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Girish K.P.
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Communication satellites bring the world to you anywhere and any time..
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What exactly is a satellite? The word satellite originated from the Latin word Satellit- meaning an attendant, one who is constantly hovering around & attending to a master or big man. For our own purposes however a satellite is simply any body that moves around another (usually much larger) one in a mathematically predictable path called an orbit. A communication satellite is a microwave repeater staion in space that is used for tele communcation , radio and television signals. The first man made satellite with radio transmitter was in 1957.
. There are about 750 satellite in the space, most of them are used for
communication.
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How do Satellites Work? * Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but are too far away to use conventional means. The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their communication. * One Earth Station transmits the signals to the satellite. Up link frequency is the frequency at which Ground Station is communicating with Satellite. * The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends it down to the second earth station. This frequency is called a Downlink.
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Components of a satellite
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Advantages of satellite over terrestrial communication : * The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds that of a terrestrial system. * Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of the distance from the center of the coverage area. * Satellite to Satellite communication is very precise. * Higher Bandwidths are available for use. Disadvantages of satellites: * Launching satellites into orbit is costly. * Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up. * There is a larger propagation delay in satellite communication than in terrestrial communication.
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Multi-stage Rockets
Stage 1: Raises the payload e.g. a satellite to an elevation of about 50 miles. Stage 2: Satellite 100 miles and the third stage places it into the transfer orbit. Stage 3: The satellite is placed in its final geosynchronous orbital slot by the AKM, a type of rocket used to move the satellite.
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Applications
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Positioning
This can be achieved by several methods One method is to use small rocket motors These use fuel - over half of the weight of most satellites is made up of fuel Often it is the fuel availability which determines the lifetime of a satellite Commercial life of a satellite typically 1015 years
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Stability
It is vital that satellites are stabilised
- to ensure that solar panels are aligned properly, communication antennae are aligned properly
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Power
Modern satellites use a variety of power means Solar panels are now quite efficient, so solar power is used to generate electricity Batteries are needed as sometimes the satellites are behind the earth - this happens about half the time for a LEO satellite Nuclear power has been used - but not recommended
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2. 1.
2. 1.
2. 1.
Point-Point System
Crosslink System
Hybrid System
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Harsh Environment
Satellite components need to be specially hardened Circuits which work on the ground will fail very rapidly in space Temperature is also a problem - so satellites use electric heaters to keep circuits and other vital parts warmed up - they also need to control the temperature carefully
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Early satellites
Telstar
Allowed live transmission across the Atlantic
Syncom 2
First Geosynchronous satellite TELSTAR SYNCOM 2
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Satellite orbits
Classification of orbits:
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* Circular orbits are simplest * Inclined orbits are useful for coverage of equatorial regions * Elliptical orbits can be used to give quasi stationary behavior viewed from earth using 3 or 4 satellites * Orbit changes can be used to extend the life of satellites
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Classification of orbits:
Satellite orbits are also classified based on their heights above the earth:
GEO LEO MEO Molniya Orbit HAPs
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GEO contd.
Advantages
A GEO satellites distance from earth gives it a large coverage area, almost a fourth of the earths surface. GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area. These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other multipoint applications Minimal doppler shift
Disadvantages
A GEO satellites distance also cause it to have both a comparatively weak signal and a time delay in the signal, which is bad for point to point communication. GEO satellites, centered above the equator, have difficulty for broadcasting signals to near polar regions Launching of satellites to orbit are complex and expensive.
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The Iridium system has 66 satellites in six LEO orbits, each at an altitude of 750 km.
Iridium is designed to provide direct worldwide voice and data communication using handheld terminals, a service similar to cellular telephony but on a global scale
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LEO Contd.
Advantages
A LEO satellites proximity to earth compared to a GEO satellite gives it a better signal strength and less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point communication. A LEO satellites smaller area of coverage is less of a waste of bandwidth.
Disadvantages
A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts cause by their relative movement. Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual orbital deterioration.
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Disadvantage
A MEO satellites distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, though not as bad as a GEO satellite.
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MEO satellites
The GPS constellation calls for 24 satellites to be distributed equally among six circular orbital planes Glonass (Russian)
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Molniya Orbit
Used by Russia for decades. Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The satellite remains in a nearly fixed position relative to earth for eight hours. A series of three Molniya satellites can act like a GEO satellite. Useful in near polar regions.
