SCnLMA1IC CCNVLN1ICN

resenLed by Ahmad kamal LuLhfll Paklm

08420047

Introduct|on
As we know Lhls chapLer ls relaLed Lo prevlous chapLer ln Lhls chapLer we are golng Lo polnLs
ouL LhaL language ls noL produced by relylng only on slLuaLlonal conLexL buL lL ls also parL of Lhe
conLlnulLy of our lndlvldual and soclal llves" lL ls relaLed Lo Lhe menLal conLexL or schemaLlc
sLrucLures of knowledge Some of Lhe schemaLlc convenLlons descrlbed ln Lhls chapLer are frames of
reference lnLerpersonal rouLlnes and ad[acency palrs
D|scuss|on
1 Context and s|tuat|on
onLexL ls aspecLs of exLrallngulsLlc reallLy LhaL are Laken Lo be relevanL Lo
communlcaLlon And slLuaLlon ls Lhe acLual clrcumsLance of Llme and place ln whlch a use of
language ls locaLed
onLexL ls an absLracL represenLaLlon a menLal consLrucL from Lhe lmmedlaLely slLuaLlon
of uLLerance as when reference ls made Lo someLhlng LhaL ls dlrecLly percepLlble by boLh parLles
ln an lnLeracLlon onLexL ls obvlously noL conflned Lo whaL ls slLuaLlonal presenL ln Lhe here and
now
1he relaLlon beLween conLexL and meanlng ls dynamlc and reverslble where conLexL are
reallzed ln LexL and LexL reveal conLexL onLexL of slLuaLlon can be speclfled Lhrough use of Lhe
reglsLer varlables fleld Lenor and mode
llLLu 8efers Lo whaL ls happenlng Lo Lhe naLure of Lhe soclal acLlon LhaL ls Laklng place lL
speclfles whaL's golng on whlL reference Lo whaL
1LnC8 8efers Lo who ls Laklng parL Lo Lhe naLure of Lhe parLlclpanLs Lhelr sLaLuses and
roles So Lenor ls Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe parLlclpanLs speakerllsLener wrlLerreader
MCuL 8efers Lo whaL parL Lhe language ls playlng whaL ls LhaL Lhe parLlclpanLs are
expecLlng Lhe language Lo do for Lhem ln LhaL slLuaLlon So mode ls Lhe channel of
communlcaLlon belng used wrlLLen or spoken or Lhe rule of language ln a parLlcular slLuaLlon
xomple
Je are wr|t|ng you because we are concerned about the way food |s be|ng advert|sed for
ch||dren
lleld WhaL ls Lhe Loplc of Lhe LexL above?
1enor Who/whaL klnd of person produced Lhls LexL?
Mode uo you Lhlng Lhe orlglnal was wrlLLen or spoken?
(Source WrlLlng 3 book SlLl Musarokah Sd
1he concept of Schema
Schema ls a menLal consLrucL of Laken for granLed assumpLlon abouL how reallLy ls
ordered (ldeaLlonal schemaLa) and how communlcaLlon ls managed (lnLerpersonal schemaLa)
Schema ls a consLrucL of famlllar knowledge Pow lL works ls besL lllusLraLed by reference
Lo Lhe work Who lnLroduced Lhe concepL Lo accounL for flndlngs of cerLaln experlmenLs carrled
ouL 1he sLaLemenL of schemaLlc sLrucLure ls a descrlpLlon of Lhe schemaLlc sLrucLure of speclflc
posL offlce LexL reproduced lL ls Lhe generlc sLrucLure of an acLual LexL an example of a
parLlcular genre before we knew exacLly whaL Lhe slLuaLlon of our glven example was

