Annual

Report

1963

The International Rice Research Institute

Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

*
MAIl. ADDRESS AND (:1TY OfFICE ALlDHESS: CABLE

*
IRRI,

*
Ivhnib Hotel, 1>bnib

RICEFOUND

Annual

Report

1963

The International Rice Research Institute

Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

*
MAIl. ADDRESS AND (:1TY OfFICE ALlDHESS: CABLE

*
IRRI,

*
Ivhnib Hotel, 1>bnib

RICEFOUND

AultllNIS'I'RATION

BUILDING

LA BOR.\TQRY

BUILDING

Contents
Board of Trustees Introduction
.....
, ,

Personnel Director's . . . a . Varietal Improvement . Variety testing and development 14. Breeding methods techniques 18, Studies on lodging 22, Genetic studies 30. Plant Physiology " ,

Soil Chemistry , ' .. , , , . Chemical kinetics of flooded soils 61, Electro-chemistry of flood, soils 74, Ionic equilibria in flooded soils In, Water regime
flooded soils 83, Physiological diseases of rice 88.

Soil- Microbiology Agronomy

, , . . .. .

, '................

". ..,

Maximum yield experiment 91, Rotation crops and green manure 96, Fertilizers and their use 99, 'Weed control 100, Plantin methods 10<1.

Plant

Pathology

Rice blast 105, Virus diseases 113, Bacterial

,. diseases of rice 11

Entomology , " , , . Varietal resistance to the stem borer 120, Chemical control of sterr borers and other rice pests 128, Correlations between stem bore: infestations and yield 134, Agricultural Engineering ... ,., .... , ..... ,.... . ... , ...
Machinery and wet land rice production 1~\''5,lrrig:\tion water losses and use HI, Development of plant growth curves 141, Measurement of straw strength 145.

Experimental Chemistry

Farm

, .,.

,
1.'53.

"

Biochemistry

149, Cereal chemistry

Agricultural Economics Statistics .. , , Instruction 163, Studies

, , ,., , of statistical problems 165. .., ,

, .. , .. , . , .

Office of Communication "'" .. "... Library and Documentation Center Related Activities '"
175, Hegular

,
and special

Visiting scientists publicattons 178 InUrnational

. seminars 176, Staff

Activities . , , . Training program 180, Research fellows 186, International conferences IS7, Cooperative research 193, International travel 195,
.' "

r.1EMBERS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES at the annual meeting: (back row) Dr. Chandler, Prince Chakrabandhu, Dr. Mm;eman, Dr. Kihara, Dr. Shen; (front row) Secretary Gozen, Dr. Romula, Dr. Hill, Dr. Garda. Not present: Secretary Dam1e.

Board of Trustees
F. HILL (Chairman Vice-President The Ford Foundation united States
FOnl\EST

J.

G!lOnG': HAlU1AIJ' President The Rockefeller Foundation United States

HITOSlfI KiliAn"

I) irector- General D ep art rnent 0 f Agricu! t ure Thailand F. CHANPUR, Director The International Rice Philippines
ROBERT Jl'.

),'1. C. C~'."IO\A.8"N!.>HU

Director N ationa I Institute Japan

of Genetics

A. II.
Institute

MOSEMAN"

Research

Director Agricultural Science" The Rockefeller Foundation United State. P. RO~WLO President University of the Philippines Philippines
CAlJt.OS TSUNG-H"N SUEN

K. R. DAMLE Secretary to the Government :"'Iinistry of Mines and Fuel India

PAULINO

of India

Chairman National Science Philippines

BI':N' .... IN M

J.

GAlle!.,-

Development

Board

P.

CUION

Convener Agricultural Planntngand Coordinanon Ministry of Economic Affairs Republic of Cninn {Tniwan) Resources ReSigned J" n"(lrY, 1963 Elect~d Ja,luary, 1963

Committee

Secretary Department Philippi nes

of Agriculture

and Natural

Personnel
Administration
ROBERT F. CH.'NOLEIl~ JIl., Ph.D., Director S'J"EIU.ING WORTMAN, Ph.D., Associate Director rOSE D. DHunN, )R., B.A., B.U-I., Executive Officer FAUSTINO M. SALACOP, B.S.B.A" C.P.A., Assistant Treasurer IrOR B. SOLIOUM, Administrative Assistant ZOSIMO Q, P.lZARRO, LL.B., Administrative Assistant

Chemistry
TAKASJIl AKAZ,HYA, Ph.D., Biochemist ll'ENVeNJDO O. lUWANo, Ph,D., Associate Chemist LETIC'A R. MENDIOLA, M.S" Assistant Chemist GI.OI\JA B, CAGAMf'ANG, M.S., Research Assistant JOM~UIN C. LuCAY, B.S. Chern. Research Assistant (on leave) AUROIU C. REYES, 1\1,5" Research Assistant ESTEll L. ALIJANO, B.S. Chcm., Research Aide LOUI!OES J. CRUZ, B.S. Chern., Research Aide R£"EOJOS G, S""''TIAGO, B.S. Chem., Research Aide

Agricultural

Economics

VEIlNON W. RUTTAN, Ph.D., Agricultural Economistt

Plant Physiology
A"'M T~NA"A, D.Agr., Plant Ph~Siologist. BENITO S. VERGARA, Ph, D., ASSOCiate Plant PhySiologist CONSOLAC10K V. C,'RCI,\, B.S. Chem., Research Assistant SYI..\·IA A, N,,,,.~sl:;I<O, B.S. Chern .• Research Assistant ROI)EIIT<'l A. LILlo, B.S.A" Besearch Aide FI'ANC(~CO T. PARAO, B.S.A., Research Aide EMERITO A. R.~MIREZ, B.S.A., Research Aide

Ag;ricultural Engineering
lOHN~oN, M.S., Agricultural Engineer M. H. DEBHlllUBI D.Ev .. xur., Vis:H"~ Scientist v EMiLiO O. CAS EM, 1\1.5., Assistant Agricultural Engineer ANTERO S. 1\'[ANALO. B.S.A., Research Aide FELICIANO D. ]AI,OTJOT, Draftsman
LOYD
0

Soil Chemist T,uIES C. MOOMAW, Ph.D., Agronomist I.'N C. MACRAE, Ph.D., Microbiologist toSHIRO SHIM.HAKl, Ph.D., Visiting Sctcntist+ EDWARD H. TYNER, Ph.D., Visiting Scientist" ELLIS F. WALLmAN, Ph.D., Visiting Scientist" ELENA M, BAUTISTA, B.S.A., Research Assistant RUBY U. CAS1'IIO, B.S. Chern" Research Assistant RUBEN 5, DAYllIT, B.S.A., Research Assistant ADIl:LINAC. ]AVIEH, B.S. Chem., Research Assistant ESTRELLA G. ~l"RT'NEZ, B.S. Chern., Research AilSistaot ELSA P. ReyES, B.s. Chem, Research Assistant RHonA T. SORIANO, B.S. Chern., Research Assistant ANTONIO C. TiANCO, B.S. Chem., Research Assistant EMM.ANUEL T. FLOR£SCA, B.S.A., Research Aide LEANDRO N. Lucxs, B.S.A., Research Aide VmclLIO P. NOVEllO, B.S.A" Research Aide

fELIX N. PONNAMPF:RUMA, Ph.D.,

Agronomy and Soils

Plant Protection
SHu-HuANC Ou, Ph.D., Plant Pathologist ~IANO D. PATHAK, Ph.D., Entomologist Ct;l.ESTINO T. R'YE""., M.S., Assistant Virol<"gi<;t FAUSTO L. NUQUE, M,S., Research Assistant AIIMAGEJ){}N A. ALABANZA, B.S.A., Research Assistant F."USTO L. AN(JRES, B.S.A., Research Assistant TOMAS D. CAOAT,\L, B,S,A" Research Assistant Pruscn.r.x T, CHINTE, B.S,A., Research Assistant j ATrVIOAD G. GALACCAC, B.S.A., Research Assistant ELYMAf. V. VEA, B.S.A., Research Assistant SONIA T. POIlI..En:, B.S.\II, Tech., Laboratory Aide • Left d'-'ring year

Arrived

during

year

FREQUENT MEETINGS OF THE SENIOR STAFF on research and related activities. Around the table Mr. Johnson, Dr. Vergara, Dr. Tanaka, Mr. Ramos, MacRae, Dr. Byrnes, Mr. Beachell, Dr. Akazawa, Or. Dr. Chandler. and Dr. Wortman. Not present: Dr.

facilitate inter-departmental coordination (left to right), Miss Manalo, Dr. Jennings, Dr. Ou, Dr. Ruttan, Dr. Ponnamperuma, Dr. Oiiate, Dr. Pathak, Mr. Salacup, Mr. Drflon, Chang, Dr. Juliano, Dr. Moomaw.

Varietal Improvement
·PETE.fI R JE1\":<I~GS, Ph.D" Plant I3rrrdcr ,fitN1W M, BEACIIHL, M.S., Plant I3rccclcr ;fli- Tl;U Cn"Nc, PhD, Geneticist ~h;IIL1.!"'" T HENO!;RSON, Ph.D; Visiting Scientist"

Library and Documentation

..... 1.I"A

Center

D, ~I"NJ\LO, ~!'S" S':HEi'iA R. !\LBAUlDEJO, Librarian

PlllSCILLA
E>TELA

Librarian

n.s,L.s.,

Order

A, n"!'<DENAS, n,S.A" Assistant Taxonomist RlZAL M. HEI\HERA, n.S.A., Research Assistant ROOOLFO C. AQUINO, n.S.A., Hesearch Aide JOSE C. DE [esus, n.S.A., Research Aide GENOVEVA C. LOilESTO, 13.5,1\., HCSCHrch Aide OSCAR O. T.-r:uMPAY, B,S.A., Bcscareh Aide
EUSEO

)1,,1. BAUTISTA, B.S.L.S., Indexer A. Lor-cz, B.S,L.S., Circulation Librarian GLOB!A S, q~l!los, A,B" B.S.L,S, Catalog

Lihrnrtan
(0<1

MIL,'CIlOS

C. leave)

Z"~IORA,

A,B"

Dibliog'raphcr

]UKY!J CHO, Ph.D" ETSUKO TAKEYOSIH,

Translator (in Japan) ,'\ssj,t"nt Translator Binder

(in Japan)

Experimental
/FEDElilCO OnLANDO

Farm

GREG01UO A,

All0ALES,

RAMO~, M,S., Field Superintendent U. SANTOS, B.S,A., Assistant Field 5 11 peri n te ndent [UAN M. LAPIZ, B,S,A" Foreman t:USTACIO U. RAMlllEZ, B.S.A., Foreman

v.

Food and Dormitory

lhmEccA
NENITA E~IrLlA IRENE

Services
Assistant Matron Tech.,

C. Pxscuxr., M.S., Mdnager

C, ESCUEI\R.~, A.

B.S.II.E"

Manager Food Supervisor ESTEll P. NO\lElIO, B.S, Home Teoh., Food Supervisor . Auno,u. T. VEI\CARA, B.S. Home Tech" Food Supervisor TOSEFlNA K. V n LE.C.'s, B.S. Home Teeh., Food .. Supervisor
MARCIAt>A V. CUYI';O, PRIMO

Office of Communication
,FRANCIs

C.

AQUINO, E,T.C., Matron DIAZ, D.S.H.E., Assistant

B.S.

Horne

C. BYRNES, Specialist t

Ph.D.,

Communication

CoflAZON V. MENDOZA., Litt. B., Editorial ASSistant UI1.11ITO T. ONGLEO, B.S.A., Photographer
MNULFO Ell ITO

C. DEL ROSARfO, S. R U F() N, Pri nter-

FELICIANO

1-

a ffset

TOYHA.cAo,

B.S.A., Artist-Illustrator Operator Assistant Photographer

D.

RU-WN,

Chef

Statistics
-tJUlITON T. ONATE, Ph,D" Statistician F'WI1.ENC!O 1\, A1l!cA, B,S., Econ, Statistical
FAlltM"

Building
HERUE1'>EGILDO

ami Grounds

Aide

G.

ESl'\!UTU,

B.S.A., Statistical

Aide

• Left dUling rear

Arrived

dun "i! year

C. NAVA[OIlO, ~I,E" Superintendent of Property ENflIQt;E V. DIZON, B.S. Arch, Building Superintendent R'ZAi..l)o10 1'. D'LAC, [a., B.S.A" Grounds Superintendent

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THIS 16-ROOM WOMEN'S DORMITORY, completed assistants, and members of the clerical staff.
(i

ill 1963, houses

rcseurch

scholars,

research

FIELD CREW PREPARES QUARTER HECTARE PI.OTS for the maximum yield and long-term rotation experiments in the area opposite Institute headquarters.

Director's Introd uction

This report for 1963 reviews the results obtained since the 1961-62 report went to press in late 1962. Specific research programs present the detailed data, but this introduction will outline a few general interpretations and conclusions to emphasize some of the Institute's contributions toward an understanding of the factors influencing the yield of rice in the tropics. Average rice yields in most tropical ricegrowing countries range from 1,000 to 2,000 kilograms per hectare. Even experimental fields, where presumably the best available varieties and cultural practices arc used, often' yield only 2,500 to 3,500 kilograms per hectare. As compared with yields in many temperate zone countries, these values are- exceptionally low. For example, the FAO Rice Report for 1963 gtves average ric(' yields for 1961-62 in kilograms pel' hectare as follows: Japan, 4,700; United Arab Republic, 5,050; Spain, 6,360, and Australia, 6,630. Experimental fields and selected individual farms, in these same couutrics, frequently report 7 yields grams ranging from per hectare. 8,000 to 10,000 kiloInstitute Scientists, fully aware of the low averl1ge yields in the tropics, direct the bulk of their research toward gaining an understanding of why productivity is low and of how it can be increased. Although such factors as poor weed, insect, and disease control, unsatisfactory cultural methods, and poor soil management practices influence the low productivity, it appe(1TS that the most important single factor is the lack of varieties of rice that are adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of most tropical countries. Specifically, the typical indica rice varieties grown in the tropics are- tall, heavytillering, photoperiod sensitive, and latemutunug. They are susceptible to severe l(Jd~ing when even moderate amounts Ilitro~enolls fertilizers are applied. Although it will require several years to_ develop satisfactory varieties, Iustiture=" plant breeders have undertaken a comprehens.ve hrf'cdillg program designed to

0:'"'

A JAPONICA VAmETY FROM TAIWAN (right) and a tropical indica var iety (left), transplanted at the same time, show many differences as Ihey near maturity. Note the late maturity and suscepti.bility of lodging of the indica.

produce varieties that will be short, stiffstrawed, non-lodging, responsive to nitrogen, early maturing, non-photoperiod sellsitive, and disease resistant. In addition, these new varieties must have the eat.ing and cooking characteristics that rice-eating people of southeast Asia prefer. It seems evident from experience at the Institute and elsewhere that a breeding program can produce this type of rice plant and that the capacity of such a plant to produce grain can exceed that of many varieties now grown in the tropics. The higher rice yields recorded in the various tables and graphs in this report range from 6,000 to more than 8,000 kilograms per hectare. This performance demonstrates that high yields are possible in the tropics. In all instances, these high yields were obtained on plots where either the rice did not lodge at all, or where it did not lodge until just before the grain reached maturity. The absence of lodging resulted either from the fact that a short, stiff-strawed, early-maturing variety (such as one of the ponlai. varieties) was used, or from the fact that the rice was grown during the dry season when the tillering rate and height grmvth were retarded,

even though these same varieties lodged severely when grown in the rainy season. The promising results obtained by the use of systemic insecticides for the control of the rice stem borer deserves mention. If later results confirm the earlier findings that a single application of a systemic insecticide placed in the irrigation water will control the rice stem borer as satisbctorily as 10 foliar applications of certain other types of insecticides, surely a real economic advantage would result. The important fact is that, in several instances, the application of either foliar sprays Of systemic insecticides increased the yield in excess of 2 metric tons per hectare. The rice blast disease is ubiquitous, being present to some degree in all riceproducing regions of the world. During recent years it has become more prevalent, and new physiologtcal races have developed or at least have been identified. The Institute has accepted the respon· sibility of leading an international projecl to establish in 15 or more countries som€ 40 Uniform Rice l3last Disease Test Nurseries to identify sources of blast resistance and to develop an international set of dif.

ferential varieties for tilt: identification and classification of the physiological races in different countries. This project continues and expands the FAD Uniform Blast Nursery project. The Institute's thorough investigation of 'the chemistry of flooded soils merits attention. The dynamic nature of flooded soils is well demonstrated bv the fact that such properties as pH and the contents of ferrous iron, manganese, and ammonia change markedly wheu a soil is either flooded or drained. The reasons for the better growth of rice on flooded soils, as compared to its growth on non-flooded soils, have become clearer as a result of these investigations. The fact that the protein content of polished rice varies more than 100 percent from the lowest to the highest values may be of real importance from the standpoint of the nutrition of the rice-e'lting peoples of the world. During the next few year>, the Institute scientists hope they can determine more specifically the reasons for the high protein content of various samples and can demonstrate how high levels can be consistently obtained.
GENETICS SYMPOSIUM PARTICIPANTS T. Tateoka, W. T. Chang, S. Wortman, I. Oka, T. Morinaga, and M, Takahashi.

If the Institute's program is to have an impact throughout the rice-growing regions of the world, the results of this program must be tested in many other localities. Furthermore, it is hoped that the research duta nud the discussions presented in the annual rcport and other documents will stimulate other countries to place grcater emphasis on rice research than has been true in the past. The Job is too big to be done by one agency. The international program of the Institute has as its main objective the dissemination of ideas and materials. The research scholars in training at the Institute will carry new thoughts and, hopefully, new vigor to already existing programs on their return to (heir countries. The international symposia bring the working scientists together for a thorough review of existing knowledge in a given field of specialty and the exchange of ideas on a person-to-person basis. The cooperative research projects that the Institute has inaugurated throughout southeast Asia serve to determine whether practices that have proved successful at Los Banos can be employed in other localities.
the rice blast disease nursery (left to right): E. Jodon, K. Ramiah, N. Parthasarathy, H.

n. W. u.: N.

ins(lecl

THE SOIL CHEMIST EXPLAINS the greenhouse study of flooded soils to the Institute trustees. The Institute's total research effort encompasses all phases that appear to have any significant bearing on rice production. With such a comprehensive and well-integrated program, the Institute is confident that during the next few years it will make truly significant contributions to the understanding of those factors which affect rice yield and quality under tropical conditions.
THE merit Board of the Philippines, also reSigned as a trustee of the Institute. Dr. Carcia was succeeded by Dr. Juan Sulcedo, Jr., the newly appointed chairman of the National Science Developmont Board. In January, 1963, Dr. J. C. Harrar, the president of The Rockefeller Foundation, f(lund it necessary to resign as a trustee of the Institute, and Dr. Albert H. Moseman, the director for the agricultural sciences, was appointed to represent the Foundation. At the January meeting of the Board of Trustees, Dr. F. F. Hill, the Ford Foundation representative, was elected as chairman of the Board, a post that Dr. Harrar had held since the Institute was founded. THE BUILDlN"C PROGRAM

Tnusrzzs
of three

of the expired in late 1963, and their replacements were elected by mail ballot. The retiring members are Dr. Hiroshi Kihara of Japan, Dr. K. R. Damle of India, and Prince Chakrabandhu of Thailand. The newly elected members are Dr. Yoshiaki Ishizuka, professor of soils and plant nutrition, Hokkaido University; Mr. P. N. Thapar, vice chancellor of Punjab Agricultural University, India; and Mr. Ahsan ud-Din, a Pakistani who is now serving as regional representative of FAD in Asia, with headquarters in Thailand. Dr. Paulino J. Carcia, who resi_gnl!u as chairman of the National Science DevelopThe terms of service

trustees

of the I nstitute

The Institute's construction projects completed during 1963 include a women's dormitory with a capacity of 32, four new greenhouses, a cistern for collecting rainwater for the water deionizers in the Inboratory and the greenhouse, a machinery storage shed, and one add itiona I staff residence,
10

NEW

STAFF

MEMBERS

Four new senior staff members were added in 1963. Dr. Francis C. Byrnes arrived in March to assume responsibility for the Institute's communication program. Dr. Vernon \'V. Ruttan came in May and is developing the research program in agricultural economics. Dr. Tan C. MacRae arrived in July to conduct research in soil microbiology, and Mr. Henry M. Beachell came in October to augment the rnstitute's staff in plant breeding.
FINANCIAL SUPPORT

The financial support of the Institute continued to come largely from The Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford 'Foundation. The Rockefeller Foundation contributed $515,000 toward the operating costs of the Institute and, in addition, supplied the services of seven staff members and their travel and perquisites at an estimated annual cost of $300,000. The Ford Foundation provided $360,000 for capital needs to complete the physical plant and for the purchase of additional scientific equipment. The second year of the Institute's inter-

national program (training of research scholars, symposia, and cooperative re- .. gioll<ll research) "vas financed from the original 3-year grant of $750,000 from the Ford Foundation. This grant is being .. used at the rate of approximately $250,000 annually. In early 1963, the Institute received a grant of 1'103,440 (payable over a 3-year period) from the National Science Development Board of the Philippines toward the cost of investigating the virus diseases of rice. Of the 1'54,480 received this year, 1'30,000 was applied toward the construction of the new greenhollses. The Institute received a $5,000 grant from the Foundation for International Potash Research (with headq ua rters ill Los Gatos, California), and one from the International Potash Institute (Beme, Switzerland) fo[$2,500, as contributions toward the cost of an international symposium on the mineral nutrition of the rice plant to be held at the Institute in February, 1964: The Institute is seeking additional sources of financial support and has disem sed possible projects with various agenCies.

FIELD

CREW APPLIES

HERBIClDE

to experimental

plots.

ONE

OF

THE

STATE VI5ITORS the year, Princess of the N ether land t he Institute gues

Visrrons
The Institute has attracted world-wide interest, and several visitors from abroad come to the Institute each week for visits fllnging from a few hours to several &lY5. These include administrators of scientific and educational institutions in various foreign countries, ministers and directors of Hgricullure, and many scientists.

TO J"'STITUTE

The Institute has been honore :II state visitors who have been of the Government of the Included among these have be Beatrix of the Netherlands, th, Queen of Thailand, the Preside co, the Vice-President of China, and the Prime Minister

PRESIDENT ADOI ..FO LOPEZ MATEOS, Mexico ment officials, meets the Institute director. 12

(center),

accompanied

by Phil

,..
1':!~:-

--

RESEARCH SCHOLARS FROM THAILAND AND CAMBODIA ulations. The men's dormitory is in the background.

select

panicles

from hybrid

pop-

Varietal Improvement
There is an urgent need to develop irnproved rice varieties for most of the. tropical and sub-tropical rice-producing areas of the world. Most of the presently available varieties are excessively tall and are susceptible to lodging. Many are latc maturing, and their grain yields often are disappointing when fertilizers are applied. While such varieties are capable of producing moderate yields during the wet season on soils of low fertility, they respond to nitrogenous fertilizers with an excessive vegetative growth. This results in lodging, decreased light penetration to the lower leaves, and a limited increase or even a decrease in grain yield. As increased rice production per unit area will require increased use of fertilizers, it is necessary that new varieties have short, stiff straw to minimize lodging. Iteshtance to the blast disease is becoming illcfe.'l.singlyimportant. Earliness and in13

sensitivity to day-length are required if two or three crops per year are to become a reality. Moderate seed dormancy is obviously required for the humid tropics. NE.w varieties must effictcntly utilize applied nitrogen to produce grain rather than vegetative growth. Finally, the new varieties must possess grain types and cooking characteristics acceptable to the public. There is considerable circumstantial and some direct evidence that certain plant morphological traits condition yielding ahility in rice and that these traits are particularly important in the low-light, hig)l temperature environment of the. tropics. Based upon available evidence, the selection criteria followed are; Short, narrow, erect, thick, dark-green leaves, and short, slender stems. These characteristics increase ligll t penetration an d utilizati on as well as reduce respiration losses, and they ultimately lead to lodging resistance, fertilizer responsiveness, and hic;h yield.

of the japonica varieties from or other temperate zone areas possess an excellent plant habit, but they usually are quite sensitive to temperature and/or length of day, have little or no seed dormancy, and have grain characteristics which are not popular in tropical Asia. The iaponicas (pon/ais) from Taiwan typically have the desired plant characteristics, earliness, and insensitiv ity to photoperiod. They produce excellent yields in the Philippines, but their grain quality is considered undesirable in most parts of Asia, they lack seed dormancy, and they are difficult to thresh. In general, the

Most

[apan

indica varieties of the tropics possess all undesirable plant habit and are late in maturity, but they possess the grain quality desired, have the needed seed dormancy, and some are resistant to diseases troublesome in humid areas. The Institute's varietal improvement program is designed (a) to identify, or to develop by hybridization, varieties showing improvement in the desired characteristics, (b) to develop improved rice breeding methods and techniques, (c) to develop information on lodging, and (J) to acqUire genetic information of value to rice breeding.