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HAP
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Band L S C Ku Ka
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We set our watches according to the solar day. Astronomers use sidereal time because we are mostly interested in distant celestial objects.
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The actual length of a sidereal day on Earth is 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds This means that the Earth has to rotate slightly more than one turn with respect to a fixed star to reach the same Earth-Sun orientation (solar day)
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Sir. Johannes Keppler Derived 3 laws based upon his observations of planetary motion.
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The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus
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The line joining the planet to the center of the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times
T5
A5 A4
T4
A3
T3
A2
T2 T1
A1
T6
A6
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Newtons Laws
Keplers laws only describe the planetary motion without attempting to suggest any explanation as to why the motion takes place in that manner.
Derived three laws of motion. Derived the Law of Universal Gravitation. Explained why Keplers laws worked.
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Every body continues in a state of uniform motion unless it is compelled to change that state by a force imposed upon it
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Change in momentum is proportional to and in the direction of the force applied Momentum equals mass x velocity Change in momentum gives: F = ma
F
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For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction Hints at conservation of momentum
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Between any two objects there exists a force of attraction that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
M1m2 Fg = G 2 r
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The semi-major axis describes the size of the orbit. It connects the geometric center of the orbital ellipse with the periapsis, passing through the focal point where the center of mass resides. The eccentricity shows the ellipticity of the orbit. The inclination is the angle between the plane of the orbit and the equatorial plane measured at the ascending node in the northward direction. The right ascension of an ascending node is the angle between the x axis and the ascending node. The argument of periapsis (perihelion) is the angle in the orbital plane between the line of nodes and the perigee of the orbit. The mean anomaly is the time elapsed since the satellite passed the perigee.
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Satellite trajectory
Satellite Trajectory
The path of a satellite in space may be obtained under the following assumptions: 1.The satellite and earth are symmetric spherically and may be treated as point masses. 2.There are no other forces acting on the system besides the gravitational forces. 3.The mass of the earth is much greater than satellite. These assumptions lead to the two body problem.
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Applying Newton's laws to such systems, .. F = m r (second law) (1) (third law) ..(2) F = -GMm. r r2 r
Substituting (1) in (2) we get, .. .. r + GM .r = 0 (or) r + .r = 0
r3
..
r3
Where r = vector acceleration in the given coordinate system r = vector from M (mass of earth) to m (mass of satellite) r = distance between M and m , = GM (gravitational parameter) A partial system is easy to obtain and is adequate for illustrating the size and shape of an orbit. The resulting trajectory equation has a general form of conic section: ; p = a geometric constant called parameter of conic r= P 1+e cos = (r v cos )2 / e = the eccentricity which determines type of conic section =(1-P/a) = angle between r and the point on the conic nearest the focus = flight elevation angle , v = satellite velocity a = semi-major axis = (ra+rb)/2
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Satellite period
The period T of a satellite is given as: T2= 4 2 .a3 (period depends only on semi major axis,a) For a satellite in circular orbit around earthT2= 4 2 .(R+h)3
Where , R= radius of earth, h= satellite altitude
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Satellite velocity
Total specific mechanical energy of a satellite is the sum of kinetic energy/unit mass and potential energy/unit mass, but there is an interchange between these energies. Thus a satellite slows down when it moves up and gains speed as it loses height. The velocity of a satellite in an elliptic orbit is : V2= (2/r -1/a) also = V2/2 - /r and = /2a
The origin O is the geocentre. The satellite at any instant tp is assumed to be at S. The circle is drawn from centre C of the ellipse with a radius equal to the semi major axis and a perpendicular BM is drawn passing through the point S. Angle E is called eccentric anomaly and angle is the true anomaly.
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Satellite position
For an elliptic orbit, the time tp elapsed from a perigee pass is defined as-
When =0 ,the mean and true anomalies are equal. Hence distance between satellite and geocentre is r = a(1-e2)/(1-ecos)
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GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBITS A geosynchronous orbit is the one with an orbital period (the time needed to orbit once around the Earth) that matches the rotation rate of the Earth. This is a sidereal day, which is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds in length. A geosynchronous earth orbit is sometimes referred to as the Clarke orbit or Clarke belt, after Arthur C. Clarke, who first suggested its existence in 1945 and proposed its use for communications satellites
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Clarke Orbit
The Clarke orbit meets the concise set of specifications for geosynchronous satellite orbits:
(1) be located directly above the equator (2) travel in the same direction as Earth's rotation at 6840 mph (3) have an altitude of 22,300 miles above Earth (4) complete one revolution in 24 hours
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Clarke Orbit
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http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/satmet/modules/sat_basics/images/orbits.jpg
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Geostationary Satellites
The satellite velocity in this orbit is 3075 m/s. Operate in the 2.0 GHz to 18 GHz range When the inclination and eccentricity of the orbit is zero, the satellite appears to be stationary to an observer from ground.
