas relataban : " No había existido el Sol por mucho tiempo . . . Los jefes comenzaron a mirar a
través de las tinieblas en todas direcciones en busca de la luz , y a hacer apuestas acerca del lugar en
que el Sol volvería a aparecer. Algunos decían " aquí " , otos exclamaban " allá " . Pero cuando el Sol
finalmente se levantó , todos estaban equivocados , porque ninguno de ellos se había fijado en el este "

Similarmente la leyenda maya cuenta que " no se sabía desde donde el nuevo Sol habría de aparecer ". "
Miraban en todas direcciones , pero eran incapaces de señalar en que lugar el Sol aparecería . Algunos
creían que despuntaría desde el norte y sus miradas se dirigían en esa dirección . Otros pensaban que
sería desde el sur . En realidad sus predicciones se referían a todas las direcciones , porque había una
luz difusa uniforme en todo el derredor . Sin embargo algunos fijaron su atención en el oriente , y
sostuvieron que el Sol se levantaría desde allí . Esta opinión probó ser la correcta "

Según el Compendium de Wong - shi - Shing ( 1526 - 1590 ) , ocurrió en la edad después del caos ,
cuando la tierra y los cielos se separaron , es decir , cuando la gran masa nubosa abandonó la tierra ",
que el cielo mostró su rostro

En el Midrashim se relata que mientras vagaban por el desierto los israelitas nunca vieron la cara del Sol
debido a las nubes . Tampoco podían orientarse en su marcha

La expresión usada en repetidas ocasiones en el Libro de Números y de Joshua , " al este , hacia el Sol
naciente " , no es una tautología sino una definición , la cual dicho sea de paso , comprueba el antiguo
origen del material literario que han servido como fuentes para estos trabajos . Esta expresión es la
contraparte de la egipcia " el oeste , que es donde el Sol se pone "

La alegoría cosmológica de los griegos sostiene que Zeus , apurando su camino para trenzarse en

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combate con Tifón , se roba a Europa ( Erev , la tierra del atardecer ) y la transporta hacia el oeste .
Arabia ( también Erev ) mantuvo su nombre , " la tierra del atardecer " , aunque está al este de los
centros de la civilización - Egipto , Palestina , Grecia . Eusebio , uno de los Padres de la Iglesia , asigna
el episodio de Zeus - Europa a la época de Moisés y la inundación Deucalión , y Agustino escribió que
Europa fue acarreada por el rey de Creta hasta su isla en el oeste , " entre la fecha de la salida de los
israelitas de Egipto y la muerte de Joshua "

Los griego , como otras naciones , hablaron de la inversión de los puntos cardinales no de manera
alegórica , sino en términos literales

La inversión del sentido de rotación de la Tierra a la que se refieren tradiciones escritas y orales de
muchos pueblos , sugiere una relación entre estos eventos y el gran cataclismo en el día del Exodo . Tal
como el pasaje budista extraído del Visuddhi - Magga , y la citada tradición de la tribu Cashinaua al
oeste del Brasil , las versiones de las tribus y pueblos de los cinco continentes contienen los mismos
elementos , familiares a nosotros por el Libro de Exodo : rayos y la " explosión del cielo " , que causó
que la Tierra se posicionara " al revés " , o " el cielo y la tierra intercambiaron sus posiciones " . En las
islas Andaman tienen temor de que un cataclismo natural pueda hacer que el mundo se ponga al revés .
Al igual que los esquimales de Groenlandia , temen que la tierra invertirá su posición

Curiosamente , la causa de dicha perturbación se revelada por las creencias del pueblo de Flanders en
Bélgica . De ellos leemos : " En Menin ( Flanders ) los campesinos dicen haber visto un cometa . El
cielo de va a desplomar , la tierra quedará al revés "

Cambios en el Clima y la Estaciones del Año

Muchos agentes aportaron al cambio del clima . La insolación estaba bloqueada por pesadas nubes de
polvo , y la radiación del calor de la tierra estaba igualmente atenuada . Se generó calor por el contacto
cercano de la Tierra con otro cuerpo celeste . La Tierra fue trasladada a una órbita mas alejada del Sol .
Las regiones polares se desplazaron . Los mares y océanos se evaporaron y los vapores precipitaron en
nieve sobre las nuevas regiones polares y altas latitudes en un largo " invierno nuclear " y formaron
nuevos casquetes polares . El eje de rotación de la Tierra apuntó en una dirección diferente , y el orden
de las estaciones quedó alterado

La primavera sucede al invierno y el otoño al verano , porque la Tierra gira con su eje inclinado con
respecto al plano en que gira alrededor del Sol . Si el eje asumiera una posición perpendicular a ese
plano , no existirían las estaciones del año . Si hubiera un cambio en su inclinación , las estaciones
cambiarían , en intensidad y en su orden de precedencia

El Papiro Anastasi IV expone una queja acerca de las tinieblas y la ausencia de luz solar . Dice también :
" Ha llegado el invierno en lugar del verano , los meses están invertidos y las horas están en desorden "

" El aliento del cielo está fuera de armonía . . . Las cuatro estaciones no conservan sus períodos

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correctos " , leemos en los Textos Sobre Taoísmo

En las memorias históricas de Se-Ma Ta'ien , como en los anales de Shu King que hemos citado antes ,
se relata que el emperador Yahou envió astrónomos al Valle de la Oscuridad y a la Residencia Sombría ,
para observar los nuevos movimientos del Sol y la Luna y su zigzagueo o los puntos orbitales de sus
conjunciones . También para " investigar e informar al pueblo del nuevo orden de las estaciones " . Se
dice que también Yahou introdujo una reforma en el calendario : puso las estaciones de acuerdo con las
observaciones . Lo mismo hizo con los meses y "corrigió los días "
Plutarco nos ofrece la siguiente descripción del desarreglo de las estaciones : " El aire denso impedía
observar claramente el cielo , y las estrellas se confundían con desordenado desfile de fuego y humedad
y violentas corrientes de vientos . El Sol no estaba fijo a un curso definido y cierto , como para
distinguir oriente y occidente , ni tampoco traía a las estaciones en orden " . En otro de sus trabajos ,
Plutarco culpa a Tifón , " el destructivo , enfermo y desordenado " quien ha traído " estaciones y
temperaturas anormales "

Es muy característico el hecho de que en las tradiciones escritas de los pueblos de la antigüedad , el
desorden en las estaciones vaya siempre conectado con la perturbación en el movimiento de las
estrellas , el Sol y la Luna en el firmamento . Asimismo , las tradiciones orales de los pueblos primitivos
retienen recuerdos de este cambio en el movimiento de los cuerpos celestes , las estaciones , el flujo del
tiempo , en una época de oscuridad que abrazaba al mundo . Cito como ejemplo la tradición de la tribu
Oraibi de Arizona . Ellos cuentan que el cielo colgaba demasiado bajo y el mundo estaba en la
oscuridad , y no había sol , ni luna , ni estrellas a la vista . " La gente murmuraba por la oscuridad y el
frío ". Entonces el dios - planeta Machito " asignó tiempos , estaciones y caminos para los astros del
cielo "

Entre los incas " el poder que regula las estaciones del año y los caminos de los cuerpos celestes " era
Huiracocha . " El Sol , la Luna , el día , la noche , la primavera , el invierno , no son vanamente
ordenados por Tí , Oh Huiracocha "