V ARLETY

TESTING AND DEVELOPMENT

World Collection of Variet.ies

An additional 2,563 cultivated varieties were received during the year, increasing the collection total to 9,430. Classification and long-term seed storage of each accession are being accomplished at the rate of approximately 2,000 varieties per year. During the year, the Institute shipped 2.,2.96 seed lots from this collection to 26 institutions in 17 countries. This collection, by several times the largest in existence, represents most of the variability existing in all of the riceproducing areas of the world. The further collection of glutinous varieties has been initiated in Thailand through a cooperative project with the Rice Department, Bangkok. During the year, 436 strains of Or!JM species and 127 mutants and testers were received, bringing. the total number of genetiC stocks to 1,194. Following acquisition, the various strains were grown for observation and seed increase. Each strain was re-identified, based on morphological characters, to insure appropriate deSignation, In the case of Orip» species, cytological determination of somatic chromosome numbers was often used as all ad14

ditional classification tool. Herbarium specimens were collected from each of the reidentified entries. the five strains of O. punctate ex Steud, received, all five were tetraploid forms. This observation is useful in distinguishing O. pimctata from the diploid O. 0ffir:innUs Wall. ex Watt which has similar characteristics. The somatic chromosome number of O. longiglwllis Jansen was found to be 24. This was not known previously. Among

Kotschy

the same period, 155 lots of seed of testers and species were sent to seven re{lU(:'sting institutions in five countries, A botanical garden was set up adjacent to the Plant Experimentation Center to display the 27 species and subspecies of Oryza which represent the principal taxa of the genus.

During

and 19 cuttings

Varietal

Testing

During the year, the Institute's world collection of varieties W:lS continuouslj searched for the must promising material hnd 669 selected varieties were observed at two nitrogen levels. A second plantiDJ of 480 of the best of these is underway testing and discarding will continue unti

superior material remains. These will form toe nucleus of parental materia J for by bridiza tion or for possible direct commercial use.

only

varieties

Eighty standard commercial varieties from Asia and the United States, including 19 Taiwan japonicas, were tested for two seasons in replicated yield trials. None of the indica varieties was superior in yield to Peta, a well-known indica from the Philippines. The earlier-maturing japollica group yielded better than the indices, and a few were superior or equal to Peta in yield. A duplicate set of 60 indica varieties was planted at the Chiayi Agricultural Experiment Station, Taiwan (23° 27' lat. N) in May, 1962. In each trial, two local varieties were added as checks - Chianan 8, a japonica, and Chin-gou-tsin, an indica. Most of the varieties from tropical Asia were late maturing. Thirty-one of these varieties were harvested in November and

December, HJ62, six others matured in In!!uary, 1963. TIl(: seed set in rhesc varieties "vas generally poor became of low temperatures in November, December, and [anuary. Hence, none of th.!' souehenst Asian varieties exceeded Taiwan's Chin-gou-tsm in grain yield. The yield of Chianan 8 in these trials also was lew, because of unfavorable competiticn with the tall and lodging indica» grown next to it.

Development of Improved Varieties

In May, 1963, approximately 10,000 st'edlings of each of 29 F, populations of indica and indica x ;aponica crosses were subjected to a severe blast epidemic in nursery beds, and about 5,000 resistant seedling, of each cross were transplanted to form F, bulks. A modified bulk breeding method, in which obviously undesirable plants ;;J.[.(' removed from the bulb and the better plan ts n re hn rvested, is followed.

;&Jitday visitor.s.

,'JiP.),!:

:~STITUTE

PLANT BREgDEn

stresses

need for improved

rice varieties

in session

with

15

PLANT BREEDERS GROW PARENT VARIETIES for hybridi~ation

in this screen house.

Eighteen backcross F l populations of about 75 plants each, in which the recurrent parent has stiff straw, are being grown. Short stature and erect leaf types <ire being selected to form F" bulks. Six sirnilar populations, differing in that the l't'current parent is an adapted but tall, weak-strawed variety, were produced for comparison of reciprocal parentage on appearance of desirable phenotypes in segregating generations.

Partial Sterility ill Indica x [aponica Hybrids

Although the partial sterility that is characteristic of intervarieral hybrids between indica and ;aponica races has been the subject of a great deal of research, there are still several issues which lack critical evidence. This project is designed to provide information relating specifically to the following problems. a. The relationship between percentage 16

of stainable pollen and percentage of florets setting seed in partially sterile hybrids. b. The role of cytoplasm in inter-varietal hybrid sterility. c. The influence of difference. in dates of flowering on degree of sterility. d. The relative frequency in which sterility occurs among hybrids of different indica and iaponi.ca parents. e. The genetic behavior of a group of crosses which differ greatly in degree of sterility in the F, generation. f. The effect of sterility on the abilitv to bring desirable characters from separate parents into combination in a breeding program. g. The effect of sterility on the ability to obtain strains which have higher yielding capacity than either of the parents involved. The parental material consists of 13 indica and 14 japonica varieties. Most of the parents are strictly representative of

the race under which they are classified. However, a few are known to possess some germ plasm from a race other than the one in which they are classified. Crosses and reciprocals involving each of the indica parents with each of the iaponica parents, a total of 182 different hybrid combinations or 364 crosses includi~g reciprocals, were made. From to 20 F \ plants were grown of each hybrid combination excepting a few in which fewer F, seeds were obtained. Material for pollen grain studies and for seed set has been harvested from the main culm of each F hybrid plant, and fertility counts are underway.

is

had reached the wilting point (20 percent). Water was withheld for another 48 hours (18 percent soil moisture) and then applied to the pot. Rice varieties showed varying degrees of injury, mainly in the death of older leaves and the apex of younger leaves. The drouth-resistant varieties would recover within 24 hours. In susceptible ones, the whole plant might succumb, a few tillers would die or the plant would not produce panicles. Thus, a range of plant reactions to drouth can be recorded. The 75 test varieties distributed as follows;
Group Upland Lowland Rating 1 1 2

Upland vs. Lowland Varieties

The distinction between "upland" and "lowland" rice is not well understood. In the tropical areas, upland rice generalIy is directly planted in fields that cannot be irrigated because of altitude or lack of water-retaining levees. In the Philippines, much of the so-called upland rice grows and matures within the span of the rainy season. Upland varieties generally are described as short-grOWing varieties which give satisfactory yield under the above cultural practice as compared to that of lowland varieties under the same management. Drouth resistance often is mentioned as one of the objectives in the breeding .,of upland rice. To compare the drouth resistance of up~ land varieties with that of lowland varieties; 61 varieties of the so-called upland types from China, Japan, Philippines, and Thailand were tested alongside 14 lowland varieties of tropical origin. Replicated groups of plants were grown in clay pots together with iHimo$(I, pudica L. plants during March-May. WIlen the rice seedlings had reached the tillering stage, the addition of water was stopped until the Mimosa plants ceased to respond to external mechanical stimuli. At this point, the water content of Maahns ...bv in the pots 17

(sl.ig1!t - serious)
2 4 1 3,4 8 1 2 3

of drouth

damage 5 30 2 6 (dead) 17 4

Actually, the lowland varieties Peta and Bir-me-fen were as drouth-resistant as the most resistant entry of the so-called upland group, N.A.R.B. There was a wide range of variation in drouth resistance in both groups. A higher proportion of the upland varieties fell under the susceptible category (class 5 and 6). Thus, drouth resistance was not necessarily correlated with the cultural classification of rice
varieties.

The effect of cultural practices upon the growth characteristics of the above varieties was studied under upland and lowland field conditions. The maturity and leaf number of both groups were least affected by cultural practices, whereas tiller number and panicle weight were most markedly influenced by cultural differences. The weight of lOO-grain samples showed an intermediate range of variation. With three exceptions, upland and lowland varieties alike had higher tiller numbers and gave higher grain yields under lowland culture. When values £01" tiller number and grain yield were plotted against the rating for drouth resistance, the scatter distribution patterns indicated

a lack of association between drouth resistance and the decline or increase in gruwth resulting from the cultural practice. However, within the lowland grollp, all entries produced lower tiller numbers aud grain yield when grown under upland conditions. This experiment demonstrates a lack of association of drouth resistance with cul-

tural classification of varieties or with relative changes in vegetative and reproductive growth because of cultural differences. It also points to the need for a better understanding of the growth behavior associated with adaptability for upland culture before breeding objectives and precedures for the improvement of upland varieties can be formulated.

BnEEDING

~IIETHODS

A!\,D TECHNIQUES

Floret Emasculation Studies

Any of the commonly used techniques of floret emasculation are satisfactory when few crossed seeds arc needed. Each, however, is unsatisfactory for the large numbers of hybridizations required for back-cross breeding and certain special studies. A modified clipping method has been developed in which florets are clipped in the afternoon below the anthers. Florets are reclipped immediately or the foJlowing morning to remove filaments and to allow pollination by shaking panicles of the pollen parent over the clipped florets. An extremely large number of crosses involving parents of widely varying grain sizes was made to test the effectiveness of the method (Table 1). The overall seed set of 38.63 percent is excellent and compares favorably with published results from other emasculation techniques. All crosses were made during the hot, dry period of February-April when the expected seed set is low. The crosses involving Japanese varieties showed lower seed
Table 1. Results of floret dipping studies, Seeds set
(~l

set because the varieties were stunted by the short photoperiods and high tempera. ture, and their panicles were small and partially sterile. All results were obtained from panicles averaging 52 clipped florets, this large number likely interfered with the pollination of the lower florets by dusting. Consequently, fewer florets per panicle, use of normally fertile parents, and crossing during more humid periods would likely improve the results. The time required to clip, redip, and pollinate a panicle of 50 florets is approxi. mately 11 minutes. This is faster by three to six times than any other technique known. Of even greater appeal is the ability to emasculate florets in afternoons, reclip at once and use the entire period of blooming for pollinations. Emasculation by hot water or air requires pollination immediately after emasculation before florets close and, thus severely limits the number of crosses possible during the blooming period. The F', seeds developed from this technique are poorly formed because of lemma and palea removal. Seeds were surface sterilized, germinated, held in fJat.'i for 2 weeks, and transplanted. From 7,5.55 F, seeds sown, 7,141 F, seedlings were obtained. The extremely high perccntage ( about 94 percent) of F, plants from sown seeds eliminates any objection to the appearance of the F 1 seed.

Crass

Florets ,.]ipped

Seeds set 2,.569 5,086 3.134 6.649 17.438

indica x Jnpnn i"l'o11 iC<1 9,407 indica x Taiwan japonica 12,414 Japan [aponica x irrdiC(J 9.961 Taiwan ;apon1ca x ;ndic~ 13.360 Total. 45,142

27.31 40.97 31.46 49.77 38.63

About 5 percent of the F, plant resulted from self-pollinations, This amount is unusually high but can be reduced by further practice in clipping closer to the stigma and by practicing recJipping in the afternoon rather than in the early morning.

Table

2. The data indicate that heating at 50°C for 4-5 days effectively breaks dor- ~

Breaking Dormancy in Rice Seer!

Seed dormancy in rice is considered a valuable trait, particularly in tropical areas where rains frequently occur during the harvesting period. Non-dormant or par" tiaily dormant grain often germinates in situ under such conditions and especially when the crop lodges into standing water. Two plantings per year of experimental rice material arc common in tropical breeding programs, and the available time between harvest and sowing is frequently insufficient to allow dormancy to disappear naturally. If rice is transplanted, freshly harvested seed is sown in nursery beds. Dormant seed remains in the beds and only the less desirable non-dormant seed is transplanted. Unless segregating hybrid material is treated to break dormancy, dormant phenotypes will be lost. To satisfy the need for a rapid, safe, non-liquid technique for breaking dormancy, the effectiveness of heat treatment was investigated. Typical results arc in

mancy in Peta. Seed exposed directly to heat is not injured, but seed sealed to prevent loss of mnisture content is killed at ~ the longer heating periods. To further lest the results, a group of 27 indica varieties, varying in grain size and country of origin, were treated at 49°C for 4 days (Table 3) .. The heat treatment successfully broke dormancy in most of the 27 varieties. Five varieties, however, germinated under 50 percent after treatment, aud dormancy in the variety Seraup 27 was only slightly broken. Three nondonnant varieties, which germinated normally after treatment, were identified. Since Sernup 27 seemed not to respond to treatments effective for other varieties, it was treated for longer periods of time at higher temperatures (Table 4). The data show that dormancy can be broken and that loss of dormancy is more a function of length of time of treatment than of temperatures used. Nine or ten days of treatmentwere most effective, and 50°C was superior to higher temperatures. No loss of viability was noted even after 10 days at 65"C. These and other results indicate that treatment at 50°C for 4-5 days breaks dormancy in nearly all varieties. More inof the. variety

Table 2. Percentage of germination .of exposed and sealed seed Peta following heati ng at 48, 50, and 52'C for 2 to 6 days. Days Treated 48"C Exposcdt Scaled2 Exposed (Percentage 2 50'C Sealed of Germination) Exposed

5.2"C Scaled

Untreated Check

s
6

<I

1l 11 19
47 7!l

Mean germination
~

1G 61 7S 77 79 7.~

82

13 18 80 8.5 80

16 79
80

fill

11 50
71

14 81 86 87 78

16 79 21 35
4

38 36 3S 33 36 36

69

43
we-e

E:iJ2.ied:_ SClI!:d ~1.[i,1:;od _in seed en velop~ ln tile .ineub.ci.tl)'''B. Moi.ature contents t ~Jed _percent (not .mea!!urabl@ l !OIlClWITl~ nil tlme-t.er:-pcr~torc t.r:otmel1l:J1. ta: ' ,- Seed plnced In envelones {nslrle =:!C'8Ied b.atter-y HU".'"i! In the trU;:lJb8tO'l:"~. ra:ts.COl'!.te:nu. ranged betw~n II .46 - :;,U'Ht ] 2..6'2 pereeat rollowtne aU ttme-tcmpcrurure

,
MOISw

treat.

19

"fable J. Percentage germination of seed of 27 rice varieties heated for 4 days at 49° C.
Pe ret' n t Variety Un treated Ge."m i na 'Let!

s .. u

Tr-e-aled
S<>Od

Sera up 27 Milbuen 5 (3)

CO 29
Mayang Ebos 80 H-6 Tjere mas Tangkai Rotan Tam Vuot Siam 29
II!':-;}

Malaya Philippines India Malay; .. Ceylon Philippines Malaya Vietnam Malaya Philippines Ceylon Thailand" Malaya Philippines Vietnam \ Vietnam Philippines India Mnlaya Philippines Philippines Vietnam Taiwan Taiwan Taiwan Ceylon India

7
I

7 22 26

uf unsatislastory germination were noted in more than 25.000 seedbed rows. The technique is effective, rapid, convenient, and involves little danger to viability or dormancy breakage even if temperatures should rise as high as 65°C. Natural Selection Populations in Bulk

9
7 7 10

32 46 56 72
72 77 90 81

11
11 13

1-1-105
Leuang Rahaeng Reyong 6 Peta LuaThuoc 0 Tre Rarniuad SIr. J

15
16

74
71

21
21

85
86

22
23

SLO 15
Serendah Kuning FK-J65 FB-IZI Trang Doc Taipei woo-co Wcc-gen I-geo-tze H·5 MTU 15

27 27 29 32 33 54 54 89 95 95

95 98 75 87 93
76 !:I9

7.1 87 73 95 98

tensely dormant varieties require treatment for 7-10 days. Seed must be treated in open or paper containers to permit rapid loss of moisture content and to avoid injury from the heat treatment, This technique has been thoroughly tested with thousands of coin envelopes containing varietal and segregating seed. No instances
Table 4. Percentage temperatures, Fernperature

The bulk breeding method is not being used in many indica improvement programs despite its several advantages of economy, easy management, requirement of minimum labor in initial stages, and a minimum of record keeping. The bulk method operates on the principle of natural selection through competition. But, is yielding ability equated with competitive' ability? It is suspected that desired types having short, stiff culms and small, erect leaves may not compete effectively against the lower yielding, tall, lodging types ha\'ing large, drooping leaves. To tcst the suspicion that yielding ability is not equated with competitive ability, a long-term experiment is underway. Five llighly contrasting varieties were mixed in equal numbers to form fout initial bulks of 5,000 plants each. Two of these bulks were planted at high and low nitrogen levels during the rainy season and the other two under the same conditions during the dry season. Each bulk will be kept separated from the others and will be planted for several seasons under the same environmental conditions. Composition of the bulks will be traced by identifying each surviving plant during
at four

of germi nation of Seraup 27 after 2·10 duys heahllg

~·C
50

2 31
26
16

3 27
22

4 43 3~
21

5 .'>0 4g

Days treated
6

7 fig ~!l

8
70

9 S3
6!)

10 114

Mean ~enuination 58
4!)

55
60 65 Chcrk

20
17

19

.15

36 44

67 52 ~3 54

62
63 66

50
61

74 77

74 80 72 10

45
50

20

flowering. The varietal composition of each bulk will measure competitive ability. Concurrent yield trials of the five varieties at the two nitrogen levels will determine yielding ability, Thus, these 1:\"10 sets of data should indicate the relationship between competition and yield as influenced by nitrogen and season variables.

planted. Conversely, it is of interest to know if varieties which yield wel! when transplanted can also be expected to perform well if directly seeded. Twelve varieties differing in type, tillering ability, and. adaptability to planting methods were compared at two densities for both direct seeding and transplanting during the dry and wet seasons. Should yielding ability be similar, then varieties bred under transplanting conditions likely would perform satisfactorily when directly seeded. Data for the dry season, 19621963,. are in Table 5. As shown, no significant differences in yield were associated with the seeding densities or with .the direct planting and

Varietal Pedormance: Direct Seeding and. Transplanting

Under some circumstances, it would be convenient to direct seed breeding material even though the varieties to be developed are intended to be used for transplanting. This would not be advisable, however, if it would eliminate types which would be high yielding if trans-

TIIble 5.. Me.an Y' elds in tons pe r hecla reo f 12 .vari eties wi t h direct seed; n ~ and. .. with transplanting, IRRl, dry season, 1962-1963.
Variety Peta
Tjerc Mas

Drilled
gm/mder

Transplanted row plant/hill 5.7.2' 5.04' 1.87' 4.21' 4.26' 4.21' :).54' 3.98' 3.25' 2.62" 2.97" 1.32" 3.77 of varieties for Yield M ell" Sq'+IIfl1S 2.253 0.417 3.158 62.63" 2.790' from hil';hc"t to 3 plants/hill 5.32' 5.01' 5.18' 4.36' 4.55' 4.52' 4.06' 3.98' 3.69" 3.48" 2.97" 2.53" 4.14

row

2 gm/mete!· 4.97' 4.67' 4.12' 3.86' 4.00' 3.76' 3.. 2' 8 3.60" 3.4R' 3.2.1'" 3.07" 3.09" .3.81

Tainan 3 Tangkai Botan Chianung 242 Taichung ( native ) Chianung y" 280 Milfor (6) 2 TP Mil 45 FB-121 Century Patna 231 Bl 'J ebon n et 50 Means Superscript., from lowest within

4.95' 4.47' 4.38' 4.01' 3.59' 3.68'· 3.67" 3.50' 3.29' 3.18'" 2.53'" 2.1l3" :167 the yield

1 to 12 ind tcate each treatment.

ranking

AnalYSiS

of Variance

Whole Plots
Drilled vs, transplanted Densities within drilled Dens;ti.cs within transplant Sub-Plots Varieties Vwiety vs. Treatment x Trnnsplanted Variety l( Drilled Variety· x Drilled Variety

D. f. I 1 cd 11 33

u
II 11

5.75'·
0.54 2.09' level.

x Transnl"nled o Significant at 5 percent level.

". Signi ficnnt at 1 percent

21

transplanting treatments. More importantly, the yield ranking of each variety vir" tually was constant in relation 10 the other varieties regardless of the planting variable employed. For example, Peta yield was the highest, the yields of Chiannng Yu Z80 and Milfor (6) 2 were intermediate, and yields of FB-121, Century Patna 2.'31, and Bluebonnet 50 were the

lowest in all planting treatments. These data suggest that varieties adapted for transplanting might perform satisfao. torily when seeded directly. The lowest yielding varieties are low tillering types, suggesting that moderate to high tillering ability is required for effective perform, ance, at least when transplanted at spac. ings usually employed.

STUDIES

ON LODGING

Effects of Lodging on Yield

It is well recognized that most of the hdica rice grown throughout the tropics is unusually weak-strawed, and that this is a major factor in the low yields reported throughout this area. Of equal concern is the genenllly low response in yield of these varieties to added nitrogen which promotes greater growth and lodging than occurs normally. To determine the effects of lodging on grain yield, six varieties differing in straw strength were subjected to varying levels of nitrogen during the dry and wet seasons. Data were collected from paired
130 IZO 110
<>
..J

plots of each variety at each nitrogen level; one plot ill each pair was allowed to lodge normally and the second was sup. ported and held erect, The objectives 01 this study are to (a) determine whether lodging is the direct cause of loss in yield when rice lodges, and (b) if so, to relate the amount of loss to the degree and time of lodging. Data from the 1962-1963 dry season crop are in Figs. 1 and 2.
7.0

6.0-

-I-~_---+---

__

J
I
I

S"ppOflot"

P.Io

To~ncn

C ZZ
Milfor
.

~_-....., ,; 5.0

Support •

"'Ttl I~

>'
e

...
'"

100 90 80 70 60 50 '-0 30 lO !O

~. "'

H-5

" ~

....
I:

... ...

<>

'" '" .. '"

~ z

...'........

...........

.....

,
..................

.
.."

P'I ..

;:: '"

..J

IoITIJ

15

l.0

IlO IIITRj)GEN

180 _1I./IIa.

I
2.0 0 60 120 NITROGEN

Un."~
!oint

Fig_ I. Grain percentages of lodging.

yields plots

of unsupported supported. to

plots in minimize

Fig. 2. support-ed

Grain yields of supported plots of Peta and MTU-I5.

ap.

22

There was little or 110 lodging with Tainan 3, C22, Milfor G, and H-5 in the dry season, and the yields of the plots supported with strings were somewhat lower than those of the unsupported plots (Fig. 1). Thus, the placing of strillg to support the straw was responsible for some yield loss. This was estimated and used to adjust yields for the two varieties, Peta and MTU 15, which lodged severely. Fig. 2 shows the marked losses in yield resulting from lodging in the two weakstrawed varieties. It is concluded that lodging directly causes loss since supported and unsupported plots were equal in all respects until the time of lodging. Of particular interest is the response in yield to nit.rogen in the supported plots of Peta and MTU 15. Unsupported plots lost yield in response to nitrogen once lodging started. This suggests that erectness is a prerequisite for nitrogen responsiveness and further, that erectness (stiff straw) oUght be an excellent selection criterion for response in yield to nitrogen. Relationship of Lodgi.lg and Internode Elongation Lodging commonly is associated with increased height through excess internode elongation or an increase in the. number of· ,- elongated internodes. Work with jopOOica types suggests that a knowledge of varietal differences in internode elongation is basic lo an understanding of varietal differences in lodging. Weak-strawed varieties showed marked elongation of intemedes 3-5 (counting down from the ~i.cle) in response to lodging stimuli, whiJe stiff-strawed material showed little t>Jongationin these internodes, The Institute now is investigating the varietal differences in numbers of elongated internodes and the amount of elongation occurring in response to nitrogen in itulica varieties. Thirty varieties differing lu. straw strength are being grown in wet 2-3

.urd dry seasons at high and low nitrogen levels, Data being recorded include main culm hcight, the number of elongated internodes, length of each elongated internode, the internode at which louging occurs, and the amount or lodging. Internode Elongation in Short.Stature Varieties Data collected from the 1963 dry season crop show that among 67 short or intermediate and 9 tall varieties the number of elongated internodes (0.5 em. or longer) varies from three to eight. Within each group of varieties with the same number of elongated internodes, two or more sub-groupings can be made, in which varieties with unequal culm length showed H proportional distribution of internodal lelLgth. Thus, varieties of each sub-group had a definite pattern of internode elongation despite differences in culm length. Comparison with data obtained from a_ number of varieties in the wet season inclicated that culm length and number of elongated internodes were more variable_, than the elongation pattern in different seasons. This suggests that the pattern of internode elongation probably is a highly heritable trait. Sixteen of the short-statu red strains, originating from irradiated seed, were obtained from the Rice-Pasture Experiment Station, Beaumont, Texas, U.S.A, Most of these strains possess high levels of straw strength and appear promising as parents i'l a bre~djng program. However, sterility has been observed in most of the lines. The spikelet sterility ranged from 8.2 to 73.1 percent 'with an average of 27.5 percent. The cause and nature of the sterility is being investigated. Varietal Differences in Straw Strength To determine plant characteristics assodated with resistance to lodging, 20 varieties, with varying degrees of straw

strength, were grown in the dry season under two levels of added nitrogen (0 and J 20 kg.). A number of plant characteristics were studied in detail. Preliminary field observations indicated that most of the bending over or buckling of rice culms occurred at the two lower elongated internodes above soil level which were generally longer than 4 cm. Internodes shorter than 4 cm. were difficult to break even with mechanical devices. Therefore, measurements on culm diameters, weight per unit length of culm, and breaking strength were taken from the two basal internodes (BI, and BI!) which were more than 4 cm. in length.