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http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/mcidas
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Geo-stationary satellites
Applications: Telecommunication systems Radio Data Transmission systems
The geometric considerations like satellite elevation/look angle etc are very vital for reliable communication satellite system design.
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Satellite elevation:
The elevation of a satellite, is the angle which a satellite makes with the tangent at the specified point on the earth. = arc tan [(cos-)/ sin ] Where, coverage angle = arc cos (cosc coscs ) cs = c - s and =R /(R+h) = 0.151 In terms of elevation angle: = 900 -sin-1(cos / 6.63235) In terms of tilt angle : = sin -1(6.6235 sin- ) where c = latitude of earth station, c = the longitude, s = longitude of sub satellite point, R=radius of earth, h=satellite height above equator Tilt angle = arc tan [sin / (6.6235-cos )
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Azimuth:
The azimuth is the angle which the satellite direction makes with the direction of true north measured in the clockwise direction. The azimuth = arc tan [tan cs /sinc] in northern hemisphere: =1800 + A0;when the satellite is to the west of earth station =1800 - A0;when the satellite is to the east of earth station in southern hemisphere: =3600 - A0;when the satellite is to the west of earth station =A0;when the satellite is to the east of earth station
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Range:
The range d of a geostationary satellite is given by, d = 35786[1+0.4199{1-cos }1/2 In terms of radius of earth (ie, der = d/r) der= [13.47(1-cos+31.624)1/2 also der = 6 .6235 sin /cos The angle , is the angle between the solar vector and the orbit plane. If the solar vector is in the orbit plane, = 0. Beta can go to 90. The general convention is that is positive when the sun is on the same side of the orbit plane as the positive orbit normal (right hand rule).
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Phase I
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ORBITAL MANEUVERS
Hohmann Transfer
Can be used to raise or lower altitude Most efficient method At minimum, requires completion of half revolution of transfer orbit
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Hohmann transfer
Most satellites launched today are initially placed into an
low earth orbit. In the next phase the satellite is injected into an elliptical transfer orbit which has an apogee at the height of GEO and its apsides (line joining perigee-apogee) in the equatorial plane. Finally satellite is injected into GEO by imparting a velocity increment at the apogee equal to the difference between satellite velocity at GTO and velocity in GEO. A transfer between two coplanar circular orbits via elliptical transfer orbit requires the least velocity increment (and hence fuel). This principle was recognized by Hohmann in 1925 and is referred as Hohmann transfer.
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A Hohmann transfer is a fuel efficient way to transfer from one circular orbit to another circular orbit that is in the same plane (same inclination), but a different altitude. To change from a lower orbit (A) to a higher orbit (C), an engine is first fired in the opposite direction from the direction the vehicle is traveling. This will add velocity to the vehicle causing its trajectory to become an elliptic orbit (B). This elliptic orbit is carefully designed to reach the desired final altitude of the higher orbit (C). In this way the elliptic orbit or transfer orbit is tangent to both the original orbit (A) and the final orbit (C). This is why a Hohmann transfer is fuel efficient. When the target altitude is reached the engine is fired in the same manner as before but this time the added velocity is planned such that the elliptic transfer orbit is circularized at the new altitude of orbit (C).
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Hohmann Transfer
Target Orbit
Initial Orbit
Transfer Orbit
The orbital inclination is given by, cos i= sin1 cos 1 where i=inclination 1 =azimuth of launch 1 =latitude of launching site
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PERTURBATIONS
Perturbation is a term used in astronomy to describe alterations to an object's orbit caused by gravitational interactions with other bodies. Major sources are:
Effect of earth Third Body Effects Atmospheric Drag Solar radiation pressure Electro-Magnetic effect
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The main effects of perturbations are: 1. The component of perturbations in the orbital plane causes the perigee to rotate in the orbital plane. 2. Another effect of perturbations is that the orbital plane rotates around the earths north-south axis. 3. The perturbating force along the orbital plane imparts a force vector on a satellite
1. The component of perturbations in the orbital plane causes the perigee to rotate in the orbital plane.
The rate of change of argument of perigee is = 4.97[R/a]3.5 (5cos2i-1)/(1-e2)2 deg/day where R= mean equatorial radius , a=semi major axis i = inclination, e=eccentricity when i=63.40 , reduces to zero, implying that perigee remains fixed in space.