Las fuentes americanas que hablan de un mundo de color rojo , de una lluvia de fuego , de una
conflagración mundial , del surgimiento de nuevas montañas , de portentosos eventos en el cielo , de
tinieblas que permanecieron por 25 años, también nos informan que " el orden de las estaciones fue
alterado en aquella época ". " Los astrónomos y geólogos cuya preocupación son estos asuntos . . .
deben juzgar las causas que pidieron generar estos desarreglos del día y sumieron a la Tierra en las
tinieblas ", escribe un clérigo que pasó muchos años de su vida en México y en las bibliotecas del Viejo
Mundo que guardan antiguos manuscritos de los mayas y los trabajos de antiguos autores indios y
españoles acerca de ellos . No supo deducir que la narración bíblica de los tiempos del Exodo contiene
los mismos elementos

Con el fin del Imperio Nuevo en Egipto , cuando los israelitas salen del país , el viejo orden de las
estaciones llegó a su fin y comenzó una nueva era . El Libro IV de Ezra , quien toma prestados algunos
conceptos de fuentes mas antiguas , se refiere al " fin de las estaciones " en estos términos : " Yo lo envié

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( a Moisés ) par guiar a mi pueblo fuera de Egipto y los trajo al Monte Sinaí , y le sostuve conmigo por
muchos días . Le dije muchas cosas maravillosas , le mostré los secretos de los tiempos , le declaré el fin
de la estaciones "

Debido a los varios cambios simultáneos en los movimientos de la Tierra y de la Luna , y debido a que
la observación del cielo estaba bloqueada , oculta por el jumo y las nubes , el calendario no pudo ser
correctamente computado . El cambio en la duración del año , del mes y del día , requieren de cuidadosa
y prolongada observación libre de obstáculos . Las palabras del Midrashim , en cuanto a que Moisés era
incapaz de entender el nuevo calendario , se refieren a esta situación : " los secretos del calendario " , o
mejor dicho " el secreto de la transición " entre una forma de contar el tiempo y otra , le fue revelado a
Moisés , pero tenía dificultades par entenderlo . Mas aún , se afirma en fuentes rabínicas que en tiempos
de Moisés el curso de los cuerpos celestes se hizo confuso

El mes del Exodo , que aconteció en primavera , se convirtió en el primer mes del año : " Este mes será
puesto como el primero de los meses : para ti será el primer mes del año ". Entonces , se dio la extraña
situación de que en el calendario judío el Año Nuevo se celebra en el séptimo mes : el comienzo de su
calendario se desplazó a una fecha que está casi medio año mas tarde

Con la caída del Imperio Medio y el Exodo , finalizó una de las grandes eras del mundo . Los cuatro
cuadrantes del mundo se desplazaron , y ni la órbita terrestre , ni los polos , y probablemente tampoco la
dirección de rotación , continuaron siendo los mismos . El calendario tenía que ser modificado . Es
posible que la duración astronómica del año y del día no sean los mismos antes y después de la
hecatombe , los que , tal como reza el Papiro Anastasi IV , los meses se invirtieron y " las horas se
desordenaron "

La duración del año durante el Imperio Medio no es conocida por ningún documento existente . Puesto
que los textos piramidales que datan del imperio Medio , hacen mención a " 5 días ", se ha deducido
equivocadamente que en aquel tiempo el período de 365 días ya era conocido . Pero no existe ninguna
referencia , ni en al Imperio Antiguo ni en el Imperio Nuevo que haga mención a un año de 365 días , ni
siquiera a 360 días . Tampoco existe ninguna referencia a un año de 365 días ni a " 5 días " en las
numerosas inscripciones correspondientes al Imperio Nuevo que sea anterior a las dinastías del siglo
VII . En consecuencia , la inferencia de que " 5 días " de los textos piramidales del Imperio Antiguo
signifiquen 5 días + 360 , no tienen fundamento sólido

Existe destacada y directa alusión en el manuscrito de Timeo a que el calendario del año solar de 360
días de duración fue introducida por los Hiksos , después de la caída del Imperio Medio . Aparentemente
el calendario del Imperio Medio constaba de menos días

El hecho que pretendo dejar establecido es que desde el siglo XV hasta el siglo VIII antes de nuestra era
presente al año astronómico tenía 360 días . Ni antes del siglo XV ni después del siglo VIII el año tuvo
esta duración . En el último capítulo de este trabajo presento extensos antecedentes para demostrar este
punto

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La cantidad de días del año en el Imperio Medio era de menos de 360 días . Entonces la Tierra giraba en
una órbita mas cercana a la actual órbita de Venus . Una investigación relativa a la duración del año
astronómico en los períodos del Imperio Antiguo y el Imperio Medio está reservada para la parte de este
trabajo que dice relación con las grandes catástrofes que acontecieron antes del comienzo del Imperio
Medio en Egipto

Menciono a un antiguo texto midráshico que se contradice con los textos de la Escrituras , que se refiere
a el tiempo transcurrido entre el momento en que los israelitas abandonaros Egipto . Sostiene que " Dios
cambió el curso de los planetas que existía durante la permanencia de los israelitas en Egipto " , de
manera tal que el Sol completaba 400 revoluciones en el lapso de 210 días normales . Estas
apreciaciones no deben ser tomadas como correctas , puesto que la intención no era la de conciliar dos
textos bíblicos sino hacer referencia a trayectorias diferentes de los planetas en el período en que los
israelitas moraban en Egipto durante el Imperio Medio

El Midrash Rabba declara , bajo la autoridad de Rabí Simon que advino un nuevo orden mundial al final
de la sexta era con la revelación del Monte Sinaí . " La Creación se debilitó . El tiempo del mundo fue
contado , pero a partir de entonces se registró un tiempo diferente " . Midrash Rabba también hace
mención a una " mayor longitud del tiempo que demoraban algunos de los planetas "

El Nacimiento de Nibiru

Un planeta gira en una órbita relativamente circular alrededor de un cuerpo mas grande , el Sol . Puede
ser que haga contacto cercano con otro cuerpo celeste , un cometa , que viaja en trayectoria muy
elíptica . El planeta se desvía de su eje de rotación , se sale de su órbita , par finalmente liberarse del
devastador abrazo del cometa

El cuerp que se desplaza en elongada elipse sufre una experiencia similar . Desviado de su trayecto ,
encuentra un nuevo curso , mientras su tren de substancias gaseosas que le siguen es empujado por el
Sol o por el planeta , o se desvía o se revuelve como un cometa menor en su propia elipse . Una parte de
la cola es retenida por el cometa en su nuevo curso

Antiguos registros mexicanos nos hablan de la secuencia de estos eventos . El Sol fue atacado por
Quetzalcoatl . Después de la desaparición de este cuerpo celeste con forma de serpiente , el Sol se
rehusaba a brillar , y durante 4 días la Tierra estuvo privada de su luz . Murió mucha gente . Desde
entonces el cuerpo con forma de serpiente se transformó en una estrella . Esta estrella mantuvo el
nombre de Quetzalcoatl , apareciendo por primera vez en el este . Quetzalcoatl corresponde al conocido
nombre del Planeta Nibiru . Leemos allí " el Sol se rehusaba a mostrarse y durante 4 días el mundo
estuvo privado de luz . Entonces apareció una gran estrella . . . se le dio el nombre de Quetzalcoatl . . .
para mostrar su ira los cielos hicieron que mucha gente muriera de hambre y pestilencia ". La secuencia
de las estaciones del año y la duración de los días y las noches se hizo desordenada . " Entonces fue
que . . . los habitantes de México comenzaron una nueva forma de registrar los días , las noches y las
horas , de acuerdo con las diferencias del tiempo "