rame of keference
A frame ls soclal Lheory conslsL of schema of lnLerpreLaLlon LhaL lndlvlduals rely on Lo
undersLand and respond Lo evenLs ln slmple Lerms people bulld a serles of menLal fllLers
Lhrough blologlcal and culLural lnfluences 1hey use Lhese fllLers Lo make sense of world 1he
cholces Lhey Lhen make are lnfluenced by Lhelr creaLlon of a frame lramlng ls also key
componenL of soclology Lhe sLudy of soclal lnLeracLlon among humans
lramlng ls so effecLlve because lL ls heurlsLlc or menLal shorLcuL LhaL may noL always yleld
deslred resulL and ls seen as a rule of Lhumb lrames provlde a qulck and easy ways Lo process
lnformaLlon Pence people wlll use Lhe prevlously menLloned menLal fllLers (a serles whlch called
a schema) Lo make sense of lncomlng messages 1hls glves Lhe sender and framer of Lhe
lnformaLlon enormous power Lo use Lhese schemas Lo lnfluence how Lhe recelver wlll lnLerpreL
Lhe message
A frame of reference ls a sLrucLure of concepLs values cusLoms vlews by means of whlch an
lndlvldual or group percelves or evaluaLes daLa communlcaLes ldeas and regulaLes behavlor

xomple

In the past |t took a d|saster to br|ng the C|ymp|cs to London

1he language here acLlvaLes schemaLlc knowledge abouL Lhe Clymplc Cames and how dlfferenL
clLles bld Lo hosL Lhem every four years So lL lndlcaLes a frame of reference and aL Lhe same Llme
pro[ecLs Lhe reader's aLLenLlon forward Lo whaL ls Lo come nexL 8eaders anLlclpaLe LhaL Lhey are
Lo be Lold more abouL prevlous occaslon when Lhe Clymplc Cames were held ln London Sure
enough Lhe LexL conLlnues as follows

In 1908 the c|ty stepped |n after Vesuv|us erupted |eav|ng kome bereft In 1948 |t
was ca||ed upon to rescue the C|ymp|c |dea| for a Lurope ravaged by fasc|st
d|ctatorsh|p

Agaln reader can only undersLand all Lhls abouL London resculng Lhe Clymplc ldeal lf Lhey can
call up Lhe frame of reference of Lhe Second World War ln Lurope