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2. The orbital plane rotates around the earths north-south axis. The rate of change of rotation of ascending node is = 9.95[r/a]3.5 cos i /(1-e2)2 deg/day Where r = satellite-geo centre distance The rotation is in a direction opposite to the satellite motion. For a geostationary orbit magnitude is 4.90/year ,implying the ascending node rotates around the earth in 73 years. 3. The perturbating force along the orbital plane imparts a force vector on a satellite. For most orbits such components cancel out as the satellite position changes continuously. In the geostationary orbits, resultant perturbating component do not cancel but cause a satellite to drift towards one of the two nearest stable points on the orbit. Stable points are approximately on the minor axis, showing that the elliptical approx. of earth is not precisely accurate.
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Third Body Effects (heavenly bodies) Gravitational pull of other massive bodies, i.e. Sun, moon Mainly noticeable in deep space orbits
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The inclination of orbital plane caused by moon changes cyclically between 0.480 and 0.670 with a period of 18.6 years. Maximum inclination change occurred in year 1987 and minimum in Feb 1997 The change in inclination due to sun is 0.270 /year.
Note: Among the three forces affecting the inclination (gravity pull, sun and non spherical nature of earth) the later force has a component in the direction opposite to the former two forces. Hence these forces cancel out at an inclination angle of about 7.50 Thus the inclination of satellite when left uncorrected oscillates around the stable inclination with the period of about 53 years reaching a maximum of 150 and a minimum of 00
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Atmospheric Drag
Satellites below 2000 kilometres, are actually travelling through the Earths atmosphere. Collisions with air particles, even at these high altitudes slowly act to circularise the orbit and slow down the spacecraft causing it to drop to lower altitudes , this effect is known as atmospheric drag Emissions from the Sun cause the upper atmosphere to heat and expand. These energetic solar outputs increase dramatically during periods of high solar activity, and may result in Earth-orbiting satellites experiencing an increase in atmospheric drag
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A satellite orbiting the Earth would continue to orbit forever if gravity were the only force acting on it.
Reduces satellites energy Changes the size (semi-major axis) and shape (eccentricity) The effect of drag is more severe at about 180km and causes excess heat on satellite .Unless such LEO satellites are routinely boosted to higher orbits, they slowly fall, and eventually burn up Orbital life time of satellite at 400km circular earth orbit is typically few months, where as the life time is several decades if they are at 800km altitude In the former case, functional life time depends on orbital life time and for latter the life time of satellite equipments is the deciding factor. However, for GEO satellites the governing factors are equipment life time and fuel capacity of the satellite (typically 10-15 years).
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Solar wind causes radiation pressure on the satellite The solar wind is a stream of charged particles (a plasma) that are ejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun. It consists mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV. These particles are able to escape the sun's gravity because of the high temperature of the corona, and also because of high kinetic energy These perturbations are corrected periodically
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2. COMMUNICATIONS
Stormy space weather can damage Earth-orbiting satellites such as those carrying TV and mobile phone signals. During high levels of solar activity, satellites are bombarded with high energy particles. If the deeply penetrating electrons build up faster than the charges are able to dissipate out of the satellite material, a discharge can result that is capable of damaging the satellite electronics. These processes can result loss of control and even satellite failure.
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3. NAVIGATION A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver uses radio signals from several orbiting satellites to determine the range, or distance, from each satellite, and determines from these ranges the actual position of the receiver. The radio signals must pass through the ionosphere, the uppermost part of the Earths atmosphere, and in doing so are subjected to variations in the electron density structure of the ionosphere. Changes in the electron density due to space weather activity can change the speed at which the radio waves travel introducing a propagation delay in the GPS signal. Changing propagation delays cause errors in the determination of the range.
An increase in space weather activity may cause widespread disruption to aircraft and ship navigation and emergency location systems that rely heavily on satellite navigation data.