To minimize variation among tillers of the same plant, data were collected from the main culm at about 20 days fo!lowillg heading. In addition, cross- and longitndinal-secttons of the culms were sectioned, stained, and microscopically examined for structural differences. Measurements obtained so far are not sufficient to account fully for varietal differences in lodging resistance. The data do provide information on certain plant characteristics or their combinations which are associated with lodging resistance.

essentially is a hollow (nodes) interposed between adjoining internodes, moving freely about a fixer! axis, the grounded parts of the plant, The structural strength of rice culms can he partly indicated by the slenderness ratio (I/r) which is the quotient between the length of the culm and the radius of the culm at BI,. The 20 varieties differed highly significantly in their culm diameters (Fig. 3) and culm length. Data obtained in the dry season indicated that indica varieties with slenderness ratios greater than 600 were liable tn bend or lodge. Measurements made in the wet season indicated that 600 also appeared to be the dividing line for indicas. This partially explains why tall varieties tend to lodge and why lodging also occurs in some short-statured varieties having culms thin in cross section and weak in strength.
tu be

The

rice

culm

with septums

The elongation of the internodesin each variety assumed a fairly definite pattern, and the variation among varieties was of sufficient magnitude to detect varietal differences. It may be general-. ized that varieties possessing a series of. short internodes at the basal part have an; advantage over those with long intemodesj

Fig. 3. Note the difference in culm diameters, lea( shea ths in t hese 100 10-em. basal cu 1m sections Patna 231, Chianung 242, and 8(>1-76.

culm thickness, and amount of persistent of Early Suta rsa I 39, Chin nan II, Century

24

in that short internodes tend to be stronger and gain more reinforcement from the septum between internodes ( Fig, 4). However, the exact strength of an internode appeared to be an inherent property of the variety rather than a mere function of length. Some varieties with short in-

ternodes were rather weak in strength. The breaking strength of culrns did not appear to index closely the lodging behavior of varieties. This is understandable from the Fact that breaking strength represent, .only one facet of the strength of culm material. Moreover, the strength of straw is derived from two integral parts, the culm and its surrounding sheath. Varieties also differed significantly in culm density at BI, and BI,. The tall and late varieties tended to have higher culm density than the short and early ones. The association between culm density and breaking strength was hi~hJy signifrcant (r = 0,607); whereas" the correlation between culm denSity and the lodging resistance factor (cl., appeared to be poor. Similarly, the cross-section area of culms computed from the outer and inner diameters did not appear to be an efficient indicator of lodging resistance. to bending is an inreracthe bending moment of the shoot and the strength of straw, a lodging index was calculated hom (plant height x Hiler weight)/bre.aking strength. The index: appeared to be a fair indicator of the plant type; tall, broad-leaved varieties vs. short or narrow-leaved varieties. The index failed to differentiate between lodging and non-lodging varieties. Aga.in, the index does not measure the strength provided by leaf sheaths.
tion between

As resistance

Many of the non~lodging varieties had photosynthetic and persistent leaf sheaths enveloping the lower internodes at the time of maturity. On samples collected in May and June, the varieties differed significantly in the number of functional sheaths at the time of harvest (Table 6 and Fig. 3). Varieties also differed considerably in the length of leaf sheaths which .. nveloped e the culms and in the surface cqverage of the sheaths. These properties can be measured and expressed in percentages .

t . "!!i,-t. Culms of Peta, Chianung 242, Cen_, Patlla 231, and BPI-76 with the leaf sheaths l'~ed. to reveal inLernooe' patterns. The • 'lGW8 il)di~ate t.he nodes.

F'W .

Tuhle

(i.

1 L varieties

Average nurn bcr of ,,1""gated internodes ,,,)(1 t uncuouul on unlcrtllized plOlS at harvest, ,\JlIY-J""<:, H/o:.!. Lodging resistauce
IOwngdted
Inlt::lu.vc.les

leaf sheaths

in Functional sneatns 0.1

Variety I'eta Mni'-IS Tai~l1w'g FH-2.4 Liuchow Milbuen-5 (3,1 ;'''lilfor-6 (2)

Chlanan 8 CP 231 CP 231 dw

RPI-76

TP

Low Low Intermediate Low Low Interurediate Intermediate Intermediate High High Hi h

7 6

6 6 6 6

u.1 0.7 0.1

0.8 1.5 2.0 2.5

5 5 5
6

2.5 3.2 3.6

The strength added by persistent leaf sheaths was indicated by breaking tests. In a Bbt-50 dwarf selection, 30 percent additional weight was required to buckle a section of the lower basal internode (BI,) with a persistent sheath than a corresponding section of culm with the sheath removed; for the next internode (BI~), 42 percent more load was required in the breaking test. In BPI-76, the additional strength provided by the sheath was 58 percent for BI. and 57 percent for BI •. Study of the histomorphological features of culm sections indicated that varieties differed significantly in the thickness of the lignified sclerenchyma layer, the number of outer and inner vascular bundles, the distribution pattern of the vascular bundles, and the amount of intercellular air spaces. The two basal internodes, HI, and BI~, also differed in the thickness of the sclerenehyma layer, the number of inner vascular bundles and the distribution
Table 7.

of the bundles. The lodging-resistant varieties also tended to have a higher percentage of the outer vascular bundles fused with the sclerenchyma layers (Fig. 5). Usually a higher percentage was found in the BI2 which had higher breaking strength (Table 7). The fusion of the sclerenchyma layer and vascular bundles, lignified structures continuous throughout the culm, add considerable strength to the culm. From BPI-176 culms collected at different plantings, the percentage of outer bundles fused with sclerenchyma appeared to vary with environmental influences. Other structural features of the culm which appeared to be associated with nonlodging varieties were a circular cross-sectional shape, uniform thickness, symmetrical distribution of vascular bundles, and small compact parenchyma cells, Preliminary observations obtained in the wet season indicated that most vade
bundles fused with grown on an unferof fused outer vascular

Breaking strength and percentnge of outer vascular sc~"renchyma layer in two basal internodes of nine varieties tilized plot, April- [une, 1963. Breaking strength

Variety Peta

MTU-lS

Liuchow Milbuen-5 (3) Milfor-6 (2)

50_04 84.38 61.70 89.71

BI, 66.59

BI. 95.45 136.23 115_93 78.83 1)3.14 78.76

12r:t.OO 60.96

Percentage ---B-1,

BI,

0.62 1.23 12.66

0.00

18.08 21.98

90.47 44.21

24.92
flZ01

Taiehung 1 Chiannn 8 CP 231 dw x TP

BPI-76

38.46 39.41 83.06

49.34 70.60 83.00 88-88 87.87

9R 711

103.99

1l7. JO

125_29

99.40

26

Fig. 5. Cross sections of basal internodes of tttTU ·15 (left) and Taiehunz Native-I (right). MTU-15 has a thicker culm, larger intercellular air spaces and asymmetrical distribution of vascular bundles. Taichung Native 1 has a thinner culm, fewer air spaces, and symmetrical arrangement for vascuh r bu ndles. The ou ter "a scular bundles in MTU -15 are not united with the dark·staining, lignified sclerenchyma layer. In Taichung Native-l the outer vascular s are fused with selereuehyma.

ties tended to be taller, with one to two more elongated internodes, and had thicker culm diameters, longer basal internodes, heavier tillers, and lower breaking strength. These changes resulted in a heavier load over a weaker culm, alt.ljough the slenderness ratio was little a ffected. The above changes were reflected in the more Widespread and serious lodging in the experimental plots.

Measuring Lodging Resistance

As a simple and objective test for measuring lodging resistance, the lodging resistance factor (cL,) obtained by the use of a brass chain was most promising. The cL,. values were computed as the ratio be-tween (a) the weight of links a culm was capable of supporting at a point of equilibrium when freely suspended from base of the panicle, and (b) -the length of culm, .hom ground level to the base of the panicle. .lb the dry season when practically 110 lodgoccurred, the cL, estimates were the ~y criteria which differentiated among va-

rieties and between nitrogen levels in the same variety, as they took into consideration the resistance offered by leaf sheaths. In repeated tests with Chianan 8, the cL, values appeared to have good repeatibility. The er, estimates of varieties were negatively correlated with their slenderness ratios at the 1 percent significance level (r = "0.767). When the cl., values obtained in the dry season were compared with actual field lodging in the wet season, the estimates appeared promising in predicting lodging behavior (Table 8). The correlation between cL, and actual lodging will be studied further to ascertain the value of cl.., in predicting lodging behavior. Table 8.
Comparison of lodging resistance factor (cL,) values in the dry season with actual lodging in the wet season, IRRI, 1963.

ei., values
obtained in dry season Above O.2() 0.10 - 0.20 U..,der 0,10

varieties 10 7

No. of

Behavior of varieties in wet season -~-,..:....;,::--:-7.=-':"::"'-=-Lodged Bending Erect 10 4 3 3

mg

27

Effect of Added Nitrogen and Spacing on Lodging Resistance

An increased supply of soil nitrogen repeatedly has been reported as the main cause of serious lodging. Others consider that close spacillg results in more lodging. In one experiment at the Institute, an identical set of 20 varieties was grown at two levels of added nitrogen, 0 and 1:20 kilograms. During the dry season, only three varieties perceptibly bent. However, the effects of the added nitrogen supply on the varieties as a whole were; (a) significant increase in culm length, (b) significantly longer basal internodes (BI, and Bl,), (c) slight (but not significant) increase in number of photosynthetic sheaths at maturity, (d) significant increase in tiller weight, (e) Significant decrease in culm thickness with accompanying increase in the diameter of the pith cavity, (f) Significant decrease in breaking strength of both BI I and BI2, (g) significant increase in the slenderness ratio, and (h) significant decrease in thickness in the sclerenchyrna layer. The number of outer and inner vascular bundles and the percentage of outer vascular bundles fused with the sclerenchvma were not significantly affected by added nitrogen. One of the most significant findings in this experiment was the differential increase among varieties in the length of elongated internodes, especially that of the Sf, and BI. (Fig. 6). The non-lodging and nitrogen-responsive varieties, Taichung 1 and HPJ -76, showed relatively little elongation of the lower internodes, despite the increase in total culm length as a result of an added nitrogen supply. In the lodging and non-responsive varieties, Peta, Milfor 6 (2), and MTU-15, much of thc increase in culm length occurred at the lower internodes. This feature could be one of the factors associated with the complex problem of varietal differences iiI nitrogen response. Preliminary data ob-

-.,1111 -

... ,.u
j;iO tl,~ M

oil",
I~'''.II .....,~

".
0).

/
.-~
/ I
»:
.' /

/
1::.../
.-

/
.."
-, ....

_.-

o.

rAlCHUNC I

.,

o.

1IIII1u"(IIII-I!ii!:1

., -,

.../

,PI-76

:<.,

t.
on inter-

Fig. 6. Effect of added nitrogen node elongation, 1963 dry season.

tained in the wet season showed simila r trends. The effect of spacing on lodging was studied from plants grown in the yield component studies, In the experiment involving tour japonica varieties from Taiwan, the plants responded to closer spacing with a decrease in culm diameters, poorer sheath protection, longer basal internodes, and lower weight of culms. These changes were reflected in modified cL, estimates and slenderness ratios (Figs. 7 and 8). The cl.; estimates showed a small but perceptible rise (improvement in resistance to lodging) as the spacing was increased from 25 x 5 to 25 x 10 and up to 25 x 20 em, The difference in cl.., between 25 and 20 ern. and 25 x 40 em, was nil. The slenderness ratios (1/4) indica ted a gradual decrease (improvement) as the spacing was widened. The decrease in the ratio was more marked among the spacings of 25 x 5, 2.'5x 10, and 25 x 20 ern. There was little difference in l/r between 2:5 x 20 and 25 x 40 cm. Four indica varieties harvested from a spacing experiment in the wet season did

28

'00

...__
-.. "0 TaIC~lI.nt 11-1

"
'!:5. 5 ~'5 ttO 25:1. 20

.Fig. 7.

Effect

of spacing

on cl.,

values.
,00

not show consistent effects of closer spacing on plant characteristics associated with lodging resistance. H-4 and Milfor 6 (2) respon ded to wider spacing with increases in cL, estimates and culm diameters with accompanying decreases in culm l~ngth and slenderness ratios. Sukhwel-20

Fig. ratios.

8.

Effect

of spacing

on slenderness

istics

JAPAN'S PRIME MINISTER

associated with

resistance

HAYOTO IKEDA inspects rice plants used in studies of characterto lodging.

29

galle hig,her cL. v~l,hu-'~ :l't: wid~r spm::in,gli

~pite~ltiIl'l~~UfrCrl~it~c;r~:lJ~e~ il~the~kn. den'IlS5 nllia. ,POlI'~1 pwdl~ONI ,~.,.Ucr f:llll1h a:l both II]ncelesest .anil~i;Jewicl,c;!lt: 5p~~iwg,$. Pd"p]~!lb ~!~ treatments I,o~s;ed ,rio,!,

!tfl

,h~t"I!~,1:. Th!J s~t'ndl!(ne~~rn:tio meils" II] FIJ.ur ~re.1I:tm,~nt5hwoIYi .. g !'e'!:a, "~~nged f~orn .=55.1 163!1 TMs would be til
Uli~~

,;In

!~,.tpi:c:til;!d ~in>t,"{) t'lile c.itk ....lmUo tolJe ;jbau:~ OOQ.

nppeilrli

the ~\ffcct:; 0-( niitrogelll ,I.~"'!ll;s lu~d p[al1li1lg ~,":sWe$ 0111 yield ~rnp(llJ1lcf;lt;s. . FOlU:' f.aponkaV<lrielie~ £mrn TIl:iw,30tl 00Eflec' of Il(lrldd fj,itrageu ~~I iO.pl'mica prc~~Hng ,co!'lt~~li."!g Itypes I!n ~:i]le:r DUm- !l!lriej'ie.!l fr:Qm iail.t:'G,u. The ]!!ve;ls ,0\1: ber and pa.".id~ Sil,Q\~C'n::: g~"11'~ ait r'i,,;e added t1ibogellfl 11flJ th~~ «il'xper:h:nent W(l~~ 0, 120Ii:g./hil, T!H'! d:a;t1il)blevels ofSJdd(ldin,i1trog'C'l!'! and at fo~~rl[l\l<J!f1l- 3£1, OO.OO,~l'!d il]g d4i!!I!~~Utl$ha ~el?liC1!~ed y~cld ~:ri"b th.!~· 1!1'i.i~led. . f,n.lh~dry' . seasen ,o~ ).':!ll&'3 ~ffil!n~.l?d 'lh:ll ~vlthllr:l t:hct3.[Igeof O.Qij kg, of D!ddct! !!J,g the d'ry m:ul w~t: ~@"'lSQn!S!01 1'900, Fi'YC ~ii:~'iiG(l:va~ri~U~ff(lm SQldhc<'!d Ada WC'fC IIIHoogen" the four; ~firijffiJeS rm'fOflded [lru;itii~'eiyir.l grail:l y[Uld u{ inm:e"silll,glewils gl)OWI1i1ot EO:iJ~~ev~ls o!~ ad,clJed ~Uro~e!l! dur~I~g \1i'\et seasens of !1!:962 and 19f1~l fjiE m!i:tl'O~L'!'Ui ([Fig. {I). 'f]w ~,ighe-~~yield t$u;: Sfmnngdy. the five' ~~ffifvi"'8r:i:elies wcr'C Q~ 5;255,kg./1'1Il. 'Wfi.~ obtllined. wiUI. Cbi'(!I" nan S •.It: ULI:: 00' k:g. ~t.-\!'ell. F,nt aU rioU~' t~5~ed lmdcli fQUiI' p~!il[lting d:i1'n~cit~es. Da!a. 1i'Il:l'iieties, UIIC hig,~ui!st 1~i~ld 'waS obta,vnElld ~re b:klm '()n~:m:i[l ,'i~ld. ~~e.rllilillty. gl';liJI/ \vith tlle ;l:ddii~'i(m. of 00 ~lkg. ,n£ nitoo~="" cstl:,a;wr<ltiQ <1i!!:!d t~e t~n~eyie~d ,oomlJollHen:ls ,_ number of p:'lini:!~le5per pliL!lflt:, IIIu;lInbe~ wMle <l ]Iigh~r ~(!,.~I of] 20 I<g, res;ullteJ;!: i,~ of W:'1~1fIill per pilm~de,..'tll ell \~igbt 0:£ .100 IfiWCif }fildds f 0\1' Chi:t!1iil:l! S" C~f:ll:l]lrun,g242" gmin~.These stlld~ej~ were ,d!esi~ed to ~!1i;d1 a!duJng 65. Tbe:fo!J.Jr va.ri.e:!:ies dif·, T ~tiU~(l;til)he ]leTiiabi]il"l wille of the' re- .ricrOO~lgfl~rf!~~rlit~ly )\]dda:t an: oi't.t,(Ig~ t :in h;,vek ~ ~PCCUlllC ~leld ~il(il:)lpOliienl·~ and ~:Q sh!dy

i ~
,~

OIl

J!'

'; ~

Lt~

'! ~
[!:

2
i=
I~

I!~

;!

~ti!'Illr 111,{VJ' lI:Ii't'ft '''lIdfili~s !,,!lIm, 1',~w""'liI~n f'mlill~ ]~'il~ls or :U *,ppliri N. nun" ~~ ~ry .$@~D:p.

Fig:. "

GWllin ),iidd_ ,in 1ig'./MJ.

air

Fig', UI,

Ir,a~,t jap~oI'i!if!l' ~~o""'Ii :1'1, roilt dll"1 ~re~;K(lI1!.

N1!!m~~f '(lir ~ilinide~ p'lr ~t2~IL "Q!I' '~!lIlrijieUi!lI frnmTM,w,ftlil "",',It~n Ic~el~ ,Q:i' iil)i!ilffif,iiII~. UlR~r. 19~~

~n 'tCnliS 'of },'ILE.'ld compOIlIcnl s" the high ~merill,g ;;,randy.. "aicb~!ng un •. ga",~ l~o/ . laigbes:t merease l!l! pa(l{clc Dllmber 'In &". s:Pi!lllSC tu, incf1msi!!g :I! il'lf,agf.:'ll fevms, alld (lie io\w UI~criPg v.\ficty. eM Ilil.l'tig 242, ",<as the least <I£f,~Il:d "t"'g. 10).

I '\"CLll, spikl!l~'t sterciUt}: j,lilcrase·!lj. Seed, \\!fdghit i'lrid :lIumber of g:rain~ :per (iQ'IIi;e:lc W'!!re lIut 5'ign,ilfjCal~dy aUcct~dI b,' lIIi:tro-

.II.

'fbelu.im'be.' '0£ 'wo!UQnrn,~>d ,g:rol!n~ pel' l'Im~jde silo,w,ed, ,m, ~H~ht b1tllt, stfil,t~!lcany dC'e:r'Ca~ 'W i t, b (nC'oi"()i!ISillg ~fWe.1s 0:£ nih'o~tl., m!lin~y as a result of mcreased spnhilet ~t:eril,ity~t l"ig1ncf levels, \\:"\helli IllIc 'lII'umber of ,grrurn:s pel' :[ytiulde Vi'aS comjpelisa:tedl fill" ~t~riliity" flO tlitrogCfi efFect was de,tecteil nl~ w/p),'1 ,of grilins !il!ifle,r,edi ~itgnir.mn,tly at tbe 1 f,leJIIl.'ent lewd 11ID000g the rOUir w.ri:elics, but: the er:fed: id mttrogell. levels was not 5iS)'!ifialmJlt 'flle, ~f3i:i1/st"wm~:~o, ,each \l'lIlric!ty ren:mi~u~d ,or about the S3mo' '"~ thc~OWCf mlroijeti ~.(We:15 Jnd shei<v,.od Ii sigmificanl drop at t.h 120· kg. Je''e]i ha~~ef, 'tim £ol3Jr ViI.ri.etlcs dill. fered :in duair ,gmiJl-sl'n!:wraliO$ _t v fiOGS llib'ogellllc\I lis. CIHII!iistent varietal d.if..
~i£ic"iUd

we're 0, n, 54, .ilW:! !U kg./ha. var:i~taes dIffe:n:~~1 ,~gni~.icailitly ::.,ri;;dd mild

llib'llge11
j~1

Effltd (~f I~Mmg II o,~ imiJctl,.f." this expen1m!illl~was harv,es:ted lin, the wet SeaSQIl" UIB2. The kvells: ·01 f1i~~llg~1I iWffi]vcd The f~ ve
111

gm~!l

:r ~O\\l'Hver. lev,eb

the UlfiMl }l'ie:ld 'oOmpO!]I!R't~,. !:Ill sl~rlifk'fI~llt eH';ecl reb.ted tl)

WIU rlo~L'id :in allY
f

of tiIle

ql~alilltitall:ive tra:i't.

wra<.-d.

Effed ,oJ ,dOIl.ritl.{:: dCIt~~ttyon japoni'cns_ The four sprmi.ng5 inl tl1j~experimlffit wem 1m .;ii ~'" 25 x 10. 25 x SO\11I1,d 25 11 40 em. PIl~IUi" arieties; !"'I'm 1:lId~i1ded,~d all re~ ,cctvcd 40 kgJ1!lil" ·of' f11~]ied N,. .ReSiilI.lts :il'! tililc' dry season, 1900, s]lm1llcd rthat aU ffll;lJfVilJ!'!C!:iOS dif~erOO Sig)'ii:F'imllJJt!y ~ gnJ1rl •
yil'l'd, panicle rlYlflber. and grail!l!l
l_iCo]"

[.la~

{eretlOO£ in @a.dJ of the yield com~ii.-I~t5 were more obvioil~ tha:l'lthll nitrll~CII, ..~ ~Ot th.evmiely ;.;:Dih'tlg'l1 in'lemcflon.