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" Sin embargo , es notable el hecho de que el tiempo comenzó a ser medido a partir del advenimiento de
esta nueva estrella ( la estrella de la Mañana ) . . . Tlahuizcalpanteucli o la Estrella de la Mañana
apareció por primera vez después de las convulsiones de la tierra secundadas por una inundación . " Se
veía como una monstruosa serpiente . Era una serpiente adornada con plumas : por eso se la llama
Quetzalcoatl , Gukumatz o Kukulkan . Se le vio aparecer justo cuando el mundo parecía salir del caos
de la gran catástrofe ". Las plumas de Quetzalcoatl " parecían llamas de fuego " . Luego el texto habla
de " el cambio que aconteció en el momento de la gran catástrofe de la inundación , en la posición de
muchas constelaciones , siendo la principal entre ellas la de Tlahuizcalpanteucli o la Estrella Nibiru "

El cataclismo , acompañado por prolongada oscuridad , parece coincidir con los días del Exodo, cuando
una tempestad de cenizas ardientes oscurecieron el mundo cuya rotación estaba perturbada . Algunas de
las referencias podrían aludir a la catástrofe subsiguiente del tiempo de la conquista por Joshua , cuando
el Sol se quedó quieto en el cielo par mas de un día . Puesto que parece haber sido el mismo cometa que
hizo contacto cercano con la Tierra en ambas ocasiones , y que en las dos oportunidades el cometa
cambió su propia trayectoria , la pregunta relevante no es : " En qué ocasión el cometa cambió su
órbita ? , sino antes que nada " Cual planeta se ha convertido en cometa ?" o bien " Cual de los
planetas ha sido un cometa en los tiempos históricos ?" . La transformación de un cometa en planeta
comenzó con su contacto con la Tierra en el segundo milenio antes de nuestra era y fue completada un
jubileo mas tarde

Después de los dramáticos hechos de la época del Exodo , la Tierra estuvo sumida en densas nubes
durante décadas , y no era posible la observación de las estrellas . Luego del segundo contacto , Nibiru ,
el nuevo planeta miembro del Sistema Solar , fue visto moviéndose a lo largo de su órbita . Fue en los
tiempos de Joshua , significativa fecha par el lector del sexto libro de las Escrituras . Paro para los
antiguos fue " el tiempo de Agog ". Como he señalado antes , éste era el rey mediante cuyo nombre se
llamó al gran cataclismo ( el Diluvio de Ogyges ) , quien , de acuerdo con los griegos , inició la
fundación de Tabas en Egipto

En " La Ciudad de Dios " de Augustino se cita : " Del libro de Marco Varro titulado " De la Raza del
Pueblo Romano " cito textualmente el párrafo siguiente : " Ocurrió un impresionante portento celestial .
Según los registros de Cástor la brillante estrella Nibiru , llamada Vesperugo por Plauto y la hermosa
Hesperus por Homero , realizó un extraño prodigio: cambió su color , su tamaño , su trayectoria , lo
que nunca había ocurrido antes y tampoco volvió a ocurrir después . Adrastus de Cyzicus y Dion de
Nápoles , matemáticos famosos , afirman que esto aconteció durante el reinado de Ogyges "

Los Padres de la Iglesia consideraban a Ogyges contemporáneo de Moisés , Agog , mencionado en la

bendición de Balaam , era el mismo rey Ogyges . El cataclismo acontecido en días de Joshua y Agog , la
inundación de los días de Ogyges , la metamorfosis del Nibiru en la época de Ogyges , la estrella Nibiru
que apareció en los cielos de México después de la intensa noche de la gran catástrofe - todos estos
hechos están correlacionados

Augustino hizo un curioso comentario acerca de la transformación de Nibiru : " Ciertamente el

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fenómeno ha sacudido los cánones de los astrónomos . . . tanto como para afirmar que lo que aconteció
con la Estrella de la Mañana ( Nibiru ) nunca ocurrió antes in tampoco después . Pero en los libros
divinos leemos que el Sol mismo se quedó detenido cuando un hombre santo , Joshua hijo de Nun , le
rogó a Dios que lo hiciera " . Augustino no tenía noción de que Cástor citado por Varro , y el Libro de
Jasher citado en el Libro de Joshua , relatan el mismo acontecimiento

Guardan silencio las fuentes hebreas acerca del nacimiento de una nueva estrella en días de Joshua ? .
No es así . Está escrito en una crónica samaritana que durante la invasión de los israelitas a Palestina
bajo Joshua , nació una nueva estrella en el este : " Una nueva estrella se ha levantado en el este , contra
la que toda magia e vana "

Crónicas chinas mencionan que durante el reinado de Yahou " una brillante estrella apareció "

La Estrella Flamígera

Platón , citando al sacerdote egipcio , decía que la conflagración mundial asociada a Phaetón fue
causada por un cambio en los cuerpos celestes que giran alrededor de la Tierra . Ya que hay razones para
pensar que se trataba del cometa Nibiru , que luego de sucesivos contactos con la Tierra eventualmente
se convirtió en planeta , podemos preguntarnos : Se convirtió Phaetón en la Estrella de la Mañana ?

Phaetón , que significa " la estrella llameante " , devino la Estrella de la Mañana . El mas antiguo
cronista que relata la transformación de Phaetón en planeta es Hesíodo . La transformación es
comentada por Higinio en su Astronomía , donde cuenta que Phaetón , habiendo causado la conmoción
del mundo , fue golpeado por un rayo de Júpiter y fue alineado por el Sol entre los planetas . Era
creencia general que Phaetón se convirtió en la Estrella de la Mañana

En la isla de Creta , Atymnios era la denominación del desafortunado conductor del carruaje del Sol .
Era venerado como la Estrella del Atardecer , que era la misma Estrella de la Mañana

El nacimiento de la Estrella de la Mañana . o la transformación de un personaje legendario ( Ishtar ,

Phaetón , Quetzalcoatl ) en la Estrella de la Mañana fue difundido motivo de todo el folklore de los
pueblos orientales y occidentales . La tradición tahitiana del nacimiento de la Estrella de la Mañana es
narrada en la Sociedad de la Isla en el Pacífico . La leyenda mangaiana cuenta que con el nacimiento de
una nueva estrella , la Tierra fue bombardeada por innumerables fragmentos . Los buriatas , kirghises y
yakuts de Siberia y los esquimales de Norteamérica también cuentan del nacimiento del planeta Nibiru

Una estrella centelleante perturbó el movimiento visible del Sol provocando un cataclismo mundial , y
pasó a ser la Estrella de la Mañana . Esto se puede descubrir no sólo en las tradiciones y leyendas , sino
también en los libros de astronomía de los pueblos antiguos de ambos hemisferios