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Electro-Magnetic effect Interaction between the Earths magnetic field and the satellites electro-magnetic field results in magnetic drag
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Magnetic storm
A geomagnetic storm is a temporary disturbance of the earths magnetosphere caused by a disturbance in space weather. A geomagnetic storm is caused by a solar wind shock wave. This only happens if the shock wave travels in a direction toward Earth. The solar wind pressure on the magnetosphere will increase or decrease depending on the Sun's activity. These solar wind pressure changes modify the electric currents in the ionosphere. Magnetic storms usually last 24 to 48 hours, but some may last for many days.
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Polar constellations
A polar orbit is an orbit in which a satellite passes above or nearly above both poles of the body (usually a planet such as the earth) being orbited on each revolution. It therefore has an inclination of (or very close to) 900 to the equator. Polar orbits are often used for earth-mapping, earth observation, as well as some weather satellites The disadvantage to this orbit is that no one spot on the Earth's surface can be sensed continuously from a satellite in a polar orbit. Polar satellites include: Defense meteorological satellite program (DMSP), Landsat, SPOT and NOAA. Landsat and SPOT are Commercial polar orbiters and are intended for geophysical remote sensing To achieve a polar orbit requires more energy, thus more propellant is needed than an orbit of low inclination
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Polar orbits
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Eg. of the positions of a sun-synchronous satellite in 12 hour intervals Sun synchronous satellites pass over any given latitude at almost the same local time during each orbital pass
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Polar constellations
Here :
= coverage circle m = number of orbital planes n = satellites /plane = cos-1[cos /cos /m]
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Single coverage:
Satellites in adjacent planes move in same direction, shifted with respect to each other by half intra-orbit satellite separation (/m), where m = number of planes. The separation between adjacent planes is (+) and the relative geometry remains constant because they move in phase. Satellites are separated by 2,when the satellites move in opposite directions and the relative geometry is not constant. The total number of satellites, N = 4 /(1-cos ) ; 1.3n < m < 2.2n In the cases of non integer, next highest integer satisfying the inequality can be taken. If the N is much large, then the condition (n-1) + (n+1) =
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When the coverage is required beyond a latitude ,the equations are (n-1) +(n+1) = cos and N = 4cos /(1-cos ) The coverage efficiency of the constellations is given by N /4 Where N = total solid angle = solid angle bounded by a single satellite=2(1-cos ) Triple coverage: The constellation geometry is similar to single coverage case, with at least three satellites must be visible at all points. The coverage angle is adjusted such that at least 3 satellites lie within angle of each point of set. The resulting relationship for providing triple coverage from pole up to latitude is N = 11cos /(1-cos ) ; 1.4n < mcos < 2.4n
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Inclined orbit
A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the earth if the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the equatorial plane They have an inclination between 0 degrees (equatorial orbit) and 90 degrees This family of satellites provides unbiased worldwide coverage by deploying satellites in circular orbits of same period and inclination, distributed uniformly on the sphere. The orbital altitude of these satellites is generally on the order of a few hundred km, so the orbital period is on the order of a few hours. These satellites are not sun-synchronous, however, so they will view a place on Earth at varying times.
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Adjacent orbital planes are separated equally around a reference plane (equatorial). Within each orbit ,neighboring satellites have equal angular separation.
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Inclined constellations
i = right ascension angle of ith orbital plane =2i / P i = inclination angle of ith orbit i = initial phase angle of ith satellite = m i m = (0 to N-1)/Q ; N = PQ (P,Q are integers) Q = number of satellites per plane
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Hybrid constellations
This combines the various types orbits for full earth coverage These orbits have different orbital period Eg: using circular orbits for covering equatorial regions and elliptical orbits for higher altitude regions Eg: using GEO for covering equatorial regions and inclined orbits for polar regions
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Regional coverage:
In some cases it is necessary to cover only a part of the world. This is made possible by number of spot beams. Here it is necessary to ensure that all the satellites pass over the same service area. Eg: equatorial regions may be covered by deploying satellites in equatorial planes Using elliptical orbits inclined at 63.40 can be used for covering high altitude because satellites in these orbits dwell over high altitudes over a considerable time.