,·r··

.Data flOr tlw 1900 wet ~e:J5Iln lnd_ica:ttlid ''l:at: fat ChliiiD'la'n 8 ill:l:d ehiatl!:IIlI,g 242 ~:be I]ig'hm~ ji'i'lI'kk'~,c O']l'hlin:oo :I.t the 6Ok!l:' :Jc~'e~. whi~i!! widi 'T;i1lchung .lSl ,and Taicihl:lng '65, th high'u yieids 'wa,e ebbined at" Ute 'Ilil
gOI\l1~tbe'

The e'lfect oJ spacllilog was hI~ly !;ignifiClliilt for ,grain YIIJd 81Ild :panicb~ R'Il!mmir. si,gnifican:t .for grai1i:L"l ew-piloicl.e. p aad 111)!!·!li.ll~ificaifllt .(or seed: w~ight. For grain l"i:eld" OJ. higbty signi1ic:i!Jl1t lllt.e.aCl1ul'J 00: va riel:,. 1{ spacing was ilndicated • A~ fi g:ro:l.lp, the ~es;pOl)s'e' of ~O\!J~vari~· ti~: J1!II lunnber: l~lI'cHs;tIllIlCC' ~elw;oon

nide.

i'"

va~icle

~g. JCIi'cll. Takhung un ~tighe-st yiei:d,4,25l kg., The

i~~'

oitll'ogcnre:spon5e CU!~: sbo\\ ~d 11 dctin:ite !'ke betwt.~n OSiIlod!:30 kg. (1£ Ilddcdnitr:.ogen: bUlt at high ··r'jicvel:s:, no ,tiJear yidd clllItllgcs '\"I'I!il'e 1iIiOte~l
,Amollg Il:he yi!i~dcOl'np:meD~s" Ithe
I:lIlm·

her of pa:lDides :incrc,:i.s.ed sigu'!D riC5int[y w:itll adld,illd Dlh'o,gen IIp to IIlIe90 k s, l!.wcl A't 12(1l<'g. Ibe elLln'1J! foOt p~!nid numher levdcd ,oft .fll:r 'raicl'ILmg 181 alild Chi:nnmg 2"tl imd droI)P~1 sligbtliy .~I]r C~li.a.llf.:!18 and l.'a,ieli:llllflg ,alj:. ;-\,t I~~II! 00 and 120 !!eg.

~_,.Ii
l.t~I.'~
HlilJl(Il

.••_

"_,·111

••Mj,

nlii'"
liIt!l!WOJ!! IAU!

IDtD'MtCI

'IJ:~.

Fiil!'. 1.'1. NI!!mbn IOIJpi'i(li~ltil' pr.1" pllill:lit, iI:!tJ di'ecu~d by 1I!iI~dl1d!'" fQrfQiI~ jlijipmiM 'I',.l!'i;~ti~ rffJm T~iw.llin,; UlllU, :1'96Z.Jl\J;,d;ry ~~B.'1In..

hills had a 1inear relationship (Fig;.. 11). The regression of panicle number (Y) on hill d ista nee (x) is expressed as Y = 4.56 0.48x. As the four varieties differcd in panicle numbers, the regrcs:iion equation for each of the varieties assumes. a different function; for Chianung 242 (low tilIering tYpe), = 3.18 O.38x;",for Taichung lSI (high tillering type), Y = 0.61 + 0.81~ for Taichung 65 (Interme\ dtatc type), Y = 0.85 +.Q.65x; for Chianan S (intermediate type), Y= 0.02 0.77x.

The highest plot yields for all four varieties were obtained at the 25 x 5 em, spacing (Fig. 12). Chianung 242 was highest with 7,779 kg/ha. At wider spacings, the yield of Cbianung 242 and Chianan 8 continuously decreased. The yield of Taichung 65 and Taichung 181 remained at about the same level at the three closest spacings; at 25 x 40 crn., the yield of all varieties dropped markedly.

Results in the wet season, HI63, showed similar trends. The effect of spacing on grain yield was highly significant. The highest mean yield for the four varieties was obtained at the 25 x 5 em. spacing, although it averaged only 3,715 kg./hn. The number of panicles and number of grains per panicle were significantly affected by the planting densities. The panicle number was negatively associated with planting density. However, all varieties gave lower panicle numbers than those observed in the dry season. Seed weight was little affected by planting density, but spikelet sterility increased as the spacings became wider. Effect of planting densits] on indices. Five varieties were tested in this expertmerit under four spacings (30 x 10, 30 x 20, 30 x 30, 30 x 40 crn.). Results in the 1962 dry season are in Fig. 13. The

C"IOO

...
0:;

\;!

'-' :z:
0:;

1000

'"
<>.

O-CHIA/<jU~G -Z42 .-CH'ANAN -B 1<- TAICH U/<jG 65 ~-TAICHU~G -18'

!oJ

g:

..
'"
VI

7000

O-H-4 .-PETIl 0_ M(~FOR - 6 ·-SLO-I~ .I.-SUKHWEl-20

(Zl

...

.. ~
'" :Ii'
0:;

'" '" '"

6000
:E

9
~

i:

« o '" -' ;;:

~ 5000
VI

<t

6000

.,

SCOO

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z
0:;

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;:
.. 4000

w' >= :z: ;;: 4000

'"
25.40 DISfAIICE B[TWEE~ HillS (em.l

'" '"

30 .10

~o .1.0
OISTANCE BEtWEEN

W.30 HilLS I '''' I

so ,

'0

nico varieties

Gr,tin. yields in kg.fha. of Iour jrzPQfrom Taiwan when. grown at fou r spae ings; I'RRI, 1962 dry season. Fig. 12.

indiCfJ

13. G fa in yields in kg./ha. varieties when ~rOwn at four IRI:U, 1952 dry season:

Fig.

of

five

spacings;

.'3:2

- overall effect of planting density on yield was not statistically signi! ica nt in this test, but the five varieties ag<lin differed significantly in their yields. As to the yield components, the varietal differences were highly significant for all components, and differences associated with planting density were highly Significant for panicle nOlmber and seed weight, and significant f(Jr grain number. The relationship between panicle number and sp~cjng indic~t('d a nearly linear trend. The mean regre~sion equation for the five varieties was SQ_mputed as Y = 5.60 -+- 068x, were Y is the predicted panicle number and x is the distance between hills (em.). The r~gre~~i()n equations for individual va liefies were as fo Ilows: ..0r Peta,
A

the highest nitrogell level or planting (;ensity, the description of varieties by geometrical characteri7.ati()1l of the three components in volumetric form call be attempted. From this method of reprcscnration, baser! on evaluation of genotypes under a range of environments, the breeder will find it possible to increase the yield of well adapted vari('tie<; by increasing the particular component which is relatively deficient ill dimension and the least susceptible to environmental influences.

Cenetic Allaly"is of Quantitative Characters

In a breeding program where the delopment of short-statured, nitrogenresponsive and early mahlring strains is emphasized, the early and short indica varieties from Taiwan appear to be a promising source of the desired traits. These varieties pos~ess a number of clearly contrasting characters when compared with the tall and leafy varieties common to Southeast Asia. The bydndization of the two contrasting types of indica varieties theoretically would yield recombinants which possess desirable characters from both parents without entailing the problern of hybrid sterility.
VE

y ;::: 4.00

0..58" for SLQ.:-15, Y = 5.00 -+- 0.76x, for Sukhw(·1-20, Y = 9.50 -+- 0.94 X; for Milfor-6(2j, = 4.50 -+- 0.5<l~_

0.S6x; f.Q_rH·4, Y = 5.50

The above studies suggest thatindicrl and japorzica varieties definitely responded to differences in planting density. The varietal respOnse to nitrogen was generally poor, even in the responsive j(lponica varieties from Taiwan, presumably because of high residual soil nitrogen. As a group, the japanica varieties varied less than the indica; therefore, they gave more precise results. By comparison, the japo1,;C(l varieties had an inherently lower tillering ability and responded in a lesser degree to wider spacings, as indicated by the regression equations. However, the If/Jlonien varieties from Taiwan were capa· ble of higher yields when closely spaced or adequately fertilized. Among the three yield components, panicle number appeared to be most readily affected by change in spacings or liitrogen levels. Seed weight was least affected by the treatments. As the varieties studied herein, especially the japo-nicas, differed sufficiently in each one of the yield components at either the lowest or

A study of the hybrid progenies from the above cross would provide information all the relationship of traits like leaf number, leaf dimensions, erectness of leaf, leaf color, plant height, maturity, tillering ability, culm dimensions, internode elongation, number of f unctional leaves at maturity and panicle size to yielding ability and, in certain respects, to lodging and uitrogen response. The study also would yield information on the mode of inheritance an d approximate number of i;enes involved for tra its, like maturity, plant height, tillering ability, culm dimensions, panicle number, grains per panicle, grain weight, grain size and shape, and quality characteristics .

.3 3

One of the crosses selected for this pllrpose involved the tal], leary, late Peta and the early, short-stature, short-grain I-gcotze. Th'e cross was made in the latter pa rt of 1962; the F,'s were grown in the dry season, 1963; and a population consisting of the two parents, F,'s and Fo's from reciprocal crosses was grown in the wet season, 1963. A duplicate population of parents, Fl's and Fo's, will be studied in the dry season of 1964 to sample seasonal effects on various quantitative traits. The study of F, populations will be made in 1964. Preliminary data obtained from the F ,'s and the two parents in the dry season indicated that although the parents and the true F, hybrids have produced 15 leaves in common, they could be definitely distinguished from one another on the basis of plant height and maturity. The mean heading date of the reciprocal F,'s was 108 days, which was 3 days longer than the mid-value of tile two parents, indicatiug an intermediate value. In the case of plant height, the Peta x I·g-t hybrids had a mean value of 153 crn., whereas the I.g.t x Peta hybrids measured 127 em. The mid-value of the parents was 128.4 crn., suggesting maternal influence from the tall Peta. The two parents differed in the number of elongated internode, by one internode; the hybrid plants have the same number as the shorter parent. The difFerence in culm height of the parents and tho hybrid, therefore, can be attributed to differences in internode lengtll" On the other hand, the culm diameters of the hybrids were similar to those of the thick-culmed parent, Peta. However, the culms of Peta x I-g-t hybrids had a larger outer diameter than those (If the l-g·t x Peta hybrids. The differences in culm thickness and culm height between reciprocal crosses were also reflected in the eL, estimates which indicate resistance to lodging. The F,'s had grains which were

highly signifk'nntly shorter than those of Potu and which were not significantly dif[erent From those of I-g-t The mean gr'lin length of the reciprocal F ,', W<J.S sh orter than the mid -parE'n t value, indi. cating that short grain was dominant to long grain. The F, plants showed considerable hybrid vigor in several characters. The hybrids produced more tillers and more panicles per plant than either one of the parents. The hybrids also approached the higher parent in the number of grains per panicle, On a Single-plant basis, the hybrids yielded more grain than either parent.

Hybrids
In cooperation with H. L Oka of the National Institute of Genetics, Japan, a long-range .experiment has been established to investigate the change of genotypes in a population of wild rice under different cultural environments. F, bulks of an O. sativ(l f. suontonea x O. perennis cross were grown in two plots: one representing a cultivated field and the other simulating a nntural habitat of the wild forms Seeds have been collected from individual plants in each of the two bulks and will be used to provide subsequent gC!'lerations of progeny grown succ-essively through respective treatments. In 1966, F, lines from the two hulks will be grown and compared with the progr:nies of remnant plants in the two orig· inal plots of ratooned plants. The impact of cultural selection upOn the bulk population would be reflected in the changes in genutypes as measured by a number of plant characters which arc often used to differentiate cultivated forms from wild forms. Such data might indicate the evclutionary pathway in wbich the domestication uf wild growing forms. hud occurred.

o.

perennis

x O. sativa f. spoutanea

34

THE PLANT
ploLs.

PHYSIOLOGIST

SUPERVISES

transplanting

of

seedlings

in

his

experimental

Plant Physiology
During the past ~ years, the physiologists have studied the cultural practices which contribute to maximum rice yields in the tropics. Of particular importance, for each variety, are (a) application of suitable amounts of nitrogen at the optimum growth stage of the rice, (b) correct spacing of plants in the field, aud (c) determination of the optimum planting season. Evidence clearly indicates that varieties of different growth habits require different field management practices, and the initial results obtained at the Institute were published in the 1961-1962 Aunual Report. There is a continuing need to seek more complete understundinjj of the physiological phenomena involved in the response of rice to various cultural practices. The Institute has used three varieties frequently ill the physiological studies rcported, chOOSing these because they are reasonably representative of the major types of rice of interest in the tropics. The Philippine variety Peta is typical of many of the tall, weak-strawed, leafy varieties now extensively planted in the tropics. It is weakly sensitive to photoperiod; that is, it does not vary greatly in length of growing period when planted at dilfercnt times of the year. Information I('ported on this variety should apply to . other varieties of this type under conditions similar to those at Los B>li'iOS. Taiuan-S is a iaponica variety from Taiwun. It has relatively short, stiff straw. I I~ plant type approaches that believed to he required to achieve high yields per hec1'11"(: per year in the tropics. It is relativeIy insensitive to photoperiod (day-length). Unfortunatelv, it cannot be recommended Ior lISe by fanners in the tropics, it lacks seed dormancy and has a [apontca grain

35

qaal it},. Ncvctthe~e:s:s. iu:formaUou obtdil'llld wHh th~.:;VilItety should be applli· cabJe to ~ilTlilnr, liuitllbic v,u~cli(.'s 111$~i.lon as they are 3:Vilrl;lble. BPI- 76 is a. Philippiille va'rie~ywhi~h, jf prallt-ed iu the proper season, has fda.ti.vc-· 1y s~!I'oog: S'haw and! is more "i.g:Ol"OtJIS l'IUI~1l TliIi:rum·3. Us gI'o!!/,\·th peri(J<~ h, nUHk~.. . dly a:Uectcd. by date oJ :p1a:nHng,. UsuaHy i~' wiU flowm' o:n]y when fhe d~I)'.~engthis sl:u:ntc:1' dm:n abr:Hd 11.5 houes, It usual 11' itS ta]le:rrl'ha:p 'fail'lan·3 butshode[ than
[)e~.

~tHf·8fm.wed ·var.iC'tit,s, such as T.111.1"Ln-3. ytcld~ g:reater thaTbI'l, ton C'.1 ill be obtulned wnb o(ltifllilm spacing and pr,opc<r Unlill~ of nitrogen appUcnl:ion (di:e ob:.en',(;d
maximum is fl.ti;; tou/ha,).

2, ]" tJle dry season, 8, y iel:d gre~lterll!:tll tI 7·ttofl/hn. Is pOS',sib]e wHh closer ~pat:i!.g l auc] higher t1it:l'oge,n levels dmn are ret;;~I!]I'

n~ended

:r,O!l'

'the min)'

sellSo.'l1,

Pr'Qp(;Or tim-

jn~ of nihfl.ae:n. appllcat'Lons ~s fmpol'tll.n t T.ileillilNI.n'lurn yields lIt'hfe!ICd so far tl;l\~ 8,2.') ton/l'ill, for Taj.chung Nath'e.l, 1.68 tcn/ha. fm' P,·ta, find 1.M ton/hit. :rOl" Tai-

The experimenl'al ren~lt5, obtllIn,d 10 '11o:h~i lead to. die few general Qondl.ls.ions outlined below: I. III ~ll~ rai:ny, i':eason, us~n~ .1. tall, leafy v~,~i~"'y SlClcl, as ~'et:a. rhere is Hu ie hope of' g:c~f.ing .}liel<i:Sliru:u::h greater than 4 'kms fel hectare (th,e ii1!!i'!;,;imtlm ~eac-hed so f,~Lf ~ 4..32: ~on lila, ), Hewever, by u~i ng shoil't,

nan..3.
~l It is possiblelio produce (I' toll/ha. in
~lny Se,lSQR wi'th varieties such as 1'tl.irmI1-

"

3, which matures in about 12.'$; ay~ !'rl, ;IIlY d season, H,' kccpiug seedJin,g'Sin t1leseedl·
;m days, tbe g:l'<Iin yield per €Ill)' £ic1J should be 'so ~./ha,. or. :tsslillln:ing 300 crop days and 65 lan.d p~piI.raUon days p~r ye;tr, a yeady yield of at
hedfo:r

irl~h-e

mann

lr:.as:t UW

tOI1!b~l.

VariClal Re:rums~ to P'bo~urel"ioid

A !knowledge OlE the ,SpOil~ of a varie<ly nids its growth paUcm and r,:~iolli~ and fleasons f'O,I" <ldilp~oo.
The,ref()r'~. 'I numl:m:r 0'.6 'varieties we!:,!,! 5i,_qbjtild~d '110 diff!':!l.'llntplwtop!lrimh tD obtaln thirl~ no~:vc~il:lg fCSPOtiSc. Each. day the plants r ceiv~d ,8 hours of lliihlJIl] [igllt,

p.11otoperiodic r '. in 1Il1lder:standing

in

p.~d~cting~he

wMch it will '00

.1'01 .,101, 11

I I

I u·o '
:~ 'IOi
!:II,"IEID if. _.

~p ./'

'. I~"',n • ,'Ii-Ill!

iI!IliTll.

ii,

and the addition,,]: [lhotoperiods necessary were s'l!Ipplicd by ;'H(ificial I,ightli ·of low iilhmsme~. AU the\o'arxeti:es t'e.~h'l'f~ Wef~ S'clisB'h'e tn plwtQpElriod slnee th~ 1illllnbeto~ d_liys from s,owing '~O fJ!D\vering cbarnged wHh (Hf£'e'n:Llt' ph(}tope:rk.uk Some w r~ct'~~s:. hj)\w;:vcr, were much n'iO:re aUeeted hy
llhotopeTiQd UUUl ,ot'hers (compare Nor-li;i 20 and Ta.inaJb :) with Suoong lllmlil. Hi

Fiig•. 1, FI!iw~fijjii! i'iI!S~~n5i~of' llIi!!e, r:iee ..~riLe· lies, ""hen gf·IIII\'1II Ull:tilief d ifter,e:!!'l ''':ho,tlopfllfimll&, 'Jb IIl:'ok@"1Il lip;: eO!iJfted-e~ *0' 'lIie last. mark rn.dlit~~es ch:l~ nO fl!l'w~rin~ Iha!!' !)C'cl;lrr~ ~ ~Mt, da.tl':. ..

and

Pilan" Na.h'k

lEI. Ti1Lblili 1).

o,r

The plmtop ~ri(ld 'Olt d:ay 1~f1gtliifl mest ril-e-'g~owillg areas during the cropping

Sc.(i's~n :~~ with in

11

to

16

IItJ'lm;.

Widrin

'beimp(,Jl);si ble or ~nlpri),ctk'a]

'til;),

l~;b[~tsU!ch

t~'!1l lllJ'!ge,vmf:etf,es ~'lIcll ;:1~~:Nor.in :ill ~nd Milior (i( 2:) cn:lrilgcd lil'{~e in grmvltlt dur'"l· lion" so" f (lirrr..H:'~iclil ~YLi!1l(l~es:. they (!sual"

in the ~l:~gh hUib:lldes. \-ro~t ~£ th~~e vllr.ieti(Js co.m(~:frOTn dlile Phihppif!~!, ThaHand, Mi'lbly~1 [1ndllld(me~i;:Il, or ~o'!h(Jr

'\;',uietk-s

ly ,are cOOl~ide~edas "nen-seasona]," On th(l other hand, '\!'I.lri€'~iess~.ch as:

J3l~m.16 and FB • .n21chirll~~e(l marhdly in g:~ol!;,vI:h dll~aHon room n to. 16 hOiUrs, ,~rnd m'e oonsidereu ·',s;ea!>m.m'I·> varicHt~
(I(f

tL·o[)ia.:i

iumlK,

moe p1:l-tlltS 1m~ ~:h(ld.da:y plants ill the sense th8Jtihort day ~()ngths decrease theiir
[It.:'tioil.Ri(.''t:I pilant'S s:il.mv no c!!~f" f I~ it~'\~ritjc~Ll dily ]~rn,gth," n.QWeVCri 00 ~t, ha~ b!o!etl Sltgge:s~!ecl that the~e!:n~ ~h~m;i!)g

ga'o\\,th

(Fjg, 1). At:lA! to 16 hour~ phn!t!Op~f. loti,. some o.f these vadeties did Ilot: nowe~ ~,tm ~ftc" 200· days of g1i'~\!'U~, Ir would

point" be us(:!;di[l~tead, The pmMb":ltl re11~il~nsof how

D~ inilial
$~v;;:n

tn d~t:e!1nine

tl~c:l b:unirnig

TaN{J 1. D~yt; Jrom,11 se .....ill_g to nO-"''1!',riD;ll,anJ Ixl plmlIJl.l~ritl'd, of 21' vBrkti'ell '~~pru~d 'to
V,~ri1!ty No:t1i:m,1W fltlijiSllllm-5 cei11\uy f':dn~-1l31 'C!U3f1II~g ~~

dHterent

d=iJJ.G.1it~oll ,[.!if ros;poOl1iS~

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Cuum.hy
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origin
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1'~ 88

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US 50
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132 >!Y .y
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GitJzc C!J.u:l'IgC]!i.ll.coon i'ot;lliwi AA3 I>bhn,~ M<lfl S,~, T~II i'uw C!ilb"'", HI] M~l!ng Naung IrtlM
Wi

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~y![I!IIl

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1.54 H3 t23

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~'!~76

:Ph1Hppi\ll!c~ t:ll~H.tI;m.dJ
T1mil~m!

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>70<80
>70<SO >7Q<80

il3'9! 77
,69

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79

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-.v

¥
1I.t' ,""

~'1

82
10J 7i
~)ll

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137+ 141+ 132+ NH

1,00+

ss
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n~~iI~l:id rh~:i1l'M! \~~I~,y~,

rhilippil1o~~

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76 18 74 57

uno
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~l

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• lhlt~ t~f ehlln~~ c-t11~rlJJl~ ~ diHC!'R'11Ice ·illIIHIH1h~£ U or cla\'~ 'iI;I~OW~J dM(k-rl hy 1.00 dinerro!'ll~~' in IdillhJI]~ri()Ll ~~ hmm_. The tI~.:~ .r'~pilrt~1 h~rl:l IliN '~he 1Mn.d· mum m~~ of d\lIl1i,ll,~l~ibJ,! ror ~. \<:;ir;i('I.'I' .. t~'~~~illmm .' tlh~1I1t1!' j~n jl;mwl'h dm:dion e-4[~L\~tl~ t~ 1(1l1~(lstg;l~.h dj!r~1 !<ll"! ('rom ~t)W,i'n!l: 'to fI(}l"IIi!r~n~ minu~ Ithe dloi'lrh ..... gmwl'h rl!LI'r;1ticm, ~ 80M .fd~f!,juPJJlf6,rs ,[lm~]I"lhl' l'~'liSic '~l! ...'ih d'IJ~~io-n. ";.'1 Nop~mli:~l:c ("H~~J:::",il :~nm 2f~) d~\':!; of i:,m'l'lh.

.17

point,

which

again

is arbitrary.

The flowering response of rice varieties to photoperiod has not been adequately classified because of the difficultv in sdecting the criteria for classific~ tion. Research workers have tried the use of '·turning points," differences at two different photoperiods, optimum photoperiod, difference at two planting seasons, etc. These measure only part of the flowering response of a variety. Even the response of a variety at two planting seasons at Los Banos will not indicate reliably what its response will be when planted in the northern latitudes.

have the smallest "maximum rate of chatl~e" Crable 1). On the other hand, this "maximum rate of change" was highest in varieties that showed a high degree of change in date of flowering with different photoperiods. Conversely, varieties with the smallest "maximum Tate of change" had smaller "maximum change in growth duration." There is no dividing lint' between the so-called "photosensitive" and "non-photosensitive" reactions. Except in Norin 20 and Acheh, the basic growth duration is longer in varieties in which the "maximum rate of change" is less than 10 than when it is greater than 30.

It is suggested that the response of rice varieties can be classified, temporarily, using the following criteria (Fig. 2); (a) The maximum rate of change possible with increase in day length; (b) the basic growth duration, and (c) the maximum change in growth duration possible.
Varieties with the least changes in date of flowering with different photoperiods
"l1li ~ 1:Z1 I J-:Jo (120
ITS CHUIIC-t.nll I )!O"o 1

Varieties that generally are considered "non-seasons r fall under the > 20 ~30 "maximum rate of change." Effect of Season on Varietal Performance
In 1962-1963, Peta, Tainan-3, and BPI-

76 were compared in four different seaSOilS. The first sowing was made March
considerably earlier than the normal June-July wet season planting period in the Philippines. The second was seeded May 1; and later plantings were made July 1:3 and October 26. All plots received 40 kg./ha. each of N, P:!O,;, and K20 and were uniformily spaced at 30 x 30 crn., with one plant per hill. Varieties differed markedly in yield per crop of dry grain (Table 2).
}.5,

.
/

"'"

PET''' I ~ZO(3iOI

.. .,
i

c.p ZJI
,<101

" [ '"

70

.. .

Table 2.
So

..
10

Yield of dry grain, in tons per hectare . of three varieties planted on four dates, IRRI. 1962-1963, Planting date Grain yield (too/ha.) Tlljnan·3 4.89 4.30 5.)0 5.69 4,99 Peta 3.80 4.32 3.21 6.04 BPI-76 4.80 5.63 4.29 2.88 Mean 4.50 4.75 4.20 4.87

"

It

..
PlllorOP"EAIOC

,.