Uno de los Planetas Sería un Cometa

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Demócrito ( circa 460 a circa 370 ) , contemporáneo de Platón y uno de los mas grandes eruditos de la
antigüedad , es acusado por sus sucesores de no haber comprendido el carácter planetario de Nibiru .
Plutarco lo cita como hablando de astronomía , diciendo que éste no debería ser ninguno de los
planetas . Pero aparentemente ya el desaparecido autor de numerosos tratados de geometría , óptica y
astronomía , sabía mas de Nibiru de lo que sus detractores creen . De acuerdo a referencias que han
sobrevivido en otros autores , sabemos que Demócrito construyó una teoría de la creación y desaparición
de mundos que suena similar a la moderna teoría planetesimal aunque desprovista de tantas
consideraciones teóricas . Escribió : " Los mundos no están igualmente distribuidos en el espacio . Por
allí hay mas , por otro lado hay menos . Algunos se están creando , otros están floreciendo , y otros están
desfalleciendo : en una parte naciendo y en otra dejando de existir . La causa de su desaparición es la
colisión con otros mundos ". El sabía que los planetas están a distancias desiguales de nosotros , y " que
hay muchos mas mundos de los que somos capaces de ver con nuestros ojos ". Aristóteles cita la opinión
de Demócrito : " Se ha visto estrellas cuando los cometas de desintegran "

Entre los eruditos griegos , Pitágoras tiene reputación de haber tenido acceso a alguna ciencia secreta .
Sus discípulos y los alumnos de éstos , llamados pitagóricos , eran muy cuidadosos de no revelar sus
conocimientos a nadie que no perteneciera a su cerrado círculo . Aristóteles hace mención a su
interpretación de la naturaleza de los cometas : " Algunos de los italianos llamados pitagóricos afirman
que el cometa es en verdad uno de los planetas , pero aparece a grandes intervalos de tiempo y sólo se
asoma un poco sobre el horizonte . Es el mismo caso de Mercurio también . Sólo se asoma un poco
sobre el horizonte y casi nunca se hace visible , apareciendo a grandes intervalos de tiempo "

La cita es un tanto confusa , pero permite trazar la verdad contenida en las Enseñanzas de Pitágoras ,
quien no fue bien entendido por Aristóteles . El supuesto cometa es un planeta que retorna a grandes
intervalos de tiempo . Uno de los planetas , que se asoma muy poco por encima del horizonte , era
considerado por los pitagóricos del siglo IV como un cometa . En base a la información obtenida de
otras fuentes es fácil reconocer que " uno de los planetas " se refiere a Nibiru ( Venus ) . Sólo Mercurio
y Venus se asoman un poco por encima del horizonte

Aristóteles no estaba de acuerdo con los pitagóricos que consideraban que uno de los planetas del
Sistema Solar era un cometa . " Estos puntos de vista involucran imposibles . . . es el caso de quienes
afirman que el cometa es uno de los planetas . . a veces varios cometas aparecen en conjunto . . . En
realidad nunca se ha visto otro planeta , mas que los 5 que se conocen . Y a menudo los cinco son
visibles sobre el horizonte en forma simultánea . Además , los cometas aparecen , mientras que los
planetas son siempre visibles aunque algunos de ellos no sean visibles al mismo tiempo "

Con estas palabras Aristóteles , quien no recibiera los secretos de los pitagóricos directamente , intentaba
refutar sus doctrinas argumentando que todos los planetas están en sus lugares cuando aparecen los
cometas , como si los pitagóricos hubieran enseñado que todos los cometas son uno y el mismo planeta
que abandonaba su trayecto usual cada cierto tiempo . Pero los pitagóricos no creían que un planeta
representaba a todos los cometas . Según Plutarco , ellos pensaban que cada uno de los cometas tenía su
órbita y período de revolución . Entonces , aparentemente los pitagóricos sabían que el cometa " que es
uno de los planetas " es Nibiru

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El Cometa Nibiru

Durante los siglos en que Venus era un cometa , tenía cola . Tradiciones tempranas de México escritas
en época precolombina , relatan que Nibiru humeaba . La " estrella que echaba humo " era Sitlae
Choloha , que los españoles llaman Venus "

" Me pregunto , dice Alexander von Humboldt , " cual ilusión óptica pudo hacer que Venus pareciera
emitir humo ? "

Sahagun , la gran autoridad en asuntos mexicanos del siglo XVII , apuntó que los mexicanos llamaban
cometa a " un planeta que echa humo " . Se puede concluir que puesto que los mexicanos llamaban a
Venus " la estrella que humea " lo consideraban un cometa

También está consignado en los Vedas que la estrella Nibiru se ve como una braza que humea .
Aparentemente la estrella tenía cola , oscura durante el día y refulgente por la noche . En forma muy
específica esta cola refulgente que Nibiru presentaba en épocas pasadas , se menciona en el Talmud , en
el Tractate Shabbat : " Cuelga fuego del planeta Nibiru "

Este fenómeno fue descrito por los caldeos . Se decía que el planeta Nibiru " tenía barba " . En moderna
astronomía se usa la misma expresión técnica ( barba ) en la descripción de los cometas

Estas observaciones paralelas efectuadas en el valle del Ganges , en las costas del Eufrates y en las
costas del Golfo de México prueban su objetividad . La interrogante no es Cual era la ilusión óptica que
afectaba a los toltecas y los mayas ? , sino Cual era el verdadero fenómeno y cual era su causa ?. Un tren
de acompañantes , tan grande como para ser visto de la Tierra y dando la impresión de fuego y humo ,
colgaba del planeta Nibiru . Nibiru , con su refulgente compañía , era un cuerpo de gran brillo . No es
entonces extraño que los caldeos lo describieran como " la brillante antorcha del cielo " , y también
como " el diamante que alumbra como el Sol " , y que compararan su luz con la del Sol naciente .
Actualmente la luz de Venus es menos de un millonésimo de la luz del Sol . " Un notable prodigio
celestial " lo llamaron los caldeos

Los hebreos similarmente describen a Nibiru : " La brillante luz de Nibiru brilla desde un extremo al
otro del cosmos " . Y el texto de astronomía china de Soochow se refiere al pasado cuando comenta : "
Nibiru era visible a plana luz del día y , al moverse en los cielos , rivalizaba en brillo con el Sol " . En el
siglo VII el rey Ashurbanipal escribe acerca de Nibiru ( Ishtar ) , " quien va vestido con fuego y barbas
saliendo de una corona de total esplendor " . Los egipcios bajo el reinado de Seti escriben acerca de
Nibiru ( Sekhmet ) : " Una estrella viajera que disipa su llama en el fuego . . . una llama de fuego en su
violencia "

Con su cola y trayecto no circular , Nibiru era mas un cometa que un planeta , llamado la " estrella
humeante " por los mexicanos . También lo designaron como Tzontemocque , o " crin de caballo " . Los

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árabes llamaron a Ishtar ( Nibiru ) por el nombre de Zebbaj o " el peludo " , tal como hicieron los
babilonios

" Los planetas a veces tiene cabellos " escribe Plinio . Una antigua descripción de Nibiru debe haber
servido de base para esta aserción . Pero la apariencia de cabello o la coma es algo característico de los
cometas , de hecho la palabra cometa se deriva de la expresión griega para " cabello " . La palabra
peruana " chaska " ( cabello desordenado ) es todavía allí el nombre de Venus , aunque en el presente la
Estrella de la Mañana es definidamente un planeta y no tiene una cola