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2. Satellite capacity: The capacity required per satellite increases as the orbit altitude increases because a satellites field of view and captured traffic increases with the altitude Total constellation capacity is the sum of capacities of satellites At higher altitudes satellite capacities are better shared Hence as the altitude increases, total constellation capacity reduces and more efficient constellation capacity is utilized 3. State of spacecraft technology: Antenna size and complexity -as the altitude increases , larger antennas are required to meet link quality objective and maintain frequency reusability Spacecraft DC power -DC power determines the capacity of the satellite Inter satellite link -satellites with inter links influence the network routing scheme
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4.Terminal characteristic and communication requirement The size of terminals and their communication capability influence a satellites power and sensitivity requirements RF power of a handset is limited by radiation safety considerations, battery size /capacity and the target terminal cost If the satellites are brought closer , power required can be reduced but number of satellites in the constellations increases. 5.Quality of service: Quality of service refers to RF link reliability, propagation delay and signal quality measured as bit error rate Higher link reliability requires higher elevation angle Propagation conditions improve as the elevation angle increases because number of obstructions reduces Propagation delay is related to the altitude of orbit Hence for interactive applications lower orbits are best and non real time applications are insensitive to altitude Signal quality is related to link conditions and issues such as carrier to noise power density/modulation/coding schemes
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6. Spectrum availability: Frequency reusability can be increased by spatial/polarization diversity This is achieved by using spot and shaped beams For a given spot beam size lower altitude constellations can give increased reusability Additional measures like modulation, coding and multiple access schemes can maximize radio resource 7. Orbital considerations: Space environment affects the orbit selection Atmospheric drag, eclipses, ionization 8. Launch considerations Important practical consideration is the launch cost, feasibility of launching the satellites in the acceptable time frame Probability of launch failure and in-orbit satellite failure increases as the number of satellites in the constellation increases.
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Assignment 01
Explain about the effect of a) eclipse due to earth b) eclipse due to moon c) solar interference on geo-stationary satellites. Submit before:18.08.2008
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Problems
Q1. Find out the radius of a geostationary satellite orbit. Given: T = 23Hr 56Min 4.1Sec G = 6.672 X10-11 m3/kg/s2 M = 5974 X1024 kg r = 6378.1414 km take = GM
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Answer:
T2 = 4 2 .(R)3 R = [TGM]2/3
------------2
Altitude, h = R-r
= 42164.17-6378.1414
= 35786.02 km
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Q2. A satellite orbiting in equatorial plane has a period from perigee-perigee of 12 Hrs. Given that the eccentricity is 0.002. Calculate semi-major axis.
Given: G = 6.672 X10-11 m3/kg/s2 M = 5974 X1024 kg r = 6378.1414 km
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Answer:
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Q3. Calculate the apogee and perigee heights for the given orbital parameters. e=0.0011501 and a= 7192.3 km
Given: r = 6378.1414 km
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Answer: ra=a(1+e) = 7200.57 km rp= a(1-e) = 7184.03 km Apogee height, ha = ra r = 822.14 km Perigee height, hp = rp r = 805.89 km
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Q4. A satellite is in elliptical orbit with a perigee of 1000 km and an apogee of 4000 km. Using a mean earth radius of 6378.14 km , find the period of the orbit in hours ,minutes and seconds. Also find the e of the orbit.
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Communication Satellites
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First complete view of worlds weather, photographed by TIROS 9 (13/2/1965). Image assembled from 450 individual photographs
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Environmental Conditions A spacecraft must be reliable in all types of environments beginning from
launch to the in-orbit deployment and throughout its operation phase.
Most important stresses area) Zero gravity : At GEO, gravitational force is negligible giving rise to zero gravity effects.
Major effect is on liquid fuel flow and hence external means are to be provided for liquid flow. The absence of gravity facilitates operation of the deployment mechanisms used for stowing antennas and solar panels during launch.
b) Atmospheric pressure and temperature : At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is extremely low (10-7 torr). This makes thermal conduction negligible and increase friction between surfaces. Hence special materials are used for lubrication of moving parts. However, pressure inside the spacecraft is higher because of out gassing of electronic components. The temperature of a spacecraft is mainly affected by heat from sun and various spacecraft subsystems. The excursion in the external temperature varies from 330-350K during sunlight and 95-120K during eclipses.