,S

Z'

March

IS, 1963

May l. 1962
[uly 13, 1962 October 26, Hl62

Fig. 2. Response to phl)toperiod Ilf varieties differing in maximum rate of change, in basic grl)wlh duration and in maximum change in growth duration possible.

---~

Mean

4.84

------4.40

38

I'he numher of days from sowing to harvest varied with varieties and with seasons (Fig. 3). The October 26 plan ting of Tainan·3 required U·14 days longer rhnn the earlier crops, probably as a result of cooler weather. Peta, on the other hand, required less time as the date of planting was delayed - a photoperiodic effect which probably was reduced to some extent by coo I e r temperatures. The growth duration of Brr-76 was markedly $.hortened with later planting dates, the March planting requiring 90 days more than the October plallting; this dearly indicates the photoperiod sensitivity of the variety. Because the different crops of the three varieties required different times to produce grain, true productivity (or eHi· dency of production) can be measured best by calculating the grain yield per day in the main, transplanted field (Ta ble 3).

Table 3.

Yic!d of dry graj". pe, crop day in the main Iielcl, of three varieties planted on four dates, lRR1, 1962"1963. Planting date Grain yield Tainan-3 49.9 43.9 51.0 50.8 490 Pet a 30.4 35.7 29.1 53.9 31.2

~-~--~~
BPI-76 22.6 36.8 38.6 29.1 31.9
.----~-

(kglha./day) Me.a.n" 34.3 38.8 39.6 44.8

March May

15, 1963

1. 196'? July 13, 1962 October 26, 1962 Mean

The productivity of Tainan-3 was nearly constant at 50 kg./ha. per day of dry grain_ The productivity of Peta was high, at 54 kg'/ha. per day, when planted in October; however, in the earlier crops it was rela-

t:ively inefficient, yielding per day. While the May gave a rather high yield, land a longer time, and its low,
Gro.11I 011";111011 10(1)'$1

about 30 kg/ha. crop of BPl-76 it occupied the productivity was

T.<!oINAN MAR. III MAY I

-3'

Helqhl (cril.l 133 145 135 126

Number of 1"'Nn
011 maln cui .. 15

'"
Q
0 0

J
J
)(.

12.3 123

15
15 IS

JULY 13 OCTOBER 26 PETA: MAR. 15 MAY I _Y 13 0 OBER 26

J J

125 137

0 0

x x
J

150 146 135 137

190 19B 192

21 21 18 16

"

'"
0 0
X
>(

IH

BPI-76' MAR. IS MAY JULY I 13 0 0

X
)(

212 178 136

174 118 154 114

23 23 18 13

I J

OCTOBER 26

101,,'•. Till" Nw mb Of ~ 10II' [0'- in i Ii.lion .loQft 150 200

12:Z

110

100 DAYS AFTER SOWING

Fig. 3. Growth dates; . lRRI, 1%2.

characteristjcs

of Tainan-S,

i'eta,

and

BPI·76

planted

at

fuur

indic:ated

39

These data indicate that under Los Bunos conditions, Tainan-B produces satisfactory yields in both the wet and dry seasons; Peta is a good variety for the dry season, but BPI-76 is inefficient in all seaSOilS.

Table -1. Reln()>";,i of nutrient elements from the fidel Ly a rice crop yidding 4.74 tons of dry grain hectare, lRRJ, 19(;2.

r=

Amount 01 nutrient

Nutrient elements

in

the rice plant at harvest

(kg./ha. )

Amount of nutrient removed by 1 ton rice prod uc t ion (kg.) Tolal 19.0 4.3 47.0 7.2 5.3 2,6
2,6

H should be emphasized that all the ahove plantings involved spacings of 30 x 30 em., and this is known not to be optimum for Pera in the rainy season or for Tainan-3 in the dry season. Had optimum spacings been employed, productivity might 'have been increased. As indicated in Fig. 3, there was little seasonal effect on height and number of leaves of Tainan-3, but the effects were gleat on Peta and BPI-76. This suggests that varieties with growth habits similar to Tainan-3 can be expected to be adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions. Availability of such varieties would make it possible for farmers to grow two or even three crops per year instead of one or two as now practiced. Also, farmers would find it possible to produce satisfactory crops at any time of the year, thus en<XJuraging them to produce crops to be harvested when prices generally arc hig]l. This would minimize the seasonal availability of rice in the market. Nutrient Uptake by Variety by Season
There was a marked difference in the process of nitrogen uptake of Tainan-S and Peta in the rainy reason, as indicated in the Annual Report, 1961-1962; but the two varieties behaved similarly in the dry season. BPI·76 and Peta behaved Similarly in the wet season. ThE; seasonal change in the nitrogen uptake process of Tainan3 was small. Except for nitrogen, the nutrient uptake .of these three varieties did nnt differ significantly. The analysis of various nutrient elements indicated that if pan ides as well as straw are removed from the field, great amounts of silica and significant amounts

T"tal N P K Ca !'.lg

Panicle 48.0 13.0 110 12.0 9.0 1.6 2.3 371.0

Panicle 10.0 2.7 2.3

2,6

90 20
219 3'!

2,'5

Fe Mn 5iO,

12 12 1780

379.0

1.9 0.3 0.5 79,0

of potassium are removed. If only the grains are harvested, the amount of silica removed is reduced greatly but the removal of nitrogen becomes relatively significant (Table 4). These data indicate that if farmers harvest the rice erop by cutting at a high level and if most of elements in the straw are left or returned to the field as straw or after burning, an application of nitrogen will be the only element required for the succeeding crop.

Effect of Growth Duration Yield of Rice

011

Varieties differ greatly in the number of days they reqUire to produce a crop, and the periods required by individual varieties often differ markedly with season. To determine the effect of length of glowing period on final yield, 40 varieties hnving requirements of 9U to more than 190 days were tested during the dry seaS(H1, 1962-1963. This test was planted Dec. 4, 1962; all varieties received a total of 40 kg.!ha. of nitrogen, and the spacing used was 25 x 30 cm., with one plant per hill. When length of growing period was plotted against grain yield, the resultiog curve indicated that the optimum 'growing period under the conditions of this test was 130-140 days (Fig, 4, top).

40

'.

•
(lo

-lot •• pl.llt • P.I$ 4'1II'i(lo

_"'1111'11

2.00

i Ii'
,.0

. so
1.00

rates decrease after a period of time, and the relative activity of later stages of growth becomes weaker because of the two limiting factors mentioned above. For these reasons, the panicle-straw ratio decreases as the length of the growth period increases (Fig. 4). Thus, the grain yield increases with the extension of growth period until it reaches an optimum duration caused by an increase of total plant weight. It then decreases because of the decrease in the grain-straw ratio.

: "
i

~ ~

.0
40

s.

..

.. .
"

.,.
GrGlII't~

tI'IIrGl1iOfl

...

"

0.5.0

Preliminary field studies described earlier (Fig. 4, top) indicated that varieties having growth periods of 130-140 days gave highe~t yields during the 1962-1963 dry season.

Fig. 4. Relation between growth duration and grain yield, total plant weight, and panicleto-straw ratio.

To determine the effects of length of growing period on grain yield, the yield components, and other plant characteristics, BPI-76 was caused to flower, after a predetermined length of time, by manipu-

Grain weight is the product of the total plant weight and the grain weight-total plant weight ratio. The longer the growth period of a variety, the more the total plant weight (Fig. 4, bottom). However, the rate of plant weight increase with the extension of the growth period becomes smaller if the duration is extremely long. This is associated with two limiting factors, One is the limitation in ~paee for expansion of leaves; the leaf area index (LAI) increases with increase in growth period, while· light transmission rate (L TR) in the plant population decreases (Fig. 5, top). The other factor is the limitation of nutrient supply to the plants. As plants these absorb nutrients from the'sqil and the level of nutrient in the soil goes down. Thus, the plant becomes deficient in some of thc nutrients, especially nitrogen (Fig. 5, bottom). The straw is the product of growth during the vegetative phase, and the grain is the product of growth during the reproductive and ripening phases. Growth

~ UR
0

LAI

.0

.•
e
>0

•• ~
'Q

ec

a
001'

"0 CrOwl"

ISO

"0

"0

0"'13"0,",

1!

'grow,

,.

'.'

~ 0.'
i'

. ...
•0

"

;,q.'"

"0

ISO
C:II,'OIiGII

"0

...

OilY'

Fig. 5. Relation growth dUration. between and leaf area index (LAI) at flowering, light transmission rate (LTIl) at flowering, and nitrogen content of straw at harves.1.

41

Table 5. NlH"I.", of davs [rotu s(""ling t" fI<>w(",· ing~ yield and yield components of BPI·76 plants given different photoperiodic treatments.
..J

,00
.-Vl[ofO;f'l"TI'Y[ P"''''sE'

Days uerore
photoDy.ys t)

induction flower-----~ -__ ._. -

Malure pa nictes per 'P~nl

Cr:&ln5 per particles

(ira,in ~;otd per- plant

(~.)

« I-

80
0 60

K -1II(PA:O;DIJCf!v[ PI1ASC o -ftl"(~I~G PH"5.£' 0

0
1-10",

"-:r

0 20 40

49

80 100 120
LSD

SO

56 81 91l 116

6.8 8.0

1:26

16.1

120
H).J. HJO

11.0

17.9 38.3

I-

~~
We::

Ww

10.5 11.5

137
154

10.8
10.8 2.00

135 133
134

34.8
29.9 26.6 2R.4
4.\)

z
0..

,..

40

~o

.0
0
40 ..

24

OOy5

to Flower

IaUng photoperlods. This variety will flower only when the photoperiod is shorter than about 11.5 hours; consequent. ly, length of its growing period was controlled by keeping it under a 14-honr photoperiod for varying length of time, then subjecting it to Ifl-hour photoperiods (Table .5). maximum yield was obtained with which flowered in 81 days in about 115 days. The plants giving high yields also had the most spikelets and grains per panicle. Differences in filled grain percentage and 1,000grain weight were small. The

Fig. 6. Dry matter produced by BPI·76 at various grow th phases as percentages of the total dry weight at maturity. Variations in date of flowering were obtained by manipulation of phctoperrods.

the treatment and matured

As the growth period was lengthened, total plant weight increased, primarily as a result of increasing straw weight (Table 6). The best treatment had the highest panicle weight per plant and the highest panicle-straw ratio. The plants flowering after 49 and 56 days produced dry matter mostly during
Table e. Dry weight other characteristics Days to flower 56

the ripening phase (Fig. 6). The high yilc-'lding plants, which flowered after 81 and 98 clays, produced more than 70 per· cent of their dry matter during the reproduction phase. There was a slight increase in content of carbohydrates (total sugars and starch) with increasing length of growing period. In the treatments flowering after 49 and 5G days, almost no carbohydrates were produced during the vegetativfl or ,reproduc· tive phases; nearly all were produced during the ripening stage (Fig. 7). The high yidding treatments accumulated small quantities during the vegetative phase/ large amounts during the reproductive phase, and sizeable amounts during ripen. ing. With long vegetative periods, most

of straw and panicle. at maturity, panicl,>.:,traw ratio and of plants of BPI.76 gIven d,fferent photoperiodic treatments,

Straw weight per plant (g.) 21.6 29.9 57.8

il'anicle weight p"r plant (g.)! 16.8 20.8 38.3 34.9 28.4 27.7 28.0 5.0

Total wci~ht per plant (g.) 34.0 42.4 68.Z \)27 96.4 103.1 109.0

IPanicle Weij1:ht'l Height main straw weIght culm ratio I (cm.] 0.9& 096 1.211 0.60 0.42 0.37 0.35 56 57 85 \)0

Number elongat ..d internode!

49

17.2

4.3
4.3 4.7 7.0

116 137 154 LSD

81 98

sa.o
75.4

si.o
H.O

88
6.9

86 84

.q .~.O
9.0
4.1

42

• - v[CETAlIY[ ,,"",,$[ :a. - AU',.OOUC,.Y( ,"AS( O-"."tiNUIi(p rt4A$l

"'<1) Ow

.J <l

80

short growing periods will yield the most and will make 1110steffective use of the nutrients available .

~~ o
w)o e J:
~O Z~
~ <l 0::0' W

... I-: 60

Nitrogen Response of Varieties of Different Plant Type

To determine if varieties cIiffer in l"('sponse to additions of nitrogenous fertilizer, 11 varieties were grown with 0 and 100 kg./ha. of added during the 1962 wet season. Varieties were planted July 3 and were transplanted at a spacing of 30 x 30 crn., with one plant per hill. All plots received- an application of 40 kg./ha . of P.05 and K.O. The amount of nitrogen in the soil obviously was relatively high, as some varieties yielded 4.7-5.3 ton/ha. of grain without added nitrogen (Table
-q

40

~O

(L,

4956

81

sa

116

137

154

Days 10 Flower
.lit different

Carbohydrates produced by BPI-76 growth phases as percentages of the total carbohydrates at maturity. Variations in date of flowering were obtained by manipulation of phetoper iods.

Fig. 7.

the carbohydrates present at maturity were formed before flowering, with small quantities being added during ripening. The supply of nitrogen was limited in this experiment. Two grams each of N, .Pto,,, and KoO had been added to the 6 kg. of soil used in each pot in this experiment. ln all treatments, the amount of nitrogen absorbed by the plants was about 1.4 g., indicating that most of the available N had been absorbed. Plants with long vegetative periods absorbed most of the available nitrogen during the vegetative phase, while those with short vegetative periods did so during the ripening stage. The high yielding plants absorbed most of the nitrogen during the vegetative and reproductive phases. By the time of flowering, plants with long duration contained less than 0.7 percent nitrogen. The number of leaves on the main culm increased with duration of the growing 'period, varying from 9 to 21. The highestyielding plants produced 1.5 leaves. Height 'Of plants and number of elongated internodes also increased with length of growth period. These data suggest that when nitrogen supply is limited, varieties with relatively
(If

The jopontca varieties from Japan were nut adapted to tropical conditions and all yie-lds were low. These varieties produced short plants with small panicles. The iaponico (,)oniai) varieties ChianlIng-24:2 and Tainan-S are well adapted in the Philippines, and they gave good yields. Of the indicae, Taichung Native-l produced an excellent yield and responded well to the added N This variety has a short plant, it tillers profusely, and it does 1I0t lodge. Century Patna 231 is a variety cf medium height developed in the U.S. for direct seeding, and it consequently produces few tillers. The tall, leafy, latematuring tropical varieties actually produced less grain when nitrogen was applied. A pot experiment using the same 13 varieties, was conducted almost simultaneously in the greenhouse. The results completely contradicted the results of the field experiment (Fig. 8). The varieties (i.e. Peta, 59-368, and Acheh Puteh ), which showed negative response to nitrogen in the field, responded to nitrogen better than most other varieties under pot conditions.

I"

43

.......

.. "

I~.

jI,!t'l·

nl uit['Qgc'l1

level {F~g. UUI}

n.-:;:poI1<S·C'

Til,' ,lig,!.l! tlrlln~II'lb:lii(m rute (all m:lmti{ln til 'the base ,tlf .:Iu~ [I'lan ti»1 ,d: ··!'1".,liOl!ll widi, tin: !i:mwth o,r thcplllnts. The ~:U:l' was 'hm\'l~lf i:n:;idp. the FOlmbti{lJiI HI,It) .-,t It'iIC' hOI'd!'r [lInl also be-c~l.me I~~":efa s 11Umgel\ lie\l'C:]~ i'1ICl;e.3.'i!''lt Tihi:~ ind icatcs ;1'11 iucr ..'a ,iug Inll,lllal

slmding

wi'llt '~hl' 'I!Cr'el~5r. i

nI dl~ pl!.mts at 'th' burdt'r \\-~IS ~W'l'ater d,:m thai ofth~ pl.ml:s ;11:li~detill: l)OPI~bltions (]<1i,~. Uk). l'hcstl obser\':J.tiom iit-11M)m;tmte thil~ ~1!\,hl;I !ltl~ldil'lg i!l(.:r'ISI~r- ~Lt higher levels: 11f lIitf,Ogl·l1i. tmd tllo t ttl ls mntuill :;llat~ing, I (;;illl!';~S the .,;Hect o( the II it'rogen. N ihogen

~
~ 20
~I

g,;

'"

A. Arron9'!iII'i81 ¢ PoI'~

O!.~o:!

p'II~!'In.

C. IPoniC:111eiohIeigM 01 '\I'OfiO'II$ IPo'~I";VA'5 ' PopliIl'!U1iol1l rooith OIU'I'.lIm IIiIII!JOllqll It.!ItVOls.

ill

0'

iii ,4'0

~
::I

lit ,01; II: 1"-'

... :

2'0'

12'
.,,;i

c~-

1;1:

Effect of Spacing 011 Nilrogen Response by Varieties

On Dec. 20, 1962, a field ex penmen t established to determine the varietv x spacing x nitrogen level interaction and to test the conclusions drawn from the pot and water culture experiments previously described. Century Patna-231, Taichllllg Native-I, and Pcta, were grown at three spacings and with 0 and 100 kg.!ha. of added N. In this experiment, spacing was the factor controlling the amount of light available to a plant The yield data revealed several significant interactions (Table 9).
WilS

c o .1-

" .....
J;;.

o
oJ

....
>:;Z:.

<f
:r:

"'f'
~ i'~

'" 4

Century Patna-231, the variety with few tillers and developed in the U nited States for direct seeding, gave more or less similar response at any spacing, but it produced the highest yield at 15 x 15 ern. with added nitrogen. Its best yield (5.52 kg./ha.) was considerably lower, however, than the best yields obtained with Taichung Native-lor with Peta. Taichung Native-I, the profusely tillering short-stature illdica from Taiwan, also gave its greatest re.lpome to added nitrogen at the wider spacings, but it also yielded best at the 15 x 15 em. spacing, with added nitrogen. Peta, the tropical variety which ly does not respond to nitrogen tions in the wet season, responded ly in. this test at the two wider However, the J:ighest yields were
normal-

a..<fu..

~~<fr I~NI~<f)~<f
I

~"i'-u'l-:Q."

~
em.1
for

I-

I u Ic...=iLLl

'-"1-

C}l~1.IJ

3 ~_.~~~--~~~

{J~1l..

__ ~~~~_

ul-D..

15 xiS

em.

30 x 30 em.160

x 60

Fig. 11. Variety x spacing in teract.ion gra in yield, 1962-1963 dry season.

at 30 x 10 cm., with added

nitrogen.

The variety x spacing interaction, ignori" iug nitrogen levels and number of plants pel' hill, is represented in Fig. 11.

One vs. Four Plants per Hill

In the 196:2-1963 dry season field experiment described above, one and four plants per hill were compared for the three varieties at three spacings and at 0 and 100 kg'/h~. of added nitrogen. Generally, one plant per hill was equal or sllperior to four plants except in the cases

applicamarkedspacings. obtained

Table 9. Grain yield in tons per hectare nf Century PalM.231, Taichorg {Nativc ) I, and Peta at various spacings and 1wo nitrogen levels in the 1962·1963 dry
season Variety Century Patna-231

Taichung-I level (I:g./h.,. ) 100 8.23 5.11) 7 .. 9 5 7.28 6.53 6.76 0

0

Peta

Spacing
(cm.)

Plants pel· hill 1

4 I 4

Nitrogcll
0 3.99

\00
5.03

100
1.59 6.61 1.68 1.21 6.73 6.84

J5 x 15 30 x 30
6fl x 60

4.37
3.fltJ 3.84

.'5.52
3.79

6.77
6.30

o.io

4.114 4.68 4.49

6.04 5.99
4.78 4.91

1 4

2.59 2.80

6.88 fi.32 6.,52 5.35

.';.40

47

of Century Patna-231 at 15 x 15 ern, with added Nand of Peta at 15 x 15 ern, with no added N (Table 9). When Tatthung Native-I and Peta were planted at 15 x 15 cm. and 100 kg'/ha of N was applied, the !lSC of four plants per hill, rather than one, resulted in overcrowding, and yields were markedly reduced. In this lest, the number of plants per hill was critical only at the 15 x 15 ern. spacing. At the wider spacings, either practice appeared satisfactory. These data demonstrate the value of determining with some prec!slOn the proper eul tu ra 1 practices for each va rietv destined for commercia) production.

varieties. This may be associated with more sunshine ami low temperatures along with the less leafy characteristics of the plants in the dry season. In the rainy season, rice plants respond to nitrogf'l1 better at wide than at close ~pacing. Pera, in the rainy season, responds to nitrogcn only when it is planted wide enough for individual plants to receive su ffic.ient light. It should be noted, however, that the maximum yield of Peta at 50 x 50 cm., obtained with 30 kg./hu. N, was not much higher than tile maximum yield at 2:5 x 25 em. which was obtained without additional nitrogen. The most probable reason for this limited nitrogen respome, even at wide spacing, is the mutual shadTAINIlN -:.

Variety x Spacing x Nitrogen Level x Season Inter-action

Tainan-3 and Peta were compared at 2..5 x 25 and 50 x 5U ern, spacings and at five levels of applied nitrogen in the 19621\-163 dry and the 19K1 wet seasons. The two varieties behaved differently in the two seasons (Fig. 12). In the dry season, for both varieties at both spacings, nitrogen response was observed up to 120 kg./ha. N. The best yic-ld was obtained with Tainan-3 at 120 kg'/ha. N and at 25 x 25 em., but without added nitrogen, Peta was somewhat superior when planted closely. In the wet season, at 25 x 25 crn., the yield of Tainan-J increased with applications up to 60 kg'/hn. N and then it decreased; at 50 x 50 cm., total yields were lower hut there was a perceptible response up to 120 kg'/ha_ N. The performance of Peta was entirely different; application of nitrogen resulted in decreased yields except in the case of the wide spacing, in which case there was a slight respon~e to 30 kg'/ha. N, h"lJ1owedby decreases. These data indicate that nitrogen response is greater in the dry than in the rainy season, particularly with tall, leafy

• 25. ~5 om. o 501[50c:m. '" 2!i< 25 om_ II 50 x 50 cm.

} OIIT SEASON } RIlINY SEASON

..
o -'

i:L:~~
.r-=~
2 A~& °OL-----'~0-----6~O----~90~--~120 NITROGEN APf'LlC.ATION {Kg./~a.

Fig. 12. Effect of nitrogen ing on grain yield o( Tainan-3 wet and dry seasons.

levels and spacand Peta in the

48

iug within

a hill,

At 50 x 50 ern.

with

120 kg.!ha. ,the Pcta plants had as many as 65 tillers each at the maximum tiller number stage (under some condinons it can be more than 100 tillers per hill); but of these many tillers, only a few tillers per plant received sufficient light, and the rest were shaded by the tillers located at the edges of the hill. Timing of Nitrogen Applications

proved either by timing the nitrogen applications or by splitting the applications (Table 10). From these data, at least on the soil at the Institute, there seems to be almost no way in the rainy season to increase the yield of Peta significantly by changing either spacing or timing the nitrogen application. In the case of Tuinan-3, at :25 x 25 cm., when all nitrogen was basally applied, 50 kg./ha. N produced a maximum yield, and there was a remarkable decrease with an additional basal application of 30 kg./ha. N. When the application of the additional .'30 kg./ha. N was timed at later stages of growth, however, some slight yield increases resulted. Leaf Characters in Relation Nitrogen Response, to

An experiment on the time of nitrogen application was conducted during the 1963 rainy season to determine whether mutual shading might be overcome and yields increased by timing or splitting the uitrogen application. Tainan-3 and Peta were grown at 25 x 25 and 50 x 50 em., using 12 different rates and schedules of nitrogen application, All plots received a uniform application of 40 kg./ha. pta, and 40 kg./ha_ K.O. Generally, the effect of nitrogen and of spacing was similar to that shown in Fig. 12. In the case of Peta, the basal application of nitrogen had a definite negative effect, and the situation was not imTnble Lt). Yield in tons per hectare levels and limes of application

Mutual shading results mostly from the leaves. Rice breeders argue that short, narrow, and erect leaves are associated with the high nitrogen response character. To obtain comparable leaf measurements, plants of five varieties were grown in water culture at 0, 20, 80, and 320 ppm

0[' two varieties, at two spacings, with various of nitrogen, JHRl, J963 wet season.