Sanchoniaton afirma que Astarte ( Nibiru ) tenía cuernos de toro . El planeta fue todavía nombrado
como Ashteroth - Karnaim , o Asterte Encornada , nombre asignado a una ciudad en Canaan en honor de
la deidad . El becerro de oro adorado por Aarón y los israelitas al pie del Monte Sinaí era una imagen
con cuernos de la estrella . Fuentes rabínicas afirman que " la adoración de Israel por la imagen del toro
es parcialmente explicada por la circunstancia de que al cruzar el Mar Rojo vieron el Trono Celestial y
claramente distinguieron a las Cuatro Criaturas Vivientes alrededor del Trono , y vieron al toro " . Una
copia del becerro fue colocada por Jeroboam en Dan , en el gran templo del Imperio del Norte

Tishtrya del Zend - Avesta es la estrella que ataca a los planetas : " la brillante y esplendorosa Tishtrya
moldea su forma con luz que se mueve en la forma de un toro con cuernos de oro "

Los egipcios pintaron similarmente al planeta y lo veneraron en la efigie de un toro . El culto al toro
también floreció en la Grecia Micénica . Una cabeza de vaca dorada con una estrella en su frente fue
encontrada en Micenas , en la Grecia continental

Las gentes de la lejana Samoa , tribus primitivas que dependen de la tradición oral ya que no poseen
escritura repiten hasta hoy : " El planeta Nibiru se puso salvaje y le salieron cuernos de su cabeza "

Los cuernos de Nibiru podían ser vistos sin un telescopio . Los cuernos eran porciones luminosas de la
coma de Nibiru que se cercaba a la Tierra . Los cuernos pudieron extenderse hacia el Sol en la medida
que Nibiru se aproximaba al Sol , mientras que las colas de los cometas generalmente apuntan en
dirección opuesta al Sol

En América

Los Wichita , tribu de Oklahoma , cuentan la siguiente historia de " La Inundación y el Repoblamiento
de la Tierra " : " Y vinieron algunos signos que indicaban que algo había en el norte que tenía el aspecto
de nubes . y vinieron las aves , y aparecieron lo animales de las praderas y de los bosques . Todo
indicaba a que algo iba a pasar . Las nubes que se veían hacia el norte eran una inundación . La
inundación cubrió toda la faz de la Tierra " . Sucumbieron los monstruos de las aguas . Sólo cuatro
gigantes se sostuvieron , pero luego cayeron de bruces sobre sus rostros . " El gigante del sur dijo
mientras caía que la dirección en que se desplomaba debía ser llamada el sur " . El otro gigante dijo " la
dirección donde caigo se llamará el oeste - Donde se dirige el Sol " . El tercero llamó norte a la dirección

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de su caída . El último la llamó este - Donde el Sol se levanta "

Sólo unos pocos hombres sobrevivieron . También sobrevivió el viento sobre la tierra . Todo lo demás
quedó destruido. Nació un niño de una mujer ( del viento ) , una Niña - Sueño . La niña creció
rápidamente . A ella le nació un niño varón. " El dijo a su gente que iría en dirección al este , que él se
convertiría en la Estrella de la Mañana "

Este cuento parece incoherente , pero nos hace anotar varios elementos : " algo en el norte parecía ser
una nube " . que hizo que gentes y animales se juntaran en preparación para una inminente catástrofe .
Bestias salvajes emergiendo de los bosques y acercándose a los dominios humanos . Una tremenda
inundación que destruyó todo , incluso animales monstruosos . La determinación de nuevos puntos
cardinales . Una generación mas tarde el nacimiento de la Estrella de la Mañana

Esta combinación de elementos no podría ser accidental . Todos ellos , y en la misma secuencia , han
quedado registrados en la mitad del segundo milenio antes de nuestra era

Los indios Chewkee en la costa del Golfo de México relatan : " Hacía demasiado calor . El Sol se había
posicionado un palmo mas alto en el cielo , pero hacía demasiado calor . Siete veces el Sol fue levantado
mas y mas alto bajo el arco solar , hasta que se hizo mas fresco ". En Africa oriental podemos rastrear
similar tradición . " En tempos muy antiguos el cielo estuvo muy cerca de la tierra " . La tribu Kaska en
Columbia Británica narra : " Una vez hace mucho tiempo el cielo estuvo muy cerca de la tierra " . Luego
el cielo fue empujado hacia arriba y el clima cambió

El Sol , luego de haber detenido su movimiento a través del firmamento " se hizo mas pequeño , y así ha
permanecido desde entonces "

La siguiente historia fue narrada a Shelton por la tribu Snohomish de Puget Sound , sobre el origen de la
exclamación " Yahu " , a la que antes me he referido brevemente : " Hace mucho tiempo , cuando los
animales todavía eran seres humanos , el cielo estaba muy bajo . Estaba tan bajo que la gente no se podía
ponerse en pie . . . Llamaron a una reunión y discutieron cómo podrían hacer que el cielo se elevara .
Pero no lograban encontrar como hacerlo . Ninguno era suficientemente fuerte como para levantarlo .
Finalmente se les ocurrió la idea de que el cielo podría ser levantado con el esfuerzo combinado de todas
las gentes , si todos empujaban al mismo tiempo . Pero entonces surgió la duda de como hacer que todos
empujaran en el mismo momento . Porque los diferentes pueblos estarían lejos uno del otro , unos en
esta parte del mundo , otros en otra . Qué señal se podría dar para que todos empujaran el cielo al mismo
tiempo ? . Finalmente , la palabra " Yahu " fue inventada para este propósito . Se decidió que todo el
pueblo gritaría " Yahu " al unísono . Bajo el esfuerzo combinado el cielo se elevó un poco . Nuevamente
gritaron " Yahu " y empujaron el gran peso . Y repitieron esto hasta que el cielo estuvo suficientemente
alto " . Shelton declara que la palabra " Yahu " todavía es usada cuando se levanta algo pesado , como
por ejemplo una canoa

Es fácil reconocer el origen de la leyenda . Nubes de polvo y gases envolvieron la Tierra por largo

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tiempo . Parecía que el cielo había descendido . La tierra se quejaba repetidamente por los severos
torques y dislocaciones que había experimentado . Sólo en forma lenta y gradual las nubes s retiraron del
suelo

La nubes que envolvieron a los israelitas en el desierto , los sonidos cono de trompeta que escucharon en
el Monte Sinaí , y el levantamiento gradual de las nubes a través de los años de la Sombra de la Muerte
eran los mismos elementos que encontramos en esta leyenda india

Puesto que los mismos elementos pueden ser reconocidos en diferentes escenarios , podemos afirmar
que no han sido prestados entre los diferentes pueblos . Una experiencia común dió a luz estas historias ,
tan diferentes a primera vista pero tan iguales en su fondo

