Lecture 30> mix up, go over everything Look over midterm 3 Lecture 25 evolution and diversity of animals Anilmas

are eukaryotic, multicellular and have cell with no cell wall Animals use ingestion, Diversification began more than billion years ago Diversification appears to have accelerated rapidly from 535 to 525 million years ago during the Cambrian period. (Cambrian explosion): the most celebrated source of Cambrian fossils is the burgess shale Metamorphosis: Transform larvae into adult Widespread among animals Anurans- frogs/ toads: changes initiated by thyroid hormones which activates transcriptions via nuclear hormone receptors Insects: butterfly- morphological and physiological changes occur in pupation regulated by hormones Fish-eye and mouth migration in the flat fish: changes in behavior and digestive excretory 26 level of orginazation: tissue: are an integrated group of similar cells that preform a common function 4 kinds: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous organs: perform a specific task and consist of 2 or more tissues organ system: consist of multiple organs that together preform a vital body function epithelial tissue: are sheets of closely packed cells that cover the surface of the body and line internal organs and cavities form a protective barrier and in some cases a surface for exchange in of fluid and air all this tissue is made up of the same components: surface layer, basal lamina and the tissue layer connective tissue: binds and supports other tissue can be classified as: loose, fibrous, fat (adipose), blood, bone cartilage nervous tissue stimuli and rapid transmits info neurons carry signals by conducting electrical impulses

dendrite-receive signals from other neurons, cell body contains a nucleus and other organelles, axon-conduct impulses away from the body biological processes negative feedback loops are common in biological system control biological processes where a change in variable triggers a mechanism to reverse that change ie regulation of room temp 27 immune system a homeostatic system (regulate internal conditions) defends organism against agents that cause disease innate immunity- are a set of defense that are active upon infection the response is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered before adaptive immunity- in vertebrate previous exposure to the pathogen enhances the immune response the lymphatic system involves in innate and adaptive immunity and consists of a network of lymphatic vessels lymph nodes and lymph lymphatic vessels collect fluid from the body tissue and return it as lymph to the blood lymph organs (spleen and lymph nodes) are pacled with whithe blod cells that fight infection lymphocyted are white blood cells are responsible for adaptive immunity and originate from stem cells in the bone marrow b lymphocytes (b cells) continue developing in the bone marrow participate in hormonal immunity response and secrete antibodies in the blood and lymph t cells develop in the thymus participate in the cell-mediated immune response promote phagocytosis by other white bold cells and stimulate b cells to produce antibodies attack cell infections with bacteria and viruses as lymph circulates through lymphatic organisms it collects, microbes, parts of microbes and microbial toxins that is has picked up from other infection transports through the body and transports then to lymphatic organs where macrophages in the organs engulf the invaders and lymphocytes may mount and adaptive immune system adaptive immune response our immune system respond to foreign molecules called antigens which elicit the adaptive immune response

vaccinations exposes the immune system to a vaccine (harmless variant or part of a disease-causing microbe) antibodies are the weapon of the humeral immune response antibody molecule: y-shaped, has 2 antigen-binding sites specific to the antigen determinants that elicited its secretion monoclonal antibodies powerful tools in the lab and clinic identical antibodies produced by cells that are all descendants of a single hybrid cell pregnancy tests use monoclonal antibodies to detect the chorionic gonadotropin hormone 28 homeostatic system thermoregulation: maintenance of internal temp within narrow limits long thick fur, and hair between pads of feet blubber insulator heathers and fat circulatory adaptation: increase or decrease blood flow to skin and countercurrent best exchange with warm and cold blood flowing in opposite directions (know the diagram) osmoregulation: control of the gain and loss of water and solutes such as salt and other ions excretion: the disposal of nitrogen-containing waste (know what animals excrete what) 29 hormones: chemical signals produced by endocrine glands, usually carried in the blood and responsible for specific changes in target cells they regulate the development and maintenance of body traits regulate life history transition (metamorphosis) regulate homeostatic systems hormones in plants and animals can have very different functions in evolutionary distant groups which provides evidence that hormones have diversified over evolutionary time 2 major classes of molecules fuction as hormones as verterates: steroid hormones (include small hydrophobic molecules made from cholesterol) hydrophilic (water-soluble) amino-acid-derived hormones among these are: proteins