Nitrogen 1 0 30 0 0 0 50 80 50 50 50 7.5 20

applicatlon (kg_/ha_) I 2 3 4 0 0 0 30 0 0 0
0

---_.
e-m.

Tainan-S SOx50
em, Mean 4.26

Peta 25x2." em_ 4.14 34'; 3,03 2.99 3,50 2,23 1.97 1.91 1.91 1.74
1.76 15)6

25x2,; 5.48 ,5.87 .5.51 5.41 5.27 6.15 4.70 6.14 6.2.'3 6,61,) .5.63 6,09

SOx50
em. 4_32 3,65 3.02 3,06 3.86 2,40 2,20 2.39 2.67 2.43 2.62 2_05 2_89

Mean 4.23 4,55 3.02 3,03 3,68. 2,32 2.09 2.18 2.29 2.09

0 0 30 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 7,5

30 0
7,5

~o

20

0 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 30 7,,5 20 ;-"1"3n

3_03 3,78 3,83 3.50 :;,28 4,31 4,37 4.43 4.47 4_63 3,.56 4.20 3.94

4.83 4.67 4.46 4_28 .'5_23 4.54 6_29 5,35

5,64

4.60 5,15

2.19
2.01

5.7:3

2 ..'56 sulfate) _

Time 1_ 2. 3. 4.

of nitrogen application (as ammonium One day before transplanting. Forty davs after transplanting, Five days after car.initialing. Bool;"g stnge,

49

N, and :I'!'era,.~e df~ta !!or the four treatmen:ts were Jc,t(f,m'lliI1~Hl 11u2 £f:~~ OI~ the:: f]ag.It.'"Ilf dOol..';l;uut seem
~'j' coudli:t~ I( TlI~\]e 11 )."

with nHrog~.nm~po:nse 'For c~ampie"Cel:ltUJry PliL~nil' 2:H h3~ along and wide flag.~t"aJ. b!llt the Vlillety r~f!.mds wen to l!it~ogen,fe,ta!. 3. low re.5F[J)5e Yi;![idy. has a 5hoot J~;(lg.]~:iI[ 'faicl:mng Nat:iY,e-l, :~ h [g b jjespon~ ",,tu:iety. hilS a wIde rlug·]e<J.[ As s~!C Ol! the nag.l~i![ap[?<!veniUy ~~,I1IQt
r.;IDos.ely rda~edto td!l~:iQ!!lb~hveell
l'Ii~rog~nw;'lpO'!ls¢,the
totll~ ]Ci'![ ~JC:;! <tmi n i~:m·

U!

.~~!

f_~,1 !!i![T~

~~.--~~~~~~~~'~' ~~~==~~~~
1.lIliiLr.' il.iti!:!Ii~

U!!;!i1iJ:

fif.. ~~. n~nfd,iuii bC1!il!'t,eifiJ l\e~~ a~t;l !jjilJ~ !'Iud U:ght tr~.tli~!lIlis$iillln f!l~!I! at, :fIDQii,!,'>efililtg fot ~:~'!'te v,~r:l)Mjiits, 196t~G~ d:r}'sl!!ts~it'I.

plots in TalJ~e 9.

thef~e'ld

Ie 'I":iI~l!I;es b:i,gge~: H{)[loo~fH,eiel'lt (K)" A'I'erage were {I,67,. (M"]4, lind. 1:,00 for Cenbuy leaf areas tball.lhe Q~her wll~i:e~ies. 'R~fu.af ,,!;'ell il1ldex (LA.I) ~1tId. tile nght p.arnul.,·.2c.3I. Taic.nung Native • .!, and Peta, A hig Kwtll1C: is Je]a.t'ed ro tw'l:!),~'lission, ate (Ill~) 'We:reoibfuj~!iid Qil ~[)e~tivel)'. r l'espoir"!se.Pt1i{l a:~d59·31i18 have
0:[

ge!!l oospoonS'e wl'l:s tl!st~d, D ..h, QIl the estimated 1ea£:i!.rea {TSJb~e ]I) i!1)d!ic,,~:ed irlfi:g, 13 are alw~ys ]ocate>dIQwer thali t]].e other vatie'!:i.cs. ThL~ ~u;gg.~ts thai!: the po~;ib&liry '0£ <I. ~~lilt~o[lsM~, between Ule;re i~:a va!:'ie!:8"l dHfe;'l'~~ce i!l the(\! exti[lCtota[ :Ieaf arett~nd ilegi:\~e of IlIbogen

t:h.e 6.\,perimcnlt

I'@portt,d

](~wnitrogen

resl:?0ftS;e"

There i~ a ~c~;;\H.Q[iJ~hip lu:tw~i1! the grahll

'TIlere W"l:5 .a; d~~cf()']aHr;mship, he:tw~~n leaf area ~!l,d~xa.na light b,a:ns:mi.ssio:n.rate O/~~) which fit tD I/I~ =e·1ILU[ (]Jig, ~.3). .Ho\veve~. mOre p[~e.i~ee"'!l'mim:l!t:iol!l of the datil :rev~~lls that tine pQ:il1it~ QI Peta
Tab1~ H.Lt!:nglth
and. ~dth o~ I~:J,_ Oil
~~ pl!:r [la~lIiIt of diluoru, [u~~ \l'aJnll'h~,~.

yhdd and! ~eaf ;]Jl'lm (Flg. 14).: the greate~

the lea! area, tnegteater

HQweve~. the ,e.ffide.n,y ·oft1rle ,leaf in. pro.

cludng g.f!h~ dJ~Cf@S'e'S wtU'JjinCil'e~!>e
~!!I l~<lJ

the groiny:ie']tl!.

~~~". too_
d.ty

Fiu~thCJl'i'lllQre.kycmd

a:llJop~im~u1f!

J !ih'Z

1fIiI:al1ll clJ.tlnn. anil ~.!it~lIt1~t~d {jt~l.Irmf ~ S~!i1.Wn. Ulildcir wyk,r ,eUiIJllIl1' ,cg!}.

T~idr~[I;(!:

C~nl:wt)i'

{Native} 1 ______ ---~~ __

riil.tn~."231

_;;;l.;;:.en.~,gtn~ (cm"~).

------

~~~~

1 2: 3 1.

L73

___

].'2,'1 U'1 :~iO

].'15

].'72,

Ul1 1.3'0

UiQ

r.ss
U!iO 1.31

];11 ]_ ..<I.::.:O:_' __

1.12.

2.'117

I NllJjmh;e~ !pd!f1r.h;! tme ~,tt.n!!

2''rQ!an;

~,~11ig~h !"':I~ '~, '~~~~ '~]~h ,Ulf

Qr l,-m"'~~nq:::u~:"dlIl1iiwilih, the £I~gle~f"

~
I:i~nl:fr 1iIiLj:lfl1lb~r'.

Fig. 14. Relation between leaf area index at flowering and grain yield. Data obtained from the same experiment described in Fig. 13.

leaf area, the efficiency becomes negative. Varieties differ in optimum leaf area, The optimum of Peta is smaller than that of the other varieties, and this difference seems to be related to the large K value of the variety. The maximum leaf area of Peta was far smaller than Taichung Native-l. Although Peta is a leafy variety, because of serious mutual shading from the early stages of growth caused by active tillering and the large K value, the lower leaves do not receive sufficient light. These lower leaves start to die, and the variety cannot have a large LAI. However, Taichung Native-I 'has a small K value because of its erect leaf character and extremely short stature, the mutual shading is not serious, the variety has less dead leaves and can have quite a large LAI (as high as 8). The optimum or maximum LA! for each variety depends to a great extent on climatic conditions.

Death of Rice Leaves

A considerable amount of dead leaves has been observed in the field - more so at dose spacings than at wide spacings and more so at low than at high nitrogen levels. These phenomena suggest that nitrogen and light are possible causes. Studies were undertaken to clarify the following paints: (a) The possibility of varietal differences in the quantity of dead leaves produced; (b) the extent to which deficiencies in light and nitrogen cause
.'51

death of leaves, and (c ) the possibility that, by chemical analyses, and by measurement of the ratc of photosynthesis and respiration, specific causes of the death of leaves could be determined. During four successive planting seasons starting May, 1962, to March, 1963, dead leaves of Tainan-3 and Pet a at harvest were collected from the field plot of the experiment reported in Table 12. The percentage of the total straw weight composed of dead leaves at the four times of harvest revealed no significant seasonal differences but a definite varietal difference (Table 12). In another attempt to determine the cause of death, the dead leaves gathered hom Tainan-3 and Peta in the July planting at booting, 'beading, and harvest were analyzed for various elements (Table 13). The tall, vegetative indica, Peta, defi'nitely had more dead leaves than the short, less vegetative Tainan-3. The amount of dead leaves increased as the crop matured, The analyses of the dead leaves reveal that nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are low. For the maintenance of adequate photosynthetic activity in the leaves the critical contents are 2, 0.15, and 1.2, respectively. However, the content of phosphorus and potassium in the active leaves was high. This indicates that the death of the leaves was most probably caused by low nitrogen content, phosphorus and potassium translocating with nitrogen as the leaves died. It may be noted that nitroTable 12.
Amount of dead leaves, as p<:rcentage of total straw weight, of two varieties during four seasons, IRRl. Dead leaves as percentage of total straw ""eight
_;r--

Planting dale March 15, 1963 May 1, 1962 July 13, 1962 October 26, 1962 Mean

Tainan-S 18 4 15
}4

Peta 28 32

Mean .25 '"!'7

19

24 26

49 37 37

l (.hlt'

,:_c

C:unq)LlsitH1tl In(i~ \.... -N

_'\('.'["'0:1,.

p!

dl·ad

1'1·;1\, t':-'

~;dhiL·n'd

,II'UIII

·1:UlI,UI·)

.llld

Pd;1

.I,HIIII~

II't·

T .•i,1;!tI-.)
ll~ 'i 11 .., ,~ L I!
I'

.rl :

I, ) (

,! ~L ~11 :

JIL'iljiLIl~
.:1;~

II"" ,·,t
~,lli'

l~.I'lti[l~ 1',\)0

1i~";ulin~ 1,1.1111

11.1!'\·.'q 31;,111'

ih_'

\.\·(."i~hj

(I,~·I

~.g;r;L.'I'I. ..; l~l I u nt

h·rf'.~iil~l~(· Ilr-

"
I'

,;1
(1'<;

1--"
,\1"

h:

,Ii I

-t., ,m; ,.=s.;.

.~:)

,4-t
,()~

,;r; ,:1,
,:,(i ,Ii: .,3[~
.~~.)

!~
,ill'; ,II]

,:\1

.u t

.til
2(U)/!

.. 'l ~

.:(;
,,;1-, :');'),_"fl

I .~ I ,~I ,::1]

_::',5
.;3),

/11

.(l\"':;

(:"

,70

\1j! SiO ..

_3B

.7;;
]1(; I

AI

_~7 .:HI
.,~t

il(l.'

co
IllTe

Hl

2.-t,:_H'

gf1n. irnu,

Inung~ltH .. ->~,l·. and sil i(:a arp hl_gher in Taillall.;l thuu III p,ot" whi Il' pot:ls.'iillill is higlwr i.. Pet", From tin'

populutinn a tI d t h e d('ad
1':1(> {"(llk-ded alld
.

:\;lnlp!{"d

11',I\L'~

of these-

at harvest. pia n Is W(-I<'

ilm,h-z",il

for total, llitH"'''';. ~

v.uiclv,
\\'l'ig:ht

'pn("i,,)!.

'lIId •oilrOl';l'U

nf .1";,1(1 [.." \'('S. lig:ht tr;\Ilsmi,sjOli ]'al(' nt tlw hu:«- "I' Ihl' pl:n.1 p"puhltiOlI, ,n,d lil,· I.itrogell {"uIllt;>nt d thr- plunt W{'["O:' cum pill'(1. As the IIi trngl'" con re-n ti 11 the ]11;, (I t dl"("l"t"<lS( ·ll. tl....[Wl'l"l"11 t _
Oil

level data

i,.t,']"adio'l

!:'XPI'I'illl~·I.1 i Til

b ll" HI,

til<"

age

of

(](',I(\

1('aVE'_' iIlL·]"l':<s,.·(I (Fig.

Oil light InUlsmis,joli

1,))

The d'll<l

r.t te \\'('1 I?

plottr-rl
11'<1"'"

;I~'linst

(Fig.
r,lk

mission

the ]ll"ll'l'lIta!_:(' (II' d(·"d L(;): wlu-n- the light trallS\\'<1., low. tlwr,· ,,"('"n' 1110r{'
in il.l

dc-acl lc.rve-s.
From tilt' put '""[lnillwill rl'pnrl("d Fi~. 10. the ]11.1111" at \"ct,'i,,", I'nsitin""
30
0
Q

Th« II'('i!-,:bts uf tlu: actin' k',IITS also \\in, t"kl'Il. elmi tlu- I\Ti,!ltts of th .. dead 11';[ (';' V as ]ll'r{'l'tllil!.':('S of the tot;!1 kat II('i.l';ltl' \lTr,· dn(,llllillnl I Pi.g. 1-;-J, TIl(" [l''I"l','ntagc 01 to ta I II i t wgl"1l in the dead Iv,l vex wus plot(t'd ag<lill~t the jl"[("{,lItagl's ul ka\!;'" dead. thl" I (,,11 It i!lg ("II r\'t· has un i!lll'rt('d hor:;(~.'ihm·· s h;ll'" TI, i:; rcIutrouship 1"<;'1",:11, 1ha t I'ow 11it .... (." COlt, Il' II 1 i s "~sC)ci,, kd ~ with rlt':lth It'i!l("S, H 0\\,('\'(>1. il COli' sidt'r,lbl .. ;1111101111 • .• d(·ad leuvcs >lis" i, Ii)lllld 'lgaill ell " high llitnJ;c;f'1I content: death of thest' 1,,;\ \"C'S could rC~1I11fml" bd; of lic;hteau-",,·d h.\' rnutuu ] "J,;,dillg.

or

or

r 11

<Ill

oth('

I'

,!I'l',llh-'Tdll{"pd

pI'.ISioJo\!k,d
dc·t!'nnilll'(),

rlt<lJoJ' ex jlf"ri me-n t. (' fh'd~ "I ;llId cunt rullcd light 'HI rl» l'hnmctni,ti(" of pLtlitS wer«
ill "'''Il[llf'le
\\"<"1<'

" '" "' 20 '" ~ '"

.J "0

Pcta pl,jllt.-.; )!Io\\illg

~o.hltiull I "I' .')(1

1!I,lri( Iii 1\;

(h""

~llbj(;'ct('d

thn·C'
,!'H)

1:(,\'t·I~ of

11 rngf'l\.. it

lIelllll"iv,

O. :,l:O

.. "' "
,_
z

'0

'.

too ppm. T",,,I\'t' ,LI.n 1:11('1', \\'11('11 til>" tn·atmPIIl.\ ,hOII·,·d lIlari-.:('d din','n·IICl", Ill<' phorosvn t hct il' a II rl re-x[li 1',1 ti, 1Il rutr-s n r
'·'H.h OlI'gHli 1.1.'\'(,1

._ "'
0
05 NITROGEN 1.0 CONTf_,PH I,N

"' 0:
'-'

()r

thr- plautx

fronl

{'<l('h lIifl'O-

g"11
i.s
PLANT
~%l

\I'("n'

IlH"a~llred
oj

with

.111 iufruW['·"'· l'l'.'pinlof

2 ,0

n:d ~d.' nnal.\·zl'l'

TIlt" (lwl' (In' wei.!!hl

tilt'S,," or~all-"
,111(]

lC~Pll·:S riea d l n 1~H a I I ~lf;2·{):~d.-y ~ea~m"_

Fig. \.,.

Th«

,-el"li"'hhill of I'" rvt-u n,I!'[' fir n itr-Ug-(I' n in l t\p pla n t :

t:.k(·'1 and photosvuthr-tic

('aJcllbkd
<HI

101'.1' a(;(il'llI

tll\'

bitsi.-

dn

"I:ltt,,]"

30
0
0

5 ppm N

... '" ...

III

... 0 '"
0

22 20 Ie 16
14

"-

~ ... ~

20

'"
!oJ !oJ

~
..J

... 0

...
10

... <:>
a;
W G-

'" ;! "
z
I.J U

12

\
~
0
TOTAL

..

20 PP'" N

- 150 ppm N

...

<l IZ W U

.. '"
OJ:

0
NITROGEN IN

2
DEAD

3
LEAVES (%I

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

% LIGHT

TRANSMISSION

( 1/10 I

Fig. ).. Pe rcent age of leaves deud vs, nit rn;,:..n content of the dead leaves. Prom mutual shading experiment described in Pig. 10.

Fig. 16. The r e Ia I ionsh ip <or parcen (age of leaves dead to light transmission raf e ; 1962· 63 dry season.

A set of plants growing ill the different nitrogen levels were then subjected to reduced light. 400 lux nbove the plants, in a Percival growth chamber. After 1:3 days of treatment the condition of the plants was noted. and the [<'spirator), ami photosynthetic activity of the leaves from the plants g[IJ\\'1I in 0 to HlO ppm N measured. Dr)' \1'l'igiJt of these plants were taken. Ch em ical 11 na II'ses were coud 1I cted on samples of tile plants growing at various nitrogen levels "t norma I and reduced light intensities.

Before reduced light treatment, drv \\('ie:ht "f the active leaves nud culm"he;th was grr;lter at the hi_!;!;hnitrogen level than at theIow nitrogell level (Table 14), However, the proportion of leaves dead \\"H~' greate!' at the low nitrogen level. After the reduced Ii~ht treatment, the proportioll of dead leaves increased, espe· cinllv ,II ]00 ppm N. This indicates that re-el IIced Ii~ Ii l results ill dea th of leaves .md th.rt death is accelerated by inoensillg the nitrogen supply. The plantx rf'cl"i\'illg 110 Ilitrogen incrcusecl ju weight by 6 f!;. during the reo dnced light trea 1111('11 I, but till' ones supplied with lO() ppm N lost more than 20
w .. ighl

Table 14. Th" df e N "f I:l <la"S 01 r -duc ed light Oil tl ... of 7'i·cI'ly-old P(.'(;I plants. . Light treutmcnt

"I various

organ,

~itrog("n

Ie, ~I
t ppm)

Act;',· Ipaf.hla,h· IHj 20.1

;!GA

D,'ad",

1.-,,[ ·hl:"h·
(I."
j,11

H'lIo\\'

Leaf-shvnth &, culm 2;.0 :l6 .. 5 3R.2

30 ..5

Hoots
18,\)

Total

l)Hyliglll fm 62 day' D;l)'light fnr 62 days pillS + 400 Lux Ior 13 davs

o
20
100

60.0 "77.0 H2.! 66.3 6il,1

19.4
17.1I 1·1.! Ill.-!

0 .. ; <

o
20 Ion

111.1 20.S

3,~ 3.1>
Ifl.f)

I''''''

_ ..

32.0

,5.4

sr.o

~. "fht' Ims (If ~(lflt w~~ighl with fl~,C'r~"I~t'd M!['J:ply or nHro~'C n ~JLn:cl&'r l)L'duct'tll~~l'1t was rjiUi~ i(!tL~arly :uo~ke;l bit·. These figuI'e£ d~~.r.ly demon S ~ m te an t'H~d ()[ nitrog't'J:I Of! !h~ b;!l:mc~ ]!O?twe('~:1 ph()tm;)-nthe~~i:;and ft·S;pl rution,
Ho]d!n:g,~.hL~ pbnl~ Wtlt

l'rJh{ •. J5.. •

I:'hrn:r~}'n~ h.-"ti~ ;};~t! "''''!I:.ilf~,ti''l~ mIlL'\!; {I(

~.'~I'~ f~l.~mt~ ~t ~',1.ri,~m nitm.!o':"I~ I,~,"'!~'

J,~;Lllt IlB~ts n~' I·.U.,~:>; r

",.,~t:>

{CO~ If~,/hj·./4 p!I;rl1k>~'; 4{W~ 36 436

-------_.

:>lillTOg"jj: l~~'..! (ppnn, l' - ~J~~ eM)

rl d;;!;"~Olt

.;100

u-, tF.bI~dl' I

,of ,chang~~!~ dlem~C\II~'I[~l1lrQSitLnn.,~ few of \~ihich can

I~,l<, ~e~!:~~til;.'I(;l a mimb!lr ill

[,~~r·slle~l~~ +rulm2

f'Jmtrk'iy",tht!~i~. mil is/l,1'! XlI N,5 tof\! Ui6J

he

sum:~nl'lrizcd bric,r Iy a,~ follbws: Lferoerlft:ilg'e

(l~

fQtll]

~I~tii'ogen lifl-

le~f·b,l~t J[.~af·~l~e~J~h + cl'Im2

!l£](I~

,U
00

R~~tN~'J!tiQIJI. 6~
.W'i! 94

il'x
W4

sli,gbdy. hut pCIX."en~:a.ge Qf oohihle; To'Jt:l~, N.. s '~9 4S8 ui~rog'~n .inlcr"C:I~<ld :mad:ed'~y, As a re.~cul~t, -------~---0:;". WEIOf.liT lI~~!S (GO. 1'l1gJlir,fg, (Jjry ~L~ll);: the liatlOQof s(J~l1JM:eN to total N was high. rll~syn~hes~ er aft~r dJC reduced H,gb~treatraent. creased

----------::ll 1.3 <118 1.9

5$

ss

U.!i

2, 'fota~ ~ugl'!~S decreil~ed sh:il~pJly, espedally b~, dl~ 20 aad 100 ppm N
mC[lt~. ,tre;l~l,o~v

1G!f-bt:ldG~ uaf-®heolth +eulm2

S~..rcb
][1 11]1

COt!"!:~:e;fllt

d~o:p'pe(]

----------~~-----3,3

t!:l

lc\;,-eis

trealwci'lts.

IJ.oots~

l~;l(·bl.ll:d~i L~af_~mlitUI + ,~u!mt

3~

B~~[llmH>!)n &.5 HI L9 2;11.1

.:!..8

5,] lU

U;

3. .A mi~le-N was p~ei,f'n~i[l 11 oomiJ.c~ 1 ~:I~'liS~!:l't:1~ficnt wili$ Itl;l~UTI n SR!1ilipl~ of' five !~~~ts.,["hc d~tli fliN m~~imru~:m1i'lUtE!J - Q( platoahle ~miOtildil'l thelc;i¥~s Id 20 and moo ru1!pm N kw,~b,esl)eei~]I.y iin! tfl.e delid ]e...1:Yes ~)'l1ith~~~sw~r~ u~~d_ 'ilTiho[Ih"t~mheti:e<:m:cll_ n\!1pi.TiIIltDf)' :mt~ [l~f dry ~ug:ht. w,~ di~r1 wor_kt:d. olil't at 100 ppm N. ~TId the ~ctiv!tv fI<i'I" [ll~iiit b~:l w~~ reeal.mdl!~sd! Mgh.er fn. the dJ~<Id ~.t'JVl!R il·~~ha :W anld~OO pplill N levels,
4. A~:nmoni!JIm
WlIS

un, d~, !Il~ttl'f h!l!"'i'~, ~ 'fhi! p~~rm(poorHOlfl w~u pl~ in ~clm!Ilber ~Rld Ih!]' ~h~fll1)~ Ii! OO~OM~cnlltatioo .in thep~~~. iUFl:~ir W<l;S n'<'Ld witll 4(1 ~b.!X and wil;1mwlt ]Ight,

a Th~ mot W;IS h,!ug in <'lch~mibc:r!lnd th~ CO'.' Ci(mta.ii'l~rnig: co:mpnum:_ls ~n,dk·.ded!nmt dlc:!'e ,oor!!'.x:~tr~tl'-'~I change !n th:e p~ssing air WliS ~.d" i;l; a h~gher all1nullt (lfillJ~:rga[j ic p.hJ(lsphonl~ ('md .~IQwer il'mOuntol~ RNA.,pho~phQ:rlI..l~ phutooyu ~he5is, tlile ,,()o~S 0:1iI11 dry m"~r in the dC<ld ~Cl'it\l'es :t'hafl i:lIlthe ;llotive leaves b~s:is ~plj\e ~t dl(t highEtst Fate.,

Tbe ilfmlj'~es O\£·"il:uiQw,

pn.o:>phoms-

when
]iliJlt

these

arc

subi~fcd!

b)

i)(llh](l~d

These data reveal UlI;a;l d1C reJ~~diQ:flIrl Ctlrb(lhydmte.s,~.vhich is :l. c(J[lsequm10e of

th~ pl'Hlt'S :ii1~[)~Hty ['Jhoto!!:yn~heshl'je tu,
i[l

On. d~.e basis phot1)!lynth~s:js

of leaf area,lhl[l
1A!~d

mt&>
of

or

mS[p'ira,tion

lell'l'\t>~~

?oIcroemeasured krorr~ !l!1cli !lne~ dle13.day wdYQ~d ]igJ:I[ tll'el'lhl1lm1t Figl.i~ Ul ~hlows

fhe absence f.llf light,lcad~ t~on of PI'utll'llJJl;;,

titlrl :!'~hiS of

~:o!hllil degro,da.