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c) Space Particles : Various types of particles like cosmic rays, protons, electrons, meteoroids, manmade debris etc exist in space. Main effect of bombardment of particles on a satellite is the degradation of solar cells and certain solid state components within the satellite. Effect of meteoroids is negligible in GEO satellites.
d) Magnetic fields : Magnitude of earths magnetic field is very weak at GEO (1/300 of earths surface). The effect of magnetic field can be compensated by the use of large coil. While Satellites passing through Van Allen belt ,deflected charged particles that are trapped in this region affect electronic components Hence special manufacturing mechanisms are used to harden the components against radiations.
e) Other Considerations : Due to the variation of distance of earth from sun, a variation in DC generation capability must be taken into account in design of satellite power system. Also satellites must be prepared for loss of power during eclipses and may result in gradual degradation of solar cell efficiency. There are several perturbations affecting the satellites due to movement of mechanical parts and fuel within it. There may be a small drift in position of antennas.
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Reliability
The overall reliability of a satellite is governed by its critical components. Reliability is improved by employing redundancy in the critical sub systems and in components such as TWT amplifiers. Reliability is defined as the probability that a given component/system performs its function within a specified time t. t R= 0 dt where = failure rate of a component
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Three regions can be identified An early high failure rate region attributed to manufacturing faults, defects in materials etc A region of low failure attributed to random component failures A region of high failure rate attributed to component wear-out. In a satellite system, early failures are eliminated to a large extent during testing and burn-in. The main aim is to minimize the random failures which occur during the operational phase of the satellite by using reliability engineering techniques. The beginning of wear-out failure can best be delayed by improving the manufacturing technique and the type of material used.
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The reliability can be expressed as R = e-t = e-t/m ; where m =1/ (mean time between failures) When several components or sub-systems are connected in series, the overall reliability is Rs=R1 R2.Rn where Ri is the reliability of the ith component. In terms of the failure rate : Rs= e-(1+ 2+ n)t Parallel redundancy is useful when the reliability of an individual subsystem is high. If Qi is the unreliability of the ith parallel element, the probability that all units will fail is the product of the individual unreliabilities Qs=Q1 Q2Qi When the unreliabilities of all elements are equal, this expression reduces to Qs = Qi ;Where Q is the unreliability of each element. Therefore the reliability is R = 1-Qs = 1- Qi =1- (1- R)i =1- (1- e-t)i
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A Typical reliability model of a Geostationary Satellite: All the major sub-systems are shown in series.
Simplified reliability model Applying the equation for series and parallel combination, the reliability of the communication system is obtained as Rs =RRXRTX [1-(1-RT)2] When RT=0.9,reliability of transponder increases to 0.99 Figure of merit, F = r/M ;where r = R/R R= reliability with redundancy employed R= reliability without employing redundancy M= increase in mass due to added redundancy The addition of redundant equipment increases the cost of the transponder
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Back up slides
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Transponder
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Solar eclipses
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rp
v
ra r
r=
a(1 e ) 1 e cos v
2
2.a
rp: Radius of periapsis (perihelion) ra: Radius of apoapsis (aphelion)
rp = a(1 e) ra = a(1 + e)
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2 1 u = GM r a
2) Period:
a T = 2 GM
3) Energy:
E=
GMm 2a
(Constant!)
4) Angular momentum:
r r L = m r u, L = m G M a (1 e2 )
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(Constant!)
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Spin stabilization
With spin stabilization, the entire spacecraft rotates around its own
vertical axis, spinning like a top. This keeps the spacecraft's orientation in space under control. The spinning spacecraft resists perturbing forces. Designers of early satellites used spin-stabilization for their satellites, which most often have a cylinder shape and rotate at one revolution every second. Spin stabilization was used for NASA's Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, the Lunar Prospector, and the Galileo Jupiter orbiter.
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The advantage of spin stabilization is that it is a very simple way to keep the spacecraft pointed in a certain direction. A disadvantage of this stabilization is that the satellite cannot use large solar arrays to obtain power from the Sun. Thus, it requires large amounts of battery power. Another disadvantage of spin stabilization is that the instruments or antennas also must perform despin maneuvers so that antennas or optical instruments point at their desired targets.
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Alignment
There are a number of components which need alignment
Solar panels Antennae
These have to point at different parts of the sky at different times, so the problem is not trivial
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Periapsis
Rp
Line of Apsides connects Apoapsis, central body & Periapsis Apogee~ Apoapsis; Perigee~ Periapsis (earth nomenclature)
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ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: True Anomaly
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Prepared by: Girish K.P. Assistant Professor in ECE Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy
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