4 rames and Cu|tura| Assumpt|on
ulLural assumpLlons are an lmporLanL aspecL of undersLandlng conLexL ulLure ls a sysLem of
bellefs cusLoms (usual hablLs and pracLlces) values aLLlLudes and llfesLyles of a parLlcular
people ulLure can refer Lo groups of people such as naLlons or more speclflc groups such as
sporLlng Leams
1he culLure of a parLlcular person wlll lnfluence Lhe way Lhey percelve gender (male/female)
eLhnlclLy rellglon youLh age dlsablllLy sexuallLy culLural dlverslLy soclal class and work A
culLural assumpLlon ls when we assume LhaL a person has parLlcular values and aLLlLudes based
on Lhelr culLural background
undersLandlng culLural assumpLlons and how Lhey work wlll help Lo analyze wrlLLen LexLs
omposers of wrlLLen LexLs ofLen use culLural assumpLlons Lo reach Lhelr audlence A wrlLLen LexL
such as Lhe novel Looklng for Allbrandl by Mellnda MarcheLLa for example ls based on a
number of culLural assumpLlons 1hese are based on
O Age lL ls assumed LhaL growlng up ls ofLen a dlfflculL Llme
O Cender LhaL growlng up as a glrl has lLs own lssues
O LlfesLyle/famlly LhaL lL ls Lhe norm Lo have Lwo parenLs
O LLhnlclLy LhaL belng lLallan puLs parLlcular pressures/expecLaLlons on a person
?ou wlll make many culLural assumpLlons ln your everyday llfe 1hlnk very carefully abouL Lhe
culLural assumpLlons LhaL you make abouL
O Cender whaL are Lhe characLerlsLlcs of males and females? Are glrls nlce llke sugar and
splce and boys mean and never clean?
O Age whaL are Lhe characLerlsLlcs of young people (perhaps you belleve Lhem Lo be fun
lovlng) and older people (perhaps Lhey are borlng)
1hese assumpLlons are based on sLereoLypes A sLereoLype ls an assumpLlon made abouL a
person based on superflclal (surface) crlLerla ?ou musL be careful noL Lo use sLereoLypes and
remember LhaL each person ls an lndlvldual Lherefore Lhelr personallLy ls noL deflned by Lhelr
eLhnlclLy gender or age Clvlng people characLerlsLlcs based on race ls raclsm and Lhrough
gender ls sexlsm 8e aware of how composers use sLereoLypes and be able Lo ldenLlfy Lhem
omposers of wrlLLen LexLs wlll also use Lhe culLural assumpLlons of Lhelr audlence ln more
subLle (less obvlous) ways lor example whaL does Lhe color red mean Lo you? ?ou may Lhlnk of
Lhlngs such as danger sLop love and passlon When Lhe composer of a wrlLLen LexL uses
descrlpLlons LhaL lnclude Lhe color red Lhey are perhaps Lrylng Lo make you Lhlnk of Lhese Lhlngs
lf a composer were Lo descrlbe a red sky Lhey may be lmplylng lmpendlng (comlng) danger
1yplcally lL ls assumed ln AusLralla and many WesLern counLrles around Lhe world LhaL Lhe
followlng colors slgnlfy Lhe followlng Lhlngs
O 8ed anger passlon danger sLop
O WhlLe peace purlLy cleanllness llfe
O 8lack deaLh slckness evll
O Creen go naLure happlness
O 8lue peace serenlLy boys
O lnk love glrls
1hls of course ls noL exhausLlve Lhere are many many more When you approach a wrlLLen
LexL remember LhaL Lhe use of color ls ofLen an aLLempL Lo communlcaLe Lhrough culLural
assumpLlons
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL dlfferenL culLures aLLach meanlng Lo colors ln dlfferenL ways ln
hlna red ls a color LhaL has connoLaLlons of happlness SlgnlflcanLly Lhe LradlLlonal color for
hlnese brldes Lo wear ls red noLlce also LhaL red ls Lhe domlnanL color on Lhe hlnese flag 1he
color green domlnaLes Lhe flags of many Musllm counLrles and Lhls ls because green represenLs
lslam 1hese dlfferences ln meanlng can have a slgnlflcanL lmpacL on wrlLLen LexLs
lor example where ln AusLralla a wrlLLen LexL LhaL descrlbes a loL of red may lmply danger or
passlon ln hlna lL may lmply paLrloLlsm
onslder whaL a poem LhaL uses red lmagery mlghL mean ln AusLralla and whaL lL mlghL mean
ln hlna An AusLrallan responder ls poslLloned Lo see anger or danger whereas ln hlna Lhe
responder ls poslLloned Lo see happlness
We can also see examples of culLural assumpLlons LhaL are made Lhrough language ln
parLlcular Lhrough gendered language Lxamples of Lhese ln AusLrallan Lngllsh lnclude referrlng
Lo a car or a boaL as she es a beauLy new Polden 1lm or net bow slulced Lhrough Lhe
roarlng waves
Lxamp|e
1he g|r| sat |n her room ta|k|ng no|s||y on the phone to her fr|end about the new p|nk 1sh|rt
that she had bought Cuts|de her brother k|cked the footba|| to h|s fr|end n|s b|ue footba||
sh|rt was torn from mak|ng a tack|e
1hls LexL ls a wrlLLen LexL LhaL demonsLraLes sLereoLypes 1he glrl who ls referred Lo ls
sLereoLyplcal because she flLs Lhe culLural assumpLlon LhaL Leenage glrls use Lelephones Also
Lhe composer has used plnk Lo furLher hlghllghL her glrllshness ls lL only glrls who use
Lelephones? uo all glrls wear/use plnk? 1he boy on Lhe rlghL ls klcklng a fooLball 1hls ls a
sLereoLyplcal lmage because lL ls culLurally assumed LhaL all boys llke sporL lurLher Lhe boy ls
wearlng blue whlch ls Lhe culLurally assumed color for boys
Another examp|e
G|r|s ||ke p|nk and boys ||ke b|ue
1hls ls a very slmple wrlLLen LexL form LhaL also lndlcaLes LhaL Lhere ls a dlfference beLween glrls
and boys
(source AusLrallan lnLeracLlve School)
S Interpersona| kout|nes
lnLerpersonal rouLlnes ls conLexL of language LhaL usually used ln Lhe process of belng
soclallzed lnLo Lhe accepLed ways of behavlng ln Lhe soclal groups or Lhey belong Lo
When we wanL Lo lnform Lhe everyday rouLlnes we follow when meeLlng or greeLlng people
or Lhe dlfferenL LransacLlon we carry ouL ln servlce encounLers buylng a Lraln LlckeL checklng ln a
hoLel maklng enqulrles over Lhe phone and so on
Ad[acency a|rs
Ad[acency palr ls a unlL of conversaLlon LhaL conLalns an exchange of one Lurn each by Lwo
speakers 1he Lurns are funcLlonally relaLed Lo each oLher ln such a fashlon LhaL Lhe flrsL Lurn
requlres a cerLaln Lype or range of Lypes of second Lurn An ad[acency palr ls composed of Lwo
uLLerances by Lwo speakers one afLer Lhe oLher
An ad[acency palr ls a klnd of sequence A sequence ls a unlL of conversaLlon LhaL conslsLs of
Lwo or more ad[acenL and funcLlonally relaLed Lurns
Lxamples of Ad[acency palr
A greeLlnggreeLlng palr
Shop AsslsLanL Cood Mornlng an l help you?
usLomer Cood mornlng l am looklng for