D~~tll 011 tJilC' photos)'llltlilcticand rcspi~~pl~uJits g[(md,l1i:g!wmu~ly and pro'vidceClwith dHfe'ront' !:litwgml ]~vt1!h;; ~IJdk{l,t~d th,'1t,. !;.Qth ~ln the b<l~f~ ~r pkm~ and of dry wt'i,g:~[t> pho~.o~ynthes~,s <).!t(] respiratiQI1 f!i,"r~r~se wHhiIJICrt.':'ls,ung levelsnf
In

it:[fog~n {T,l~~ Jl5,).

"VM~,e the leaves are

org)'lTls

l~be m:o!ll ad~ Vi: {lW 'Ihe rhH!~:

hl

gmphiC<l~~y lheplwto.syfithetillc rate of the l~.f s~nple!l fmm rh~ plalltS gro\,!;,11 wit:!! !he dH'femnt levels of IllHmgc'll fe[ti'li."Z)lJ," hnill_ n(lnt!,~~ain, the Mgn.c!l' t'llc :nit:ro. g1L'iIl oonh:mt, ,!;he mO!r~ ~c,tive the phot:os:yn. the:;;is. After the reduced Ught tr\,'t.;~:me[lt, dh,; ]eaJ samp.le f.m:m:the MlOM>:f!'l N '~.reatme:nt: w<lspmd:ic;I'Uy flH.~'lJ:paMc (if photo. srn(he~i~\'I!'hj]clh<!t' from. the {I ppm was stm aMelQ dQSl!i, ~~nhoy~h at a. [fw~l! deereased rate,

__ .~ _

Hl!!",~

.. !o!!""-"!.ill !"!!'i!~

th~~ln.~H Peta, kin

IJ ihr!bo'X.·u

T~~c lu~,'cr' r1!!'U:rJ!Llntsof ll1 th(' t~m1t!!:'(,ll plmflt!i

~)~f~'

__,......-l!I!li~

as oom.

!~

.~ ~J
i~

dcgrad!a tio.u (J,F p:ra~iei1'ls •

'I

p<lred to dlcCOllt:ml

are~wlidcl:lceof~he

Th,t~ pi!l]1'lP'r eb ml;l~>I'tl()grarnof the 'treated ~(>~:wesevealed the ptesenoe of a~pnmgi~.e r ! Iii! wtlne t'hat:(JIF'~he ~ntro.lshowed none. !~, These' riml in.~li: ]i~d to a series tests of , iii !.'ImmtmiU!11L s!..!~btc~.nd a.:;;pm.rilgiil'leas pru. ~ib.le ()O,1l1pot!I!!dst'itlising thee death. of l(!{Jvc.s under redl[lcedooJildit·i(m~. De:~'aC'hed leav{!s of Petiil -Rio,an·3 we~e l)i:.:ooiI il1!.1a'fiOt!S eoncent1l'<!tioll'lS o.f tih~e ~ig, 1;8. rhl(lt05lflll.1.he$i$ ,~~'td, !'espi~a,tion of ~~oh~.t~ol'ls. Tihp.re~]i It's suggest ~h:i1t by I'~'1)1j; plant'S [~>i.'rl)r~~IJ!l.!I. .:It'li~~Ii. ~~"d:ll)' ,d,~'r!! reeel ing a n1i'llQnium nHrtlgen to detac;:hecl tl:\~~tifi!01'!!t Mdi:~(~'r>e'jjt ~Ii~ht, li!1Jtl!'!!IL."iij'les. '!It ru.~jl"<'!t~OOlI f3:I:ninmg ()II)'.! tO~'~\i!" '~m.J~'r' ,I!:'aves at 11 certstn ]evel, ·1Immoni.!lJJ11Il nn:rlJ"''JI'~iI'e'):filitl'fofe (.'\g!:!Ist. 6}, - ~ "'" O.~\],~'.:~, = i,oo~, ]'00 :l.Brll i ;j.f1,~~ (AlIglJs:t ~) - II ~ ~t'n ~ttil.lmlJl~''lte~ :in t1~e tlssue aad the Hs~ 0Jj, ~:fidi liOO :=:. iI,~.Il. -~n(lst~~t;s to die from ;'lmrn:u}:niUIn toxicity. W:hi~e .l?iI'esc[lt d:(iLtaim,p~icllte amm'llllium The pla~I~.s: growing "tlhc c'IHfere[lt nit·mgcitl. as a tn"k ~~lbshtnre1eacli:ng to ]evels of I1Hrog:C:rI di.ffe1!'cd .iln their ~biHty d~e de<i!Jh ,of iice ]e:;u~~, tbe pQ£lliMc~lfx:ic to su.rvi:vc u[lderQo[u:Ht~o[ls of ]ow Hgn.t cffec~ of a.spS![~gi;nc H~lf f.~ not ruled O"iltt ilru~e\!lsiiti:es,'f,~e p~a~ll~~lrovi.djedl with [;00 ~:pm N ~lu:Ffeil'ed g~,e<!t~st; nd deathnif th~ a ll!ilss of Nlt!!"iOg~~it l1~rl!J~lrg~~ @I]ti:re pl>ll!lt WOiS ~at]u~r sl!Jd~nJ_ UndC''l' lI::ai:n o[r D.ew lllw 1f,g:b'~.i.nte:n;s:~m~.!i\, the pbm~ .for which Nitoog'e"rI, phO$pl:lO.ms, pOl (!ssjuro, and no nHoogen. was pru".~dc:d did hetter tJ~a1ll ma,gn.es;ium: are mQb~l,e in. the rice pJil:llit, anya~ the dl~ee. '!I!'Q deterll1ine dIe llhf;mate Cf!~~,~e or ri:l(fjog b;.t[lsloc..:JIh;:d~n $jgni£icill'l~ qn'I.!~t:ities causes of dIe dea~h o£lc<lv~~ !'I~~I Uing frOIll:! old Wg::1I1S ~Q new _ '[-he IJ igh ;!Hobn~ Hyillclicate~ ~htlt a la,rg~ £md:iOOla~ th~c; rrrunll),ck '0£ ]!g~t, :If! C'xpm-i:!llel'lt enllploy.

~,~
L

~L~

~,iiiiili I

~I~g a :mO(l\~ 5eve:re

t'm3it:men:~.,

i.e., 'I days

d,em:ellits may h(li~l rl sol IIM~ form w~ich

~(Uillle:

oJ complete ab£cnoeo£ liglCII~, W5)$ h~tpful n'u~, M'a, ~!II Table W ~Jww thM'the 8ol~lb]~ d l:li'!rog'€'tlQ~h~fr<l!ctiolil~ d~,e ~reatiLIcli .eaves of ~ .....ere high;. these \1!"~re higher hI. 'l"ilinan.3
Tab€!.\' j 6. Tim ~m!J1.m~: f nitro~~(m~ ft~c!'jom~ in ~ I~/!!. fllE~h W4l"Jght~ ill the 1(;1l\\;GS. or r~'1:1 m1d, T~in~lI-3 g.r~, in 131ed~:~k(or l' d.~.y~ CCnlias par'ed~o 't~~~ grnwn~nth", ~~!l'II.,

lmd~f

eend

itlfo!lf!~ :lill;'!'"

]e<ll:ch

nU!~

of

Ih12 p]flnt

,-

Plllntsof dlc tf!ll.g~owillgindtca vade~. ret~J,we.re trlmspla~t~d ilt 3.0 x 30 em, ~[I ]l~ ];962, an,(I l'Ieoeiv,cd 0, 00', or 1120 f~il.', kg./hril. N a~ ilmnflo.lJinm ~~l]lfa!~ j[Jj~t be· s~~nincant
Iliitl!'QgCI:'l

[<me p~<,uilH:lIg"']]L~",re was cv.iJ~n'_"e of ]osse~ ;It the two II,i.ghc. k:'\i\~~ls

d'tur,iag

]m.t~:r sl:e!g~~ of

gi"O"l'):th

Nitrogc!'DQ'lli
£tliIctLDn~

rct~
Omtm~
.[Il;I'.::l'! .~<I A4 lll~[{l

T .. ;iMi'I·3 J

~.7)_ ]!l tl:w !llot~ ~ccei"":iIJlg 120 ~Jg,/ha. N. a:bmi~ 30 pe[~~ Qf!he maxi(Tab]e
li!l~!rf~ Ili,tru~elt ""':!IS ]O$t.

,Aafnoonimlfl _, N
llluiml-

~-----~

f)uk 3,fH .316

,:55 7_5.3

C~ntr<Jl D~~k
.00

Amtil~

N _. N
-N -N

.oilS

.85
,01
,,63

U6 15.!3
,.:84 9.6.<;

Pi;lptjd~ P~MtI

11..'70

.ss

above grOI;ll1l4 I.la:rts ]Iacl! been ~nml?]ed, ~ i!t ~ccm~-cl posstble thilt ~om>c !:IHi!'ogciIl n~:ip;l~ithOlve Le~m Irm.tns:IQedcdto
A50Jll]yth~

tho

roO:!S,

H!QWeVl;l",

f:tOO

pia !IIts

we~e

·"dhh· J;-, Atuouut of 11it rogt"'l1 in ~hl' ri"l"t~ pla ut ut S\U"t"(::-i$j'l,. e- _"b-Lt::~·:'11of (!"fo\'Lth d ifh'rt"Ht ni trug",n ],.,·cI" Illl~, ·hill). , N "ppli(·d (kg/ha
() (;i()
:\" j

Frlh'c

I~, Cnn~·("llni.lhlll nl l1il nl~t II.. pfl(_l"'1.p~lr',r~,.... " .. nd pot:"L..::-.iu!H i 1.1 ; .. rt i l icial r:li II wutrr HH.J t ~~ 1\ L·"IJ..dc,d f '0", I. 'ct"'< ,,[ ric,' 1,1,,,,(.<, 1\10:2. lIn;" _~_llEI~~_

n.)~t'l~in m£!.. hill .u \ ~\rions

___ _~._~~~, t-l:; (I;~~s' __~ •. ,._.., ~lj

I

.
Or-I. ~:Z
.';1.')

'xutru-nt

Juh L~

Au;!:, :3

Ang.
;Z.j

Sept II .'it;7
I (E,(l

,,I'

.'el)'"
III-'

IJl'"

·W
tr.u-c-

;()
7H
104

h '11ft

that th e- cut end was not inuncrsecl. III uuother It'st, tIlt' tips of attached lean's l Transplanting clat«, JUII<" ;Z:3, clal" "I [lowr-rwere dipped ill water in test tubes. _"1ing, S"pt~ mher 14, though some llitrogell was lost in <Ill c:a~,"';> tk- lower le.ives from plants groWl! at th(, ~J"()WO in clay pots pla<"l'd within <l field h ieh!" f n itroge!l I('\i(' J lost the "ren test population to f.,ciiitnte sarnpling of the <m;(J\!l\t (Tabie HI). Losses of pho~horus_ roots, and subsequent analyses I"('v('aied no 'u IU potassium also were greater from tlw measurable tra nsloca tion from shoots to lower leaves of plant$ growing <It th, mots. I'igher nitrogen hovel. A Peta plaur groWill)::;" in a field plot To determine the loss nt nitrogen under which had received 120 kg.!ha. N was endifferent conditinns, Peta plants wen, dosed ill a vinyl chamber ami was sprayed for 40 days in a standard lightly with distilled water for :2 days. I[) water-cultured solutiou. Three treatments then wen' addition, early morning dew was collected One plant was allowed to continu, from leaves of plants growing ill rhe 120 given: growing in the standard solution, nitrogeli kg./ba. N plot. Since dew collected from 1V,lS withheld from the second, and tlw metal poles in the field contained only tlurrl was placed in the dark. After ) about 2 ppm N, the hig-h levels in the d,~\~' week, leaves were coli ectecl , immersed ill and ill the artificial rain indicate that conwater for 2..1, hours. then the water was xidcrnble nitro?:en aud potassium actunllv analyzed. The plant kept ill the dark lost leached from the pia 11 rs (Ta hie 18). ,1 high amount of nitrogen, but even great. To determine differences ill nitrog,m cr amounts of potassium (Table 20). Thelosses from vounz and old leaves Pf'!a plants were \~ater~ultllr(>d 'with 5 al;d 100 "no nitrogcu" plant lost greater amounts of ~, P, and K than the on ... in standard culppm N_ Foul' leaves from upper and lowture. er positions were removed from plants For th(~ plant kept ill the dark. 50 pt'rgrowing nt each nitrogen level, and thes€' Lent of the nitrogen in the leachate W;!, leaves were numersed ill water, trlking care
J2t1 'XI/! 1.~J(I

~133 ;90

51fi

·1·'

l.~"

H.i

1:l7!.)

III()

Tub!« 19·. Lo>, "f nitrog~". phosphornus. lower I.. ,,\-<,~ or rice plants.

and [X'ta.silllll hOi" the uppcc and tlw

~,tn~gt"n_.l~:~~~ .::u~t.u::_~o.h~~ion_" ~~l

Nutrient

.-..

:; l;:pm N)

5 i ppm N) '~--D-;;;;~11;:rl,;~'------Att"dl('d
Lowe-r

100 (pplll :\ i

llppi;N P
K
I

_.~.P.~~___.L~~:'~r . ..
AmOlmts

lost
4,3-1 0.37

ge~~.,~_~~! _ "_l'i~;:-r·~;.;,,
0,17

k"~';:;------~0.20 0.83

IOU (ppm ~)

in mg_l-I

(lAO

o.us

O_SO

(J5G

OJ7 0.90

OA6

0.11

s.no
,,}6

0.02

o.te

leaces: 0.20 0_04

o.ss

0.03

o.m

0.67

nu data.

flll)lr {h fh

20
'iI'('nt

L. I....... nf
h
([II IIILl

dt rn~l
...
I

Ii

I)IIL l.... p~lUrUlI.....

ric-i'

ani

pOl:L........ ILIUI

I( 1\ t

d till'
::.!.

nllllOli'"

• nn.!_

I,'j ,..1.

pLmt 1.'.Li

l.m{IL"1
I

j\lull'i{'111

(;nll.tl·pl
[I.II.~

._.::' 11'h:::!._
11.2(1 II(lfi
1.~(1

'n

-,

{;nl\\U

.!,uk

ilt
\\ t·I·~

1;,,1<1 l'"",1 it i"".'. h""(·I·,·r. 'mil tl", 1",,,-'1' ;"""'" an- WI ('1'<." ,haLh,d, It wt'1l1l'1i til'" .;i J'ilhk ttl (l'a(;1 v- tilt' IIIII('Ii"I" "f t 11<' 1,,;< I"'S. p.ntu-ul.i rll "'ilb [,,'Ia t inu 1" n '01.

1\ P

n.()~
Pi:;

-'3.:20 1).3,~

Ii, 'lel[)j111H'lIt.
F i 1"~1. .u II Plwr I.-,If I -;-t h I ,111 Ii ;I I{""~I' I -lth I ,·<teli DI 4(1-da,' old plant.01 I'da .uul TainaTl-,'\ \I "n' (",\po,nl to HCOe lur 1-1 11t)1Ir~. 111<"11 "·,'n' :'lutorildio!,;r:'plic-d. I" tll('w pl.uits. illt(Tllndl' ekmg.ltioll had "01 vi-r nccu rrcd. E \<1 min" ti on of rh« ,,",m:ldiogra ph~ I('w·,ilvd tll:oI at this ,;ta.Li<' "I "nJW til there \\ :IS "" d ifkn 'n t ia tiun of 11II,:tiOIl of tilt' II pper ;111(1 I(JIll" It ',1vcs: both ~llppli('d the whnle plant with nsximilation products (Fig, 19 I. \VI\('11 th« prlltf'd",..·· was rt"'jlt'<lt",d with
I

Tj lWI'C,:Il! I\a~ .rmino-plus .uuicloN, nurl IS [It'rCt'nt wus in high, r runh-cular forms, The leachate Irom tilt' "standard culture plant contained 110 nieasurable Nj-L,·N. IlW'it 01 tilt' nitro,o_:t:'ll beill),':
nmino-N.

1\ H,-N.

"

5.211

It

,<I

tall-growing: vurietv, Pd,L develops shadinj; in the field under heavy applications of' nitrogenous f'ertili7.ers. The upper lean's sll<ldt:' the low!"! leaves .uul II itlOgt'1i leaches from the latter; couseq lie II tlv, some of tho lower len \'('s die. I f till" plHllt5 urv uot crowded and low leve-ls 01 11 itrag,'!! HI'" \lWeI. rain or dew is less likelv tt) leuch nitrogen from the leaves, In reo ionx wlu-n- tC!'I!I'l'rnlllr!'S ,H(" lower and then' iS les~ rn in fa IL rice p i.'lll> pro' cluee less «rowth 'l.ud I'WC(lIlH; IE'sS crowded (;,VI:'J', :~ hi;.;l] lIitrogt'1i levels, Thus, thev do not lose nitro<1f'1l. \lmt vnrieties lIse~l in tempe-mle climatr are;lS hnve rl:"lativelv short, st; ff ~trH II', Th is {'I iIll; n a tps IIndl.';irabie;> amounts of shndilL,t!; ) n tilt' tropies, where there is limited sunshine aud heavy ruins OQ(;.W, ••durilLg the wet season, ordiuarv tHll"grulI'ing indicas become crowded a;l<I :d;aded' when f"r!iliud heavi!v. Undr-r such conditions, the phlnb lose a "H'at umouut of Ilitrog(:'ll aud potas" , siurn. L.lrgl' losses should not occur ill the tropic,; '-wl'lt'll short. stiff·,tn,wf,d 1',1I'i('" ties a re used. This

serious mutual

7S-d,1I'

old

plants,

'11

which

iutt-rnocle

had (J{TI!rlTd, a definits- differ. (~lIti~~i{ln of f\lnc~i()n wns aprawn!. The i, ,II'{' r lea f su PI )Iied ussimi la ted prod \l cts ,,,J!\' to the roots; tilt' upper k-af pr iruarilv ,11I;plied the upper portions of the plant. II! another trt-atmcnt. the- blades 01 the lower )",a\ es were- cut off from !-J5-da.'· old pLlnts whicl: had dC'veloped 16 I('>1 \I f'.';. Onh four 1(,,1\'(,5 re-mained 011 tlw main ,:Llh;1, Thre-e <la,'s la te-r. til(" lowest leaves rt"maillil!O_: 011 thr- main culms 1\'('[(' ('\jlosed to as was a middle (11th) I",al d Fd,l. AlIt()nHli{l~raph~ slIgg<:'sted th.rt tlw [unction of the lTl.idclll' lr-af is I!IlI nH{'dt'd III removal of th« lower It>,.. ves, all d t 11<1 t t(,t" muin tuuction of th« lower Ie" 1'(;" as mil jor "Il ppl iers of t n rrg}" to the roots is

elonrratior:

-co,

irrcplacr-u

hl("

Leaf FUIlt'tioll to Root A(~tivily

III

Hel<Itiou

Evirlencr- jllt'>cukd "',nlin t Table l-t I. indicated that nne dft:d of ~r(jwing entire plants at grt'<"ltl.1 reclucerl lil!;ht i~ a rna rkerl dN:II';)Se ill root grow th, U 11 c-r d

Next. partial sli<lding of " 40-da:, (lId l'eLl plal" t W<lS S imilia ted bv wra ppi 11g it with hluck viuvl until oulv about 10 ern. . th,· uJlJler lcnves were- "'posed, Two <1 uvs later, the Sth 1"aL which was ('xpos('d to' light. of the m.riu culm of this plant .md ~r all Lln,had(:'d plnnt W(:H' exposed to "CO" TIl<' aLltnrariiographs n'\!l·:dt'd that lhl' shading hil(I gH':ltk reducecl the suppi:' 0 r ass; 111iIate; I prod uct S t JJ !he roots i Fi~. :W)_ .-\s ~hnd('d le<lv(', are low ill assimilation prod Ild,' , thr-, retain I11Os1 of

or

ri!l;M" hil..d ~efn ,p.Mpm~ed tQ Heo.. No~e t1im~ in ooth (l\rllt.s, ~.l>l>imi'n~1~~'ro-dl!!c~1! WC'r-c dbt:lr!~m.. ~ led ~.~'!:IoI!!KI'IO!!t ~!I.;: p'!~n,!,~.illldic'aUnl: !lO diUCrlll1oN!~in :r-lIn,c'l,ioh ,1:I!f U'ii! It~"ts au ~l!.is glaJ:l~ ~r ~rulwllh.

Fig. ~,g, Al]tor'adiO,!l:~'~Ph.!; mo:r 40.d<l)'·~Hd J1lall'l'S, h" wh~ch il~'te~r!lQd,e em()il!lgati(!o't'Ih3.d '~,D'~ ~ed. All U~1!~lr [lle3~ (7'th) 'If t1;,~ p~an~ '00 the, 1dt. il~,d,it H,1jW(:f Ie.]f (Uh) 'o:f 'lhtP'II:!I!t

it~o; 011:1 ..
'01(1,

til:te

Fill',. ZOo "Ultu"lldiugrnph~ of ~O·dL)'·o'ld :I!,\l:tlltoi:, 01 wb,l'eh Ute Uppt.lf ( tIn leal"l!!s had bi!@[1 ,uposed 'loll I~C01:' Th~ I)lI:ilnt Oil tlile fight !la,d 'I:!~il ~pos~ to, !lorlr!:~l light, wb,ine ~.Ii,e other rll.~d bt'lielilsh3ded for r. dil)·~. CJlcC'iI' for Uj,~ lI'p;pc"" 1~ !:n:l", with :1:I1a,c'l!;T iil~'I. N .-.l'e 'lhiU th,t. Slblidiilli: dec "~~8('l!I, 'lilt ,~mOl]nt ,of a;;:~imi'I~~~iI 'LlIlfool!ld5 goi!!;:: ~1l!' the rooh of UJ,@ p'I~'tll on tht Itf'L.