La historia del fin del mundo que relatan los indios Pawnee tiene un importante contenido . Fue escrita
directamente de las palabras de un viejo indio : " Cuentan los antepasados que la Estrella de la Mañana
les dijo que cuando llegara el fin del mundo , la Luna se tornaría roja . . . que cuando la Luna se pusiera
roja el pueblo debería saber que el mundo estaba llegando a su fin . La estrella de la Mañana dijo
también que en el comienzo de todas las cosas ellos pusieron la Estrella de la Mañana en el norte , para
que no se moviera . . . La Estrella de la Mañana luego dijo que en el comienzo de todas las cosas ellos
dieron poder a la Estrella del Sur para aproximarse , de vez en cuando , para mirar si la Estrella del
Norte todavía estaba en el norte . Si todavía estaba allí , entonces regresaría a su sitio en el sur . . .
Cuando se aproxime al momento del fin del mundo , la Estrella del Sur se haría mas alta . . . Entonces la
Estrella del Norte desaparecería y se alejaría , y la Estrella del Sur tomaría posesión de la Tierra y sus
habitantes . . . Los antepasados también dijeron que cuando el mundo se aproxime a su fin , habría
muchos signos . Habría muchos signos entre las estrellas . Meteoros cruzarían el cielo . La Luna
cambiaría su color de vez en cuando . El Sol también mostraría colores diferentes . Mi hijo , muchos de
estos signos ya han pasado . Han caído estrellas entre las gentes , pero la Estrella de la Mañana todavía
es buena con nosotros , porque continuamos vivos . . . La orden para el término de todas las cosas será
dada por la Estrella del Norte , y la Estrella del Sur cumplirá con la orden . . . Cuando llegue el tiempo
para el fin del mundo , las estrellas caerán nuevamente sobre la tierra " . Los indios Pawnee no son
versados en astronomía . Por 120 generaciones , de padres a hijo , de abuelos a nietos , se han
transmitido los pasados signos de una futura destrucción

Hurakan y Typhon

El Manuscrito Troano y otros documentos de los mayas describen un cataclismo cósmico en el que el
océano se abalanzó sobre el continente y un terrible huracán barrió la faz de la tierra . El huracán se
levantó arrastrando pueblos enteros y todos los bosques . Los volcanes explotaron , y los maremotos
treparon por encima de las montañas , mientras impetuosos vientos amenazaban con aniquilar a la
especia humana , como efectivamente lo hicieron con muchas especies animales . La faz de la tierra
cambió , montañas colapsaron mientras otras crecieron y se levantaron por encima de la feroz catarata de
agua proveniente del vientre del océano , numerosos ríos cambiaron su curso , y un salvaje tornado bajó
del cielo para danzar entre los despojos . El final del mundo fue causado por Hurakan , agente físico que

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trajo la oscuridad y arrasó con casas , árboles , aún rocas y montes de la tierra . De su nombre se deriva
la expresión " huracán " , que se refiere a un poderoso viento . Hurakan destruyó la mayor parte de la
humanidad . Y en la oscuridad barrida por el viento , una sustancia resinosa llovió del cielo y aportó con
fuego y agua en la destrucción del mundo . Por 5 días , salvo por el naphta ardiente y la erupción de los
volcanes , el mundo estuvo a oscuras puesto que el Sol no aparecía

El tema de un huracán catastrófico es una y otra vez repetido por los Vedas de la india y por el Avesta
de los persas , y el " diluvium venti ", diluvio de viento , es un término familiar en muchos autores
antiguos . En la sección " La Oscuridad " cito fuentes rabínicas que se refieren al " potente viento del
oeste " que perduró por 7 días mientras la tierra quedaba envuelta en tinieblas , y la inscripción
jeroglífica del el - Arish sobre 9 días de destrucción en que " hubo tal tempestad " que nadie podía
abandonar el palacio ni ver al que tenía a su lado , y la 11ª. Tableta de la Epopeya de Gilgamesh que
relata que " por 7 días y 7 noches . . . el huracán , la inundación y la tempestad continuaron barriendo la
tierra " y casi toda la humanidad pereció en el evento . En la batalle del dios . planeta Marduk con
Tiamat , Marduk levantó vientos malignos , tempestad , huracán , ráfagas de viento , tornados , y vientos
nunca vistos "

Los Maoríes narran que durante un imponente cataclismo " los poderosos vientos , las fieras ráfagas , las
nubes , densas , oscuras , feroces , empujando sin piedad , irrumpiendo sin oposición ", se precipitaron
sobre toda la creación , en su centro Tawhirima-tea , padre de los vientos y las tormentas , barriendo con
gigantescos bosques y empujaron las aguas del mar en empinadas crestas que parecían ser montañas . La
tierra se quejaba terriblemente , y el océano se apartaba

" La tierra quedó sumergida en el océano , pero fue sacada por Tefaafanau ", nerran los aborígenes de
Paumotu en la Polinesia . Las nuevas islas " fueron forjadas por una estrella ". En el mes de Marzo los
polinesios veneran a Dios , Taafanua . " En idioma árabe Tyfoon es un tornado y Tufan es el Diluvio . Y
similar palabra es usada en chino como Ty-fong ". Al parecer , el ruido del huracán estaba acompañado
por un sonido parecido al nombre Typhon , como si la tormenta lo llamara por su nombre

El huracán que llevó al Imperio Medio de Egipto a su fin - " la explosión de molestia de los cielos " , en
palabras de Manetón - barrió las cuatro esquinas del mundo

En el mito cosmológico japonés , la dios del Sol se escondió por largo tiempo en una cueva de los
cielos , temerosa del dios de la tormenta . " La fuente de luz desapareció , y todo el mundo se hizo
oscuro ", y el dios de la tormenta causó monstruosa destrucción . Los dioses hicieron terrible ruido para
hacer que el Sol apareciera , y por el tumulto la tierra tembló . En el Japón y su vasto mar no es extraña
la ocurrencia de huracanes y terremotos . Pero no perturban la sucesión día - noche , ni hay un cambio
permanente en el cielo y sus luminarias . " El cielo estaba bajo ", relatan los polinesios de la isla Takofo ,
y " cuando llegaron los huracanes y torbellinos marinos , empujaron en cielo a su altura actual "

Dice el texto budista " Ciclos del Mundo " , que " cuando un ciclo del mundo es destruido por los
vientos , la tierra es puesta al revés y arrojada por los cielos " , y " áreas de cien , doscientas ,
trescientas , quinientas leguas de extensión , se parten y son lanzadas hacia arriba por la fuerza del
viento " , y no caen nuevamente sino que " quedan convertidas en polvo y sopladas hacia la altura y

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destruidas " . " Y el viento sopla también a las montañas que rodean a la tierra hacia la altura , son
convertidas en polvo y destruidas ". El viento cósmico sopla y destruye " cien mil veces diez millones de
mundos "

La Inundación

Las mareas son producidas por la acción del Sol , y en mayor grado por la Luna . Un cuerpo mayor que
la Luna ó posicionado mas cerca de la Tierra , podría tener un efecto mayor . Un cometa cuyo cuerpo
sea del tamaño de la Tierra que transitara lo suficientemente cerca , podría elevar las aguas de los
océanos a alturas inconcebibles . Una detención en la rotación de la Tierra o una disminución en su
velocidad de rotación , provocarían una recesión de las aguas oceánicas por inercia hacia los polos . Pero
también la presencia cercana de un gran cuerpo celeste atraería las aguas hacia si mismo

Las tradiciones de muchos pueblos persisten en señalar que los mares se separaron y que sus aguas se
apilaron hacia las alturas para luego abalanzarse sobre los continentes . Con el propósito de establecer si
estas tradiciones se refieren a un mismo evento , o por lo menos a un evento de igual magnitud , tenemos
un " landmark " como referencia en la secuencia : la gran inundación siempre precedió a una
perturbación en el movimiento de la Tierra