A quesLlonanswer palr
A (PoLel recepLlonlsL) Cood Mornlng an l help you?
8 (usLomer) Cood mornlng l have a reservaLlon
A name
8 SmlLh

7 Genres

1he lnLerpersonal schemaLa we have been looklng aL so far are Lhose whlch flnd expresslon ln
regular rouLlnes everyday spoken lnLeracLlons AlLhough has been noLed Lhey represenL soclo
culLural knowledge of a subLle klnd Lhey are relaLlvely slmple ln sLrucLure conslsLlng as Lhey do of a
few Lurns aL Lalk 8uL Lhere are also lnLerpersonal schemaLa whlch are much more exLenslve So lL ls
LhaL we recognlze cerLaln sLreLches of lnLeracLlon as speech evenLs of speclflc klnds or genre ln
example meeLlng lnLervlew debaLe eLc 1hose all are speech evenL whlch lnvolve Lurn Laklng 1here
are oLhers whlch do noL speeches for example Sermons whlch conslsL of only one long Lurn lL
cannoL be deflned by reference Lo schemaLlc assumpLlon AbouL Lhe approprlaLe way of anLlclpaLlng
ln an exchange because Lhere ls no exchange lL has deslgned LhaL Lhey have Lo say Lo LhaL end


Conc|us|on

1here are varlous way Lo express someLhlng ln communlcaLlon Cenre convenLlons are by no means
rlgldly flxed and always adhered 1he ldeaLlonal and lnLerpersonal schemaLa are relaLlvely sLable
knowledge sLrucLures or sLaLes of mlnd cusLomlzed or convenLlonallzed as normal ln a parLlcular
communlLy 8uL we also need Lo conslder how Lhey are puL Lo work made operaLlonal ln Lhe
producLlon of acLual LexL

keferences

AusLrallan lnLeracLlve School 2010
oulLhard M (1981) toJoco o uscootse Aolyss Longman London
PC Wlddowson (2007) uscootse Aolyss Cxford unlverslLy ress
Musarokah SlLl (2010) wt J lkl C8l Semarang lkl ress
Wlnarno uwl (2004) 8elojot 8ooso ts (1opo Coto) ?ogyakarLa usLaka ela[ar CffseL