amino acid derivatives and peptides (ie insulin- diabetes mellitus is and autoimmune disease that affects about 8% of Canadians and results from a lack of insulin or failure of cells to respond to it) hormone action involves 3 key events: reception, signal transduction and response water-soluble hormones bind to extra-cellular receptors steroid hormones can : diffuse through plasma membrane bind to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm or nucleus form a hormone-receptor complex that carries out the transduction of the hormonal signal hypothalamus closely tied to the pituitary, connects nervous and endocrine system receives input from nerves about the internal conditions of the body and the external env responds by sending out appropriate nervous or endocrine signals uses the pituitary gland to exert master control over the endocrine system pituitary anterior pituitary: synthesis and secrets hormones that control the activity of the other endocrine glands (growth hormones and endorphins and TSH releasing hormones) is controlled by 2 types of hormones released by hypothalamus releasing hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary and inhibiting hormones inhibit anterior pituitary 31 human brain: is among the most complex structures in the universe with a greater number of neurons and neuron connections than the brain of other animals a neuron id the anatomical and functional unit of the nervous system neurons are cells specialized for carrying signals nerve functions depend on the charge differences across neuron membranes at rest, a neurons plasma membrane has potential nrg, the membrane potential in which just inside the cell is slightly negative and just outside is slightly positive resting potential is the voltage across the plasma membrane of a resting neuron

change in membrane potential: a nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential a stimulus is any factor that causes a nerve signal to be generated stimulus: alters the permeability of a portion if the membrane allows ions to pass through changes membrane voltage a nerve signal called an action potential is a change in the membrane voltage from resting potential to a max level and back to resting potential action potential (always negative resting stage) a stimulus is applied and if its strong enough the voltage rises to the threshold, once reached, action potential is triggered and the membrane polarity reverses with the interior of the cell becoming more positive than the outside as there us a influx of ions of Na+ ions in the cell the membrane then rapidly depolarizes as the voltage drops, it then undershoots and returns to the resting potential in resting state, voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed as RP is maintained stimulus causes some of the NA+ channels to open if thresholds in this case is reached an AP triggered additional Na+ channels open and K+ channels close therefore the interior of the cell becomes positive Na+ channels close and inactivate K+ channels open and K+ rushes out and the interior of the cell is more than the outside K+ channels close relatively slowly causing an undershoot and them return to resting state Frequency of AP (not their strength) changes with the strength of the stimulus Electrical signals pass between cells at electrical synapses Neurotransmitters transfer the signal in chemical synapses (know difference between chemical and electrical synapses) 32 skeleton and muscles muscles ad bones interact to produce movements muscles: connected to bones by tendons can only contract and require an antagonistic muscle to reverse the action and re lengthen the muscles muscle fibers are cells that consist of bundles of myofibrils skeletal muscles cells are cylindrical have many nuclei are oriented parallel to each other

myofibrils: contain overlapping thick filaments primarily of proteins myosin and actin and thin filaments composed primarily of the protein actin sarcomeres are repeating groups of overlapping thick and thin filaments these are the contractile units the fundamental units of muscle muscle contraction occurs when thin filaments slide along thick filaments motor neuron carries an action potential to a muscle cell releases the neurotransmitter acetycholine from its synaptic terminal initiates muscle contractions aerobic respiration requires a constant supply of glucose and O2 provides most of the ATP used to power muscles movement s during exercise anaerobic process of lactic acid fermentation can provide ATP faster than aerobic respiration but is less efficient the ATP-PCr system enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from PCr to ADP to make ATP stored ATP and the PCr can provide enough nrg fro a 10-15 burst of activity muscle fiber characteristics (know the table) depending on the pathway they use to generate ATP, muscle fibers can be classified as slow, intermediate or fast most muscle have a combination of fiber type which can be affected by exercise