Los anales chinos que ya hemos citado afirman que en tiempos del emperador Yahou el Sol no bajó
durante 10 días . El mundo estaba en llamas , y " en su vasta extensión las aguas se empinaron hacia las
alturas , amenazando con inundar los cielos " . Las aguas del océano se apilaron y luego se lanzaron
contra el continente de Asia . Un gran maremoto barrió por encima de las montañas e invadió el centro
del Imperio Chino . El agua quedó estancada en los valles entre las montañas , y la tierra estuvo
inundada durante décadas

Las tradiciones del los pueblos del Perú cuentan que por un período de tiempo igual a 5 días y 5 noches
no había Sol en el cielo , y que el mar , después de alejarse de las costas , irrumpió sobre el continente .
Todo el paisaje de la tierra cambió con la catástrofe

Los indios Choctaw de Oklahoma relatan : " La tierra estuvo sumida en la oscuridad por largo tiempo .
Finalmente una luz apareció en el norte . Pero se vieron olas del tamaño de una montaña , que se
acercaban rápidamente "

En todas estas tradiciones hay dos elementos concurrentes : una profunda oscuridad que duró por varios
días ( o un prolongado día en Asia ) y , cuando se vio la luz , un maremoto del tamaño de una montaña
que se abalanzó sobre las costas

La historia hebrea del Cruce del Mar Rojo contiene similares elementos . Hubo prolongada y completa
oscuridad ( Exodo 10:21 ) . El último día de tinieblas aconteció en el Mar Rojo . Cuando el mundo salió
de las tinieblas el vientre del océano quedó al descubierto , las aguas se separaron y apiladas como
grandes paredes a ambos lados . La traducción septuaginta de la Biblia afirma que las aguas se
empinaron " como una pared " , y el Koran , en referencia a este evento , consigna que las aguas "
parecían montañas " . En la literatura rabínica se dice que las aguas quedaron suspendidas " como si

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fueran de cristal , sólidas y masivas "

El Midrashim contiene la siguiente narración : " las aguas se apilaron hasta una altura de 1600 millas
(?!!!) , y pudieron ser vistas por todos los habitantes de la Tierra ". Lo que intenta decir esta frase es que
la altura de las aguas era enorme . De acuerdo a las Escrituras , las aguas treparon a las montañas y se
quedaron encima de ellas , y llegaron hasta los cielos

Cuando los españoles conquistaron Yucatán , indios versados en su antigua literatura relataron a los
conquistadores las tradiciones recibidas de sus ancestros : sus antepasados se liberaron de la persecución
de otro pueblo cuando el Señor abrió para ellos un camino entre las aguas del mar . Esta tradición es tan
similar a la leyenda judía del Cruce , que algunos monjes que vinieron a América creyeron que estos
indios eran de origen judío . Fray Diego de Landa escribió : " Algunos viejos indios de Yucatán dicen
que han escuchado de sus antepasados que este país fue poblado por una raza que vino del Oriente , a
quienes Dios liberó abriendo para ellos doce pasajes a través del mar . Si esto fuera cierto , todos los
habitantes de la Indias serían de descendencia israelita "

De acuerdo a la historia cosmogónica lapona , " cuando cundió perversidad entre los seres humanos ", el
centro de la tierra " tembló de terror , de modo que las capas superiores de la tierra se desplomaron y
muchos de los humanos cayeron al interior de estas cavernas y allí perecieron ". " Y Jubmel , el Señor
del Cielo en persona , bajó a la Tierra . . Su ira terrible destelló con serpientes de fuego rojo , azul y
verde , y las gentes escondieron sus rostros , y los niños gritaban de miedo . . . Y el dios furioso habló : "
Invertiré al mundo . Haré que los ríos fluyan al revés . Haré que el mar se junte en una pared alta como
una torre y lo lanzaré sobre los perversos hijos de la Tierra , y así los destruiré juntos con toda cosa
viviente "

Jubmel envió una tormenta - sople el huracán y los espíritus del aire llenos de ira . . .
Echando espumas , salpicando , elevándose hacia el cielo - vino la pared de agua , destrozando todas
las cosas . . .
Jubmel , con un enorme cataclismo , hizo que la Tierra - el terreno quedara al revés . . .
Luego , nuevamente puso orden en el mundo
Ahora las montañas y tierras altas no podían ser contempladas por Beijke ( el Sol )
Plena de quejidos de gente moribunda era la nueva Tierra ,
Hogar de la humanidad , ya no brilló Beijke en el cielo

De acuerdo a la épica lapona , el mundo fue acosado por un huracán y por el mar , pereciendo casi todos
los seres humanos . Cuando cayó la pared de agua sobre el continente , gigantescas olas continuaron
barriendo la tierra mientras los cadáveres eran tragados en oscuras aguas

El antropólogo germano - americano Franz Bohaz ( 1858 - 1942 ) ha trazado la mitología de los Utes de
la provincia canadiense de la Columbia Británica, donde los Utes resultan ser provenientes de los
Kutenai , los que a su vez descienden de los Okanagan . Los Kutenai ocupan territorios que comprenden
partes de la Columbia Británica , Alberta , Washington , Idaho y Montana . Como los Utes , los Kutenai
hablan de un gran fuego que erupcionó de la tierra cuando el Sol fue golpeado por una flecha . Y hablan

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de su temor a que el mundo termine cuando el cielo pierda su estabilidad . " Los Kutenai miran hacia la
Estrella Polar ( Estrella del Norte ) cada noche . Si no está en su lugar significa que el fin del mundo es
inminente " . Poco se sabe de los Kutenai . normalmente usan el cabello suelto , su piel es dorada y
tienen pequeñas barbas . Sus vecinos de las planicies , los Pies Negros , les dieron el nombre de
Kutenai , que es la expresión de los Pies Negros para " hombres blancos " . Franz Bohaz opinaba que los
Kutenai estaban mitológicamente ligados a sus vecinos del oeste , los Okanagan . Los Okanagan llaman
a los Kutenai " skelsa'ulk " , que se traduce como " gente del agua "

En 1886 el famoso historiador americano Hubert Howe Bancroft ( 1832 - 1918 ) relataba el mito de los
Okanagan acerca de su isla - paraíso perdida " Samah - tumi - whoo - lah " . " Hace mucho , mucho
tiempo , cuando el Sol era joven y no mas grande que una estrella , había una isla lejos en medio del
océano . Se llamaba Samah - tumi - whoo - lah , que quiere decir Isla del Hombre Blanco . En ella vivía
una raza de gigantes - gigantes blancos . Su gobernante era una espigada mujer blanca llamada
Scomalt . . . Ella podía crear cualquier cosa que quisiera . Por muchos años los gigantes blancos vivieron
en paz , pero al final comenzaron las disputas entre ellos . Estas disputas se convirtieron en una guerra .
Se escuchaba el ruido de la batalla , y muchos de ellos caían muertos . Scomalt estaba muy , muy
enojada . . . empujó a los gigantes perversos hacia un extremo de la Isla del Hombre Blanco . Cuando los
hubo reunido a todos allí , rompió una parte del terreno y la empujó mar adentro . Por muchos días la
isla flotó a la deriva , golpeada por la olas y el viento . Todos murieron , excepto una mujer y un
hombre . . . Pensando que su isa se hundiría , construyeron una canoa . . . luego de remar por muchos
días , arribaron a unas islas . Se desplazaron por entre las islas , y finalmente llegaron al continente

