1 LacLose operon ls negaLlvely conLrolled by Lhe lacLose repressor wheLher poslLlve conLrol ls Lhelr lf so

explaln lf noL explaln

rokaryoLes such Lhe bacLerlum Lcoll have an efflclenL mechanlsm for meLabollzlng lacLose
1hree proLelns LhaL are lmporLanL ln lacLose meLabollsm are all encoded ln a slngle expresslble unlL of dna called
lac operon
The lac operon consists of three structural genes, and a promoter, a terminator, regulator, and
an operator.
1he bacLerlum does noL wasLe energy expresslng Lhese proLelns lf lacLose ls noL presenL ln Lhe growLh medlum
lL only makes Lhese proLelns when lacLose ls avallable Lo be meLabollzed
11he lac repressor proLeln encoded by Lhe l gene ls expressed ln Lhe absence or presence of lacLose
2 ln Lhe absence of lacLose Lhe lac repressor blnds Lo Lhe lac operaLor slLe
3 8epressor blndlng Lo Lhe operaLor blocks progresslon of 8nA polymerase llke a dna roadblock
4Slnce 8nA polymerase ls unable Lo Lranscrlbe Lhe lac sLrucLural genes Lhe correspondlng proLelns are noL made
3 When lacLose ls presenL ln Lhe cell medlum lL blnds Lo Lhe allosLerlc slL of lac repressor 1hls changes Lhe
conformaLlon of Lhe repressor
6ln Lhls conformaLlon Lhe repressor can no longer blnd Lo Lhe lac operon slLe
7WlLhouL Lhe repressor blocklng lLs way 8nA polymerase ls able Lo Lranscrlbes Lhe sLrucLural genes
8 1hus ln Lhe presence of lacLose Lhe lac sLrucLural genes are expressed 1he proLelns encoded by Lhe Z and ?
genes are requlred for Lhe meLabollsm of lacLose

2 What |s the procedure |nvo|ved |n the |nsert|on of fore|gn DNA |n retro v|ra| vectors
Transduction is the process by which DNA is transferred from onebacterium to another by a virus. t also
refers to the process whereby foreign DNA is introduced into another cell via a viral vector. This is a
common tool used by molecular biologists to stably introduce a foreign gene into a host cell's genome.
When bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) infect a bacterial cell, their normal mode of
reproduction is to harness the replicational,transcriptional, and translation machinery of the host bacterial
cell to make numerous virions, or complete viral particles, including the viral DNA or RNA and the protein
coat
Lytic and lysogenic (temperate) cycles
Transduction happens through either the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.
f the lysogenic cycle is adopted, the phage chromosome is integrated into the bacterial chromosome,
where it can remain dormant for thousands of generations. f the lysogen is induced (by UV light for
example), the phage genome is excised from the bacterial chromosome and initiates the lytic cycle, which
culminates in lysis of the cell and the release of phage particles. The lytic cycle leads to the production of
new phage particles which are released by lysis of the host.
Transduction as a method of transfer genetic material
The packaging of bacteriophage DNA has low fidelity and small pieces of bacterial DNA, together with the
bacteriophage genome, may become packaged into the bacteriophage genome. At the same time, some
phage genes are left behind in the bacterial chromosome.
There are generally three types of recombination events that can lead to this incorporation of bacterial
DNA into the viral DNA, leading to two modes of recombination.
Generalized transduction
Generalized transduction may occur in two main ways, recombination and headful packaging.
f bacteriophages undertake the lytic cycle of infection upon entering a bacterium, the virus will take
control of the cell's machinery for use in replicating its own viral DNA. f by chance bacterial chromosomal
DNA is inserted into the viral capsid used to encapsulate the viral DNA, the mistake will lead
to generalized transduction.
f the virus replicates using 'headful packaging', it attempts to fill the nucleocapsid with genetic material. f
the viral genome results in spare capacity, viral packaging mechanisms may incorporate bacterial genetic
material into the new virion.
The new virus capsule now loaded with part bacterial DNA continues to infect another bacterial cell. This
bacterial material may become recombined into another bacterium upon infection.
When the new DNA is inserted into this recipient cell it can fall to one of three fates
1. The DNA will be absorbed by the cell and be recycled for spare parts.
2. f the DNA was originally a plasmid, it will re-circularize inside the new cell and become a plasmid
again.
3. f the new DNA matches with a homologous region of the recipient cell's chromosome, it will
exchange DNA material similar to the actions in conjugation.
This type of recombination is random and the amount recombined depends on the size of the virus being
used.
t is worth asking whether generalized transduction can occur by lysogenic phages. Two possible
scenarios might be imagined
[citation needed]
to cause generalized transduction though literature references
have not been found to confirm or dispute them:
1. A lysogenic phage whose site of integration is randomly chosen, which occasionally brings along
adjacent DNA because of an erroneous excision process.
2. A lysogenic phage that goes into its lytic phase and randomly incorporates cell DNA.
Specialized transduction
The second type of recombination event is called specialized transduction and occurs as a result of
mistakes in the transition from a virus' lysogenic to lytic cycle. f a virus incorrectly removes itself from the
bacterial chromosome, bacterial DNA from either end of the phage DNA may be packaged into the viral
capsid. Specialized transduction leads to three possible outcomes:
1. DNA can be absorbed and recycled for spare parts.
2. The bacterial DNA can match up with a homologous DNA in the recipient cell and exchange it.
The recipient cell now has DNA from both itself and the other bacterial cell.
3. DNA can insert itself into the genome of the recipient cell as if still acting like a virus resulting in a
double copy of the bacterial genes.
Example of specialized transduction is / phages in Escherichia coli.
RNA, DNA
Viruses with RNA genomes are not able to package DNA and so do not usually make this mistake.
Upon lysis of the host cell, the mispackaged virions containing bacterial DNA can attach to other bacterial
cells and inject the DNA they have packaged, thus transferring bacterial DNA from one cell to another.
This DNA can become part of the new bacterium's genome and thus be stably inherited.


3 varlous types ot stlrrers, tbelr oeslgn, mecbanlsm ano appllcatlons

The function of a stiiiei is to agitate liquius foi speeuing up ieactions oi impioving mixtuies.
agnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause
a stir bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may
be created either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel
with the liquid. agnetic stirrers often include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid.
agnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized
stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out
(other than the simple bar magnet itself). Due to its small size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and
sterilized than other stirring devices. They do not require lubricants which could contaminate the reaction
vessel and the product. They can be used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems, without the
need for complicated rotary seals.
On the other hand, the limited size of the bar means that magnetic stirrers can only be used for relatively
small (under 4 liters) experiments. They also have difficulty dealing with viscous liquids or thick
suspensions.

Types :Based on the size, configuration and applications, magnetic stirrer is of following types:
O agnetic ini Stirrer
ini magnetic stirrers is a compact size stirrer that occupy less space and consist of electronic
controls that allow the user to regulate the speed with greater precision. t is resistive to harmful
chemicals in the lab. The speed regulator in the instrument ensure that the maximum speed is
never exceeded.
O agnetic Stirrer with Timer
agnetic stirrer with timer automatically shut off the motor after the selected amount of time. A
built-in timer will shut the stirrer off when the pre-selected period of time has passed. The speed
is automatically reduced even the load is automatically removed.
O Heavy-Duty agnetic Stirrers
The heavy duty magnetic stirrer have good chemical resistance, highly durable and have high
mixing capacity. They are perfect instrument for laboratory use as well as use in production.
There is an internal electronic control device that regulates the speed automatically with respect
to load.
O Battery Powered agnetic Stirrer
They are use where there are no electric outlets. They are mainly used in incubators and consist
of rubber feet, speed control knob, etc. The batteries used for their operation are either alkaline
batteries or rechargeable type batteries.
O Air Operated Turbine agnetic Stirrer
Air operated turbine magnetic separator is ideal equipment for stirring liquid upto one liter. The
separator uses low pressure air supply to power this magnetic stirrer. The important aspect of
that magnetic stirrer is that, it eliminates the sparking hazard from electrical sources.
Applications
agnetic stirrer finds applications in the following areas:
O For stirring volatile solutions.
O agnetic stirrer is used in lab to work with different solutions.
O The stirrers are beneficial to scientists.t also find its applications among researchers.