58

illest:" prmk!ct·d by t·;,PUS'L'l:] u!JP~r ~i!~1\"t'5 so tM:1 ,rnnlj' u smil'll Il>lft is k·h :for Ir.lI:l sh!,,':I· UIlIl to !h.~ j\[l~]i~:~. hi Ith is p.~ rt:[c~liI:r h;:!!t, abaillit .24i.wrcI'Ht of n~(~ (ISSi[lil!],\h~(l pro~l~f~l:i r-e.adiled! ULu? jjOf1t~~fl U~t' t~u~~l~f!d~d pblilts; il~~hp- ~h;ld~>d p~fI!nu:, dL~eV:iL~~ewas OliI~y :2.4 pel'(xm:t Ap[:l~mnt]I~:, il. shaded .1t!1~f clJ(,lC~ not re~:iil pho~phoms" ]'hc Imh (!n:iddit') ~~' of a p,~t(l pla~ilr was ])I,lCed ~i1 I,l bhlcli,:· C"lied C'y~ir;der for 7 days, aft{):r \\,hl",b the moots: oJ the fi!~p1l'lm;t,ed mll:in,~mcrwc~ di!p~cd in a.~o~'ution cQ;'fltaifli ng 33f foOf 24. llmu:'l- Amounts ofradiiQact[\i'Hy IIJ Iht.: eoc]XI.1H~:d Imlo'e;r,expo5ed upper,aJn.c] sh~l!;lecl mfd,!:Ue ~ellve~. ere {mind to ~e '7ilRJ 2.'33. w 3[tci '77ool:lrIts per mlinutJe, i'es:pec:ti'l'\ely.
1'0 d(it!el't!~i~!!!th~ ,ef£ec~ O£:olilllcl!ilflgo£

dt.'tadwd ~{'aV('s\,,"eighed .::t:1'l g_ noot~ fm.!1'1 t'h~~ ~]Iadl."d pbmt.s weig!hc>t! O!ll~Y l,li() 1':_ Res:pi:mtiou fa~iC'~ lind phosphoru~: abo ~n!rp~ion. ea p;<L':HiC's '\"'Crt' fl'l<lrl®di_y' n:.. need d ~ ~~p:lll!'lh wi~h (~,d~~,~hcd ves .,and bq~h kn \tlt'i\I~ Ic~~,,"h ]bw~'~~O~'I h:1 thl: ''':i!i:e 0.1 shad· ..d plank m nan C<l.sC5. sh~di!~g 'O[ dw
~m:V'fl~~C* ',~~~C:llus~d Ii [f~(j~,eS:oIjvtlJed~cre:l~

!1:~ mot'
m:"!tlffil'a!

cl~\'(':!~]ipfr'l!'nt' aad 0:[

ncbdy t~mn tl~.e H~,~Ij)""/\"r leaves,

Root

f)i!it~ibutio~:IJ :lu,d Act~."ity

['l!re~imill!nlry shlaies

i:rulicl'l. .r~t.'l. >lind tbe l~~l)O~iC(l.T.!I!Jrutlll;..J3, we~e made duringlhe dry sc".,I.~n,a perlod wllilen.these ".ari(lti~ \'C]o<plll~nt: {)fthe
yield\",~";I]

In W6J..

of

ilDOit

de-

at

c]OO(l

spacings

lrlld

respOO"ld

:loW'cr len\!',~~ Qf~. MO!~ dewh>!>moiil:t fli!!:! aelruviity. ~ilX lliil,ifQr'!ll s;3,"day o\Icl cpc'!a phu~!h; were l1!~~tt Two, l)la!nto< ,t;'Qn!t~ rnioo to reeslve SU!III Light', the lower ]e~~f bbdcs of fWQ p'Jantl> wer:e dctll.cJ:1ed, ~unld t'the o,t]!cr n",O pl..~b Wii'lOO r~]'l~il.~ ~hadcd. wuth Iy b.la!cl; vtnyt Aff.eril we~. tDe roots w(!:re ,~"'I]lected,. dried. and weighed, Th..awots oJ

ni~roge<J'l. 'ill.']1!":~ '!'a~ietiC$ we;r~ hai:lsrlant-ed Ja.n~,a~y 2k! at 25, _l{ .25 and SO x :50 'CI'!1!'. an,clI !In p~ots i.~C'«iy,ed bassl 3pp[jcfl~:ions of fCl:tiU1{;("-...f, ~~lcbof N, P~.n~,[;!nd.K:~O. AHer·36 da:ys, ffiJild <I~ 14"day 'i~l'crvili]S dl.e:re .. d'ter., mots < l('OI\eroeobs>cr'Vcd., The]1c we!~e'rn,oimpod"~t d~ff'eronres lin th.: root di:iin]bll~iolll p:lttcm~: of the t\!if'o V1Iflctics a~ cah~~ spadn:g or :rtilli:ly ~tag~ of groWti1"

wil'~11 to ]I~gh

afrl!Ori..m:t:l!:of ll'pp~ied

the

p]lIlJit whi.c:ll.

received

sUI'I~'ight

weigh-

ed 2;,46 g,~!'ld

the iools f~orn plant'S w-~th

~I~,

f'iJr" ~!. llislfi'bI!!l.im'l

Iii~ ['tU" ~oots, .510 ,ai!"~ ai:'l,et lf~.f1Sl'lil!1~ ip_.g.1 sp~dn~ ~ !rig'M:, ~:l w~.d~ sp!!.~i[ilg.

ssa

d.ry s~m~!ln. ~:i!i.fl!\" ai,

Fig. 22. Distribution right. at wide spacing.

of Peta

roots

at maturity.

1963 dry

season;

left,

at

dose

spacing;

At 36 days after transplanting, roots had begun to intertwine at the close spacing, indicating an early competition for nutrients. At this stage, no intertwining of roots was noticeable at the 50 x 50 spacing. Fifty days after transplanting, the roots at the closer spacing were intermingled rather seriously (Fig. 21) and this situation continued to worsen up to maturity. At the wider spacing. roots were only slightly interplaced, and they did not overlap until maturity (Fig. 22). This pattern suggests why, at close spacing, competition for nutrients becomes serious as early as the maximum tiliering stage and why, at wider spacings, competition sets in later.

By growing a uniform crop in the plot and by recording yields and average water temperatures at various paints along the length of the plot, the effect of water temperature on yield was obtained (Fig. 23). \Vater temperatures between 25° and 3:FC seem critical. Plants growing in water constantly above 38°C died a few days after transplanting, Plants outside but adjacent to the lethal zone developed narrow white 01' striped leaves.

"670

.;

Effect of High Temperature Irrigation Water

The temperature of the irrigation water coming from the Institute's deep wells sometimes is as high as 45°C_ A plot, 100 meters long and 3 meters 'wide, was constructed with the water source at one end and a spillway at the other, creating flowing water with a temperature gradient of about 42-2SoC.

.. ..
% Q .;

$5

~
60

• .. '"

;: z 55 50
45

25

t7

31

T E III PERATUR

"

Fig. 23. Average tion water and the dry season crop of sol id 0 denote the

day temperature of irrigagrain yield per hill of the rice. The open 0 and the tern peratu re range.

60

RESEARCH SCHOLARS FROM FOUR COUNTRIES (Vietnam, Philippines, na) study various chemical phenomena associated with flooded soils.

Thailand,

and

Chi-

Soil Chemistry
The objectives of the research program in soil chemistry are (a) to obtain a deeper knowledge of the chemistry of flooded soils; (b) to understand the behavior of the rice plant in its peculiar chemical and physical habitat, and (c) tn evaluate and improve current cultural practices in the light of the chemistry and physics of flooded soils and the physiology of the rice plant.
CHEl\f1C-\L KINETICS

Hesearch expanded a reas: soils; ( a) (b)

begun and Chemical

in August, kinetics

1962, was of flooded soils;

continued

in the following of submerged in reduced of rice

electrochemistry ionic equilibria diseases

soils; (c)

(d) water regime in the rice soils; and (e)

phYSiological with reduction
OF FLOODED

associated

of the soil.
SOILS

Flooding of a soil cuts off the oxygen supply of the microbial population of the soil. Within a few hours, the aerobic organisms exhaust the oxygen present in the soil water and become quiescent or die .. The facultative and obligate anaerobes then take over the decomposition of plant residues and soil organic matter, using oxiJized soil components as electron acceptors in their respiration. Thus begins the rl'duction process in flooded soils. The reduction of the soil proceeds slowly

at first, then with increasing tempo, until a dwindlinrr Iocd supply or the accumulation of toxins slows the process and brings' it to a halt. The reduction of the soil is accompanied by dramatic cl,anges in the chemical and physicocheuucal properties of the soil that produce a hig;hly dvnamic chnructer in flooded soils. Chemical kinetics of flooded soils thus holds the key to understanding the chemistry of flooded soils. A knowledge of the chemical kinetic> of

61

submcu'S!~d soils ls no less flll[lor~l<[nl from til ·coo~ogic-'!] ~1';llldpo'int High l)ro'~lIcti,,'i,ty ,of ri ~ ~oib depends Oil: ( a,) the lwaJlability of key nutricnts at t]I' st:lgl!S at whkJl. file rice plant ne.eds .and utilizes th,em 11I000t;aml. (b) the absence of to.'l;ic COn(;ent'rrlt iOiI'ISoJ red llC'tiOi! pl':oclnctl>, especiany ,Illhe phystol,ogic\'I] ~I:filges at w bich tl ie' nee plant: ]~ :mi05t' v!ldncrahl,c t{D Itl~€m. iii study of the ]i;:ineUcs;or subm.c'l'ged .sons \\'m tlhflo'l:\Ieonsidem hie Hgh~on dl,e rates ufliwailo boil,ity OJ[ 105.1;; of nutrients f!1'.(l product:icrll. of trndc~ll!bs;til.nccs and also indicate the potcl1t:ial.iHe.s of ~he soil :r,ar meetj;ng UaclI!'U'lri-·l!t roquk,ements (if a rice crop. Chemtenl kinet.i,C'S i~. therefore, of I.Jhnost ll1l1portance i'll asscssing ft!rl,i]i~l.e:r' needs and a:\~'old in~ phys~(lh)g~c(ii,l diseases of rice eaused bv re-d,I,l,C'~i(]iIiI!:lf the soil!.
ii,mangl'ine impo!l'tan~: chemical ,ehan,g:es tha.t tak· fJhi(.~ wh·fI a soil ls kipt flooded lire: 0( a) The reducnoe of lroa and rnanganese: (b) denitrification; (c) nccumulatton of ~lmmouila; (d) lllc,reasc in 11 ail:ilhUit of v phosphorm; lind ~jlii.\mJ·. (!o! )gem,ml'! iO'1l of ~C!!(j,c ,ytgtW i!.; cU!Uf){iW'L~b sliIt:h ,a.~ fn Ity acrds, rl!:lc:rcaptan~, sulfide,s;, am iDles mild othc:r unfdcntHied Sfl!i hs;~an{'eS~ (f) ~e~e.:l.'ie

selutlou. Tlw ~i~nifli'I.",;lIllt findill.g1S ale B"pmted and discu cd below,

TbcIl'lootimporrt3'l1t .chemica'i change tha~ takes p~a,C(iWll(']l .. soil is flooded ts, pE':rhltp~. 'I'he n!~hqc~ionof irn" ~[I(l the com:pa:nying irlcr,cas· in Us ~.(~~uhi]IBy. Th~ mily be one OIfthc ehief bcruefhts of fllnooi.ug, [ice ~o~h, beeause the lIpparent ~W.III ICqU:in:JfI(!llIt of rice is higlilerr dian that of (lui. or plilt!lh:. 011 the 'Oltlilc'r hand, an excess uf solub]e il"'OIl is 'I:01\IC to rice and also m~y
~!~ ..

l~ilIi:lto arlversr

secondary

of roouced wi! soluUo:rl. Ua£rof.o~e. (lr~ of con~,id~m.ble: praetteal 5jg[fiinC~nce-. They <I~ea~o ~ln~)Ortl!lflt hom fhc oC.h,emicail ~t.md]XIhl't for ir'on dQm~irJ.filtes ]on~,c .equfhb. ],'1:1 in flooded 5lo,~ls,
oon:c!'mtraHon

l)ho~,rlJoil'I.IS and 1 he ,ehan,ges :in

potacsiSlum

eUectll, sueh as deficiencies.

imnr

in

dn.e soil

lind

of 3'!r111!II'1nhnn, ~odil.lm. pot'il~~si II m, Clilkillll1l. IUi,r] llfIagn~>si n~ hurn the ,ooUoidfl] ''filiTlpl " u into the soil, sol u.HOJil, Wi!l~ n view to ~tll.dy:illog tll!o!s· n!!~1 the

There were wide dHfe:re'nces 31l'!Ong the 3i ~oib in the ehanges Ineoneentratton of iron in die sotl • ol;yt ion \~'ith time. .t une (wh'(!rne 'W'a!t an add, latmolic sell, (ajfly Wl?,111Ulqpli:ed with organic matter. that s bunt ~ip fI! COllccnhl'ltioll of :lOO' ppm. Fe"'·"" iill the so,ii, SU~l~UOri ,flo,d :rruwc U:rOli'l! 15,(]j{Ii(I ppllt'l il1 tlile sOli] with~inl .. w,eeks 'u~ sub111~rgencc.il~' du,'! other p.xherIt!1! was ~ ca.~ . arcous
t

soil" low

il b

l mn and org,lInic mttt-

(l~ociQtcd phys~c:ochemic;;i] ~hang '!! l),fought about by floodillg, 31 rep!resentll~ive rice soils frollil Luzon were sllbmeq~;cd ill I:Jots in II !!re~'llho'lI~e at 3 nru~an 't,mpl'.ra·
tut(! of
('I

llmul:

,:m~c...I!lnd th~

q~ml1l:mn.ti e v

dmllges, w.ith lilIl~t'. of tile foUo\:,·ix.g pro[leJTUeS or cl:mstHu,en t~. wer,e shldied: (a) n~dox po'leratii!1 3W] pH vfllue o<J the soil i1Ind soil ~oluti~1J:1; (b) .~pt:'cinceonduetaeee
of the soil solution; -(c) reduced iron and! mangalllese and also arnmenium ill. the ~oi] :llId so.usoli.l!'ioll; (d) l~itlCate, n:itri't.. oxi· dizahl:e InattH, ;)Jl..alini'ly. ·llicium,lllf!'"'rI!.'sil.ll1ir, [lotas~i\.Im. and ~'Ol.liinw! ill '111e soil

'r wMcb, iU no time during tlilc ]too d.1Y,S 01 submersenoe, had an Fe.J·+ eoneentra'H{~nin til· SQil solutiol'll in excess 0:1 ,2 pp'm and in the soil of 1.300 ppm, The~e w, re laJd)' w'(.'1!! defined PillUC'l'~;, !1ssQdatedwi~b s~lHpmpe~·t'ies. in the charl",es Oi~ rollioon· t ~'Lhrll~ of [1'\: + in tl1ie sOlil 5iolution.
T

The ¥er.'ir~tm~ Igly acid ,am~$lro!\g]y acid l,lll()solic d~ys nnrl lonrns, rontaitl]ng 2.3
-4,.4, pcrcEn:t mg~~ni,c m~!U)cr" baiU tiP Ft"':~'-I-

the 'order of 300 ppm iin the si)il selution. e"lpollol'!ltially. wi~bifl 30 d.:1Js ,o:f sllbll'l!.~rJt ·1i'~"C'.s.llo~, ~l 3 S)liliJ" eX[IO· ml('ntial diiQfeaSI~, and assumed eoneentra{"j:!lCentJtll'lij)ifI~ of

!:1i(JI~S in the :nu~g·t:' ·t3·llG p[Hn rifler I t I d~L}'S of ~tJhme'~!!"'I~Ct", The _:fi~11l'1 roIIH:"e~1" !h:" u Hon of Fe+ + i~~ soil SQ]I·~t:~on:1lp. ~he
S~jl N~. i4 Prurk .[0'«"

p~:i!W~'d 'tn ~wpfJo."H~'\'e:~y oo;rr.r·lah't~ w~th th(~ or<d:lln]C 1'lllaU\;'r ·t"{llitt:'JIJt ·of the soil The
roJllowing

$oi~.:;fdl
C:{Jlo~

i:uto tl""li'$dnss:
~rcxtM"B'

(ppm)
325 Jl!1. 293 2se 225

pU
5,33

(I,M •

(~)

2.5.

~l 2tl U:I W

JOO

ml5

4.,7.2s..~' 2 <I.M

4,8l ~.Gi U5

3.77

2.. 8 6
,-,.79 2.91 2,:26 ~,SO
~,3{

n Diiirk brlJ .... Dark r<](IJidil D:lTOwn V~l'loM~h :r-e<d

.Duk ~eddM~

bf-QW~i

S~n~]_y l(NilllJ
c;],1:f

doily Clruy

lVZlll1

(;1I~:v

Y~l~)wM~ red [link gmyr~h brown

Eir,QWH

O,t:" loam [o'in~ S;umtly .B1X'1n~.

The
lJoown
tl"llLts

mQcl!crate~y acid,
]:rl...m~. wid] or,£,Hlic
of 3,',2·8.[1
l'l

dark

gra;y]~h.
eon-

~'fI(J~CCfi}tnltiQflS

rl'.F Fe+';-

thlln

the

very

m:;tU~r

sh10ngly

add

and

strongly

add

£o<.ik

pC'Iccnt,

:Iu-cumlJlil't'et;]

soluble i[,(JiI1 ill tahu;:d lU'(J:ilder

~lightly dower rate, i!~. mare thlln lOG pplli1 i[l tHe' soil :iolut:iQ~ fOir pt~ 1kootlCe!'lt!'M'~Oil:'!S ofles~ lJlore thiUiI. .l00 da Y's. ('If £11 hnler"£_"'ence:, Thiel It~~~n 200pp!'!'"!, suH·~j'~J a sim"<,r dedirw til mH~ be~DW' bella \!~,H.l in ~hi~fa~h~{ln. :>{.llIJbbe iron i1nd eudClduip 'wHh highc~
SMt Jvo,

'I1Lu,~'~esoii]s

}md

'Fe';' +

''O!Hren~nUions

of

fMk

( ppm)
2ZB .2.00 U9

F~··

r>JJ :5.o!l:4 5.8'1) 5,'!:3

o:».
{:~)

Color

T~~h~J1l!

30

2.£0 IJ1'

sa

22
]J

2.9<

S.'il:,!
15,;10

:U'il' 'il.OO 2-:92.

'1.21 6,08

D~rk Ilp~!"ish b.rown D~rk Tm:JCw'.1!I [)o'l~ br.g.\\-~ ~)lish

l)~rt.:
br()1\W!,

D~rk gmyi'Sh'i

1N.,..... n

OIii:y IAmm C.l~y kmm .s~h}' d~.v Ioam r;~~~ ~8!:;dy lJcilm

Cla.y

grol![) in g~l1era] tfllf.m.ds of Fe+ + COUl,L'e,n·, !:ratlol'l wHh time, D"lJtgCIHlfldillg p~.:lJ, CO[fI(l~[Ih~U(m~· ~ less d)~n 100 P'I>:Ul, wew o
~(fil ~'!IO.

C:IO-5(~.ly !'<l'5e:J:nbHr.lg ~oib of thela~t t~e

n~e

fQn{'W~Bg
~e~tul.'C

s:Hght~y aci(hc
and.
mgilmllc

!lo~b of
corl-

varla ble
~~,(!t:

m.::HlcI"

f'e"· .r.f~~~ {ppm} 00

1'U 5.00' 06.22 ·R.OF!

,r>J~1

O.M.

(~)
Dar

G{tlf!J

'.il"enrrr.e CI~'V
'iiiitTI"dv ~Oirm'l ~i'l;t fo~m C~:I)'

16
~J

!I'l

~l

6,25

sa
2

j'fl 6.", (:IIi

2o.l'i! 4.q~ LAg :5-'7'2,

3,.f17

Very dark gr<l!ri~h bruWl~

\'~r{il~rk~fitli
Very

,6J!"i

].00

Very d~.rl: hm ..... !.

~T~t~ I ~.~. wa;Y

<

!),u1 'b~~"~n

(~"_y fu'"!il

c;1;1,)' l~~;)IO

Q~!ite di~H,~ct from tl~e £oib so [ftr consld~rud !~ ~. T!(md(t~c:ript!"tmup if I whk:ll, tbe- oU!leenlrnlicm of ~O~ble Fe'I' 'i" in· a cn>.~&lI €Nbcll'ldy slowly in nredil,iww!" .. Ox :!s;ymptQt~(; m~m,"c:r ~Fld alt,,~ned ma~ i"

nn~ln Cnl1lcentrnlioiH nOit tYJo!c~edirig 30 ppm, These il'~Jils \ve.m 10wil:l. O:fil:~)r!ic
lIllJatt'er Or

lligh in pn

value,

O~

shown

below.

SuU Nu. 3
10

Pe<lk Fe"
(ppm)

pH 5.66 5.38 6.38 7.01 .... ...

1.0.;)

a.M.
(%) 1.22 1.39 202
1.72

Color

'{ex/II'e

II 17 27

14 30 30
2.$)

26

2 13

6.64

1.07 2.02

Dark Dark Dark Dark Dark Dark

grayish brown nrown brown grayish brown gray grayish brown

Clay

ct,}"

CIaI' Cia)' loam Clay Clay

Some typicu I pattern s of the k inet ics of Fe+r in the soil solution arc in Fig. 1. The strongly acid latosolic soils built up extremely high concentrations of soluble Fe+ + within 30 days of submcrgence and thereafter suffered a rapid decline, as for soil no. 0; the moderately acid soils, such as soil no. 22, showed lower and broader maxima; the neutral and alkaline soils and all soils low in organic matter had the lowest concentrations of soluble Fe++ at any time.
Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil (Fe") No. No. No. No. No. 17 8 11 20 23

In view of the possibility in the ciency ability Fe++ can many be strongly in the to acid neutral the soils and

of iron toxicity and iron defiSOils, of for This for of for alkaline

predict

concentration submergence, ease

at any time after done with

a given soil, would

be an advantage. comparative The equations the conditions

of the soils under experiment. of Fe+r

this

for the

kinetics

in the soil solution

five typical

soils are:

(Fe") == 1.58 + 0.168 t (Fe") == 0.913 t - 0.0033 t2 log (Fe") ::: -----(l.723 + 2.596 log t - 0.735 log (Fe") =:: 0.002 2.500 log t - 0.831 log (Fe") 0.438 2.235 log t .- 0.744

=.
for

+ +

(log t)2 (log t)2 (log t P in days.

is the concentration

of Fe"

in ppm, and t is lime of submergence

The calculated and observed figures these soils are in Table 1. Although the changes

Fe++ apparently tended towards values permitted by ionic equilibria,

in concentration can be treated mathematically and are associated with soil typ(', quantitative interpretation presents difficulties. The theoretical criteria available for the definition (If the concentration of Fe++ in the soil solution are redox potential and pH, but at no stage of submergence, ('xcept ill the fillal Ievelling off, was there a significant quantitative correlation between the redox potentiul or pH and the concentration of Fe++ in the solution, although a general parallelism was discerned

of Fe++ in the soil solution

,~or

the The

!lOO

11'1 '0 41_lr ... ,.

10l

l',1:l1 1,1' •. " !!. to ~.,~ ),I?

r"_l_ _iIo_
.... ~_ ......, ...

,.II.II"IT;III"' .....

"""

_I ,'-r

._, ~_
C~M ~I..,

..

I>r+rR

..ut .....j ...

"
,.

Presumably, much of the Fe++ in the early stages of reduction was in the form of chelates and complexes, With the destruction of the organiC moieties bv microbial action, the concentrations of

"
"0
Fig. 1. Changes in concentration of Fe" ill
t he soil so]" t ion of Iive soils.

64

Table 1, Calcu luted and observed intervals 01 submergence. Soil No. 8 Obs, __ 5.0 13.5 34,3 39.0 -17.0 54.0 60,3 61.0 61.0 Calc. 13.7 39.5 35.2 36.9 36.9 35,9 33.7 32,0 30.3 11 Ohs, 17.4 J4.0 36,5 37.0 34.3 34.0 31.2 32.8 32.0

values of Fe'·

in the soli solution

at d: Herent

17
Calc. 3.3 5.8 8,1 10,3 12.7 15.0 20,9 23.3 Obs, 4.9 5.4 7.l:i 10.6 12.2 15,3 21.0 24.0 Calc. 46.7 74.3 74.9 69.9 62.S 56.0 47.0 42.0 37.6

20
Obs. 51.0 73.S 75.0 69.6 62.0 55,8 48.1 46.4 44.3 Calc, 84.8 121U 121;,6 120,6 109.7 98.9 84.5 76.3 69.0

23 Ob5 ' __
85.6 131.0 129.0 120.0 103.2 97.4 81.5 79.0

DayS d Calc, ,ubm~gc~__

25 39 52 66

to

80

S.8 20.8 ;30.6 :38,6 ,15.9

51.9

!O1 115 129

58,6 61.5 62.9

18.6

18.4

71.7

exponential decay of the FI"'':' concentration from the peak value, supports this view. B .... the highly SignifiCAnt aud t meaningful correlation between soluble Fe++ and pH of the soil solutions of the 3t soils 143 days after submergence provides striking proof of the regulation of the Fe+t concentration in the final stages by ionic equilibria (Fig. 2). The correlulion between Fe++ aud pH is expressed ill the equation: lop: (Fe+r ) r = 0.649"·
1l.4::!-2.,14 pH

The value of :2.14 for the gradient favorably compares with the theoretical slope of 2.0. Further, this expression. yields a solubility product of 10-17\ compared with the theoretical value of 1(}-17.2, for Fe(OH)" Because of the wide range of soils studied and the omission of temperature and activity coefficient corrections, these results are truly remarkable. Thev suggest that the species of ferrous hydroxide present in solution in flooded soils is Ferrosoferric hydroxide with a soluvility product of 10-17.2 and not the other
forms postulated.

<:hanges in Concentration
·'1.0

of

Fe++ in Soil
Only a small frucuon of the reduced