Los Okanagan y los Utes temían cualquier cambio dramático en el cielo como el temible portento de una
nueva gran inundación . El temor de que nuevamente el Sol pudiera vagar errático por el cielo y que el
cielo pudiera caer llegaba a ser una obsesión . Y los Okanagan creían que en un tiempo futuro " los lagos
derretirían los cimientos del mundo y los ríos cortarían el mundo en pedazos . Entonces el mundo
flotaría tal como lo hiciera la isla muchos soles y nieves atrás . Este sería el fin del mundo

Mas al sur encontramos a los Washo del oeste de Nevada , famosos por sus canastos decorativos . Ellos
habitaban en el flanco oriental de las montañas de la Sierra Nevada . La tribu siempre fue reducida , sin
nunca cazar demasiados animales de la tierra . Su población era de 900 en 1859 y de sólo 800 en 1980 .
En el pasado deben haber alcanzado a llegar a unos 1500 . Gente solitaria . Ellos narran que mucho
tiempo en el pasado las montañas se estremecieron con las erupciones de los volcanes , y " tan grande
era el calor que las montañas incandescentes derritieron a la estrellas y éstas cayeron "

A lo largo de los valles de los ríos Gila y Salado en Arizona viven los restos de la tribu A'a'tarn . A'a'tarn
significa " gente " . Parte de su historia ha sido transmitida a través de un antiguo mito que habla de una
gran inundación que una vez arrasó la tierra . Usando un simbolismo mágico de un malvado recién
nacido creado por una deidad maligna , el mito narra como el grito del niño " estremeció la tierra " ,
catapultando al mundo en los horrores de una la inundación. Entonces los A'a'tarn temieron que el cielo
no estuviera seguro . Se pidió por medidas correctivas , y el Médico de la Tierra creó una gran araña gris
que tendió una inmensa telaraña entre los extremos de los cielos y la Tierra para sostenerlos juntos . Pero
subsistió el temor de que la tela pudiera romperse , soltando al cielo y provocando terremotos en la Tierra

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La ahora extinta tribu Cahto , que vivía a lo largo de las Montañas Rocosas en el noroeste de California
poseía una mitología de unos 12,000 años de antigüedad , de la época del último gran desplazamiento de
la corteza terrestre . De ellos citamos : " El cielo se desplomó . No existía la tierra . En una gran
extensión no había tierra . Las aguas del océano vinieron todas juntas . Todos los animales perecieron
ahogados "

La tradición nativa norteamericana identifica en el oeste 4 montañas que tuvieron importancia en la gran
inundación . Todas se localizan inmediatamente al oeste de los llanos , y cada una de ellas tiene 1,800
metros de altura , o mas . Los nativos de Washington y Oregon declaran que sus ancestros llegaron en
grandes canoas e hicieron tierra en los montes Baker y Jefferson . También creen que el monte Rainier
fue el refugio de los que salvaron cuando la tierra fue destruida por la gran inundación . Los Shasta , del
norte de California , cuentan que en una época pasada el Sol cayó de su camino normal . En otro mito
cuentan como el monte Shasta salvó a sus ancestros de este diluvio

En el lado opuesto de Norteamérica se encuentra otra gran cadena montañosa , los Apalaches . Aquí
también encontramos diversidad de narraciones relativas a grandes cambios solares e inundaciones
masivas , de los sobrevivientes de estas catástrofes . A principios del siglo IXX un cherokee llamado
Sequoya creó un alfabeto para escribir el lenguaje de la tribu . Su trabajo dejó una rica herencia de mitos
transcritos de la tradición oral de su pueblo . En uno de estos mitos la inundación se atribuye a la
incontables lágrimas de la diosa del Sol . Se dijo que ella llegó a odiar a los hombres , y los maldijo con
una gran inundación . En su desesperación los ancianos cherokee consultaron a los " Hombre pequeños
" ( que ellos consideraban como dioses ) . Ellos aconsejaron que la única posibilidad de supervivencia
era " matar al Sol " . Serpientes mágicas fueron preparadas para hacer un viento mortal para la diosa del
Sol . Pero un error hizo que en su lugar fuera golpeada su hija , la Luna . Cuando el Sol encontró muerta
a su hija , entró en su casa sumido en la tristeza , y ya no murió mas gente . Pero el nuevo mundo estaba
en tinieblas porque el Sol no quería salir . Entonces los ancianos nuevamente consultaron a los Hombres
Pequeños , quienes les dijeron que si querían que el Sol regresara tenían que traer de vuelta a su hija la
Luna . . . Siete hombre viajaron al país de los fantasmas y trajeron de regreso a la Luna , pero ésta murió
nuevamente en el regreso . Nuevamente la diosa del Sol lloró " hasta que sus lágrima inundaron la tierra
" , y las gentes teían temor de que todo el mundo se ahogaría

Los pueblos de Sudamérica también cuentan mitos relativos a una gran inundación y los eventos que la
acompañaron . Entre ellos , los Ipurinas del noroeste del Brasil narran : " Hace mucho tiempo la Tierra
fue azotada por una inundación ardiente . Esto aconteció cuando el Sol , un caldero de agua ardiendo , se
volcó "

En Chile los Araucanos , una tribu tan brava que habría de luchar por generaciones antes de someterse a
la esclavitud de los conquistadores españoles , tiemblan ante una traumática memoria ancestral : " La
inundación fue el resultado de una erupción volcánica acompañada de un violento terremoto" , y cada
vez que hay un terremoto los nativos tienden a huir a las montañas . Tienen miedo de que después del
temblor un maremoto pueda nuevamente ahogar al mundo

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Como los Araucanos , los Incas del Perú quedaban paralizados por temor a que cualquier cambio en el
Sol fuera anunciador de destrucción . En 1555 un cronista español comentaba : " Cuando hay un eclipse
de Sol o de Luna los indios lloran y se lamentan atemorizados , porque creen que ha llegado el momento
en que la tierra perecerá . . . "

El famoso historiador peruano Garcilasso de la Vega , hijo de un conquistador español y una princesa
inca , preguntó a su tío Inca acerca de la historia de los orígenes de su pueblo . Cómo el lago Titicaca
había llegado a ser la fuente de su civilización ? . El tío le explicó : " En tiempos no tan lejanos , toda
esta región que puedes ver estaba cubierta de bosques y matorrales , y las gentes vivían como bestias
brutas , sin religión ni gobierno , ni pueblos , ni casas , sin cultivar la tierra ni cubrir sus cuerpos . . . el
Dios Sol envió a un hijo y una hija . . . para entregarles los preceptos y leyes para que vivieran como
hombres razonables y civilizados , y enseñarles a morar en casas y pueblos , a cultivar el maíz y otras
cosechas , como criar ganado , y a usar los frutos de la tierra como seres racionales . . . " . Los " dioses "
que trajeron la agricultura a las vecindades el lago Titicaca se dice que " habían salido de las regiones
del sur " inmediatamente " después de la inundación " . En otras palabras , la agricultura habría sido
introducida en la región del lago Titicaca por gente que ya poseía estos conocimientos pero habrían sido
forzados a abandonar su tierra natal cuando la inundación destruyó sus tierras del sur

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