ACCESSORY BREATHING ORGANS OF VERTEBRATE a. Labyrinth of fish (PISCES) The most important respiratory organ of fish is gills.

The function of gills not only as respiratory organ but also as excretory organ like some kinds of salt, filter the food and ion exchange. A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. The Anabantoidei is a suborder of perciform ray-finned freshwater fish distinguished by their possession of a lung-like labyrinth organ, which enables them to breathe air. The fish in the Anabantoidei suborder are known as anabantoids or labyrinth fish. Some labyrinth fish are important food fish and many others, such as the Siamese fighting fish and paradise fish, are popular as aquarium fish. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family. The labyrinth organ, a defining characteristic of fish in the suborder Anabantoidei, is a much-folded suprabranchial accessory breathing organ. It is formed by vascularized expansion of the epibranchial bone of the first gill arch and used for respiration in air. This organ allows labyrinth fish to take in oxygen directly from the air, instead of taking it from the water in which they reside through use of gills. The labyrinth organ helps the inhaled oxygen to be absorbed into the bloodstream. As a result, labyrinth fish can survive for a short period of time out of water, as they can inhale the air around them, provided they stay moist. Labyrinth fish are not born with functional labyrinth organs. The development of the organ is gradual and most labyrinth fish fry breathe entirely with their gills and develop the labyrinth organs when they grow older. b. Skin of frog (AMPHIBIAN) Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area. However, the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Some tree frogs reduce water loss with a waterproof layer of skin. Others have adapted behaviours to conserve water, including engaging in nocturnal activity and resting in a waterconserving position. This position involves the frog lying with its toes and fingers tucked under its body and chin, respectively, with no gap between the body and substrate. Some frog species will also rest in large groups, touching the skin of the neighbouring frog. This reduces the

amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface, and thus reduces water loss. These adaptations only reduce water loss enough for a predominantly arboreal existence, and are not suitable for arid conditions. The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels near the surface of the skin. When a frog is underwater, oxygen is transmitted through the skin directly into the bloodstream. Some species of frog have remarkable adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water. The lake titicaca frog (Telmatobius culeus) is one such species and to survive in the poorly oxygenated waters of Lake Titicaca it has incredibly wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange. This frog will also do 'push-ups' on the lake bed to increase the flow of water around its body. c. Air sacs of bird (AVES) Air sacs are membranaceous receptacles which communicate with the cavities of the respiratory organs or passages, and can through them be filled with air. The pulmonary system has the widest distribution in the bird's body. The sacs, of which there are generally five large pairs, begin in the embryo of about eleven days to grow out as small vesicles from the surface of the lungs, as dilatations of branches of the bronchial tubes, pushing the peritoneal membranes before them, and gradually extending as enlarged sacs into the body cavity between the various intestines. Each sac has an inner layer, the continuation of the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, and an outer layer or serous membrane, which is the bulged-out pleura or peritoneal covering of the lung. Through contraction of these muscles the cells can be emptied of air. The five principal pairs of air-sacs are:
A prebronchial or cervical pair, situated in front of or "headwards" from the lungs and the

pulmonary system. They are subjected to many modifications. They form on each side a single sac in the Duck, which in the Fowls, Gulls, Gannets, and some others, communicates with the next pair. In the Stork, Flamingo, and Screamer each sac is elongated and divided into numerous smaller cells. Frequently these sacs extend far up the neck, even into the head, and small side branches may enter any of the neighbouring organs, such as the inside of the vertebrae, the carotid and vertebral canals, the cervical muscles, the cranial cavities, and others. Sometimes they form large inflatable sacs on the throat, as, for instance, in the Prairie-fowls.

 A pair of subbronchial or interclavicular sacs. They are united into one sac in Storks,

communicate with each other in Ducks, are subdivided into a number of smaller sacs in the Swan and in the Screamer: in Vultures they take the large crop between them. Lateral extensions accompany the large blood-vessels and form axillary cells penetrating ultimately the humerus and other bones of the wing; other secondary cells penetrate the large pectoral muscles (e.g. in Mycteria) or enter the body and the keel of the sternum.
3 and 4. A pair of anterior and posterior intermediate sacs, extending more or less far

into the abdominal cavity, covering chiefly the lower portions of the lungs and the liver, occasionally subdivided, being filled through several openings, at the external edge of the lungs, and sometimes continued into the lateral parts of the sternum.
A pair of abdominal sacs. These are the largest, extending with irregular subdivisions

between the intestines into the pelvis, and penetrating the femur together with the rest of the bones ofthe sacrum, and the legs. PATHOLOGY OF VERTEBRATES RESPIRATORY SYSTEM There are some pathology of vertebrates respiratory system, especially in human (class: Mammalia) such as: a. Hypoxia Hypoxia is situation where the cells lack of oxygen. The most sensitive organ that can infect by hypoxia is brain cells. There are 4 kinds of hypoxia, among others: Hypoxic hypoxia Hypoxic hypoxia can occur because the reduction of oxygen in arterial blood pressure. Anemic hypoxia Anemic hypoxia can occur because the body lacks of erythrocytes and hemoglobin. Ishemic hypoxia Ishemic hypoxia can occur because the disruption of blood circulation in tissues, although the oxygen pressure and hemoglobin levels in normal condition.

 Histotoxic hypoxia Histotoxic hypoxia can occur when the body's tissue cells exposed by toxins. b. Rhingitis Rhingitis is inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane with signs of swelling (edema), vasodilatation (widening of blood vessels) of mucous membranes. It causes by viruses, bacteria, and allergies. The symptoms of rhingitis are runny nose and nasal congestion, sneezing, itching of the nose, and eyes. c. Laryngitis Laryngitis causes by microorganism infection or cigarette smoke. The symptoms are voice hoarse because of swelling of the vocal cords. Smokers can be infected larynx cancer and chronic laryngitis. d. Bronchitis Bronchitis is bronchi inflammation or bronchiolus that occur in the mucosa and submucosa causing overproduction of mucus accompanied by exfoliation of dead cells and leukocytes expenditure. Bronchitis causes by bacterial infection after influenza was happened Symptoms: cough reflex to remove phlegm e. Influenza Influenza causes by myxovirus, a DNA virus (A, B and C Types). The symptoms of influenza are high fever (39.5 C), headache, stiff and lethargic. f. Bronchus carcinoma Bronchus carcinoma is derived from the bronchus epithelium cells. It causes by air pollution. The symptoms of bronchus carcinoma are chronic cough with phlegm, breath sounds are often due to blockage and infection of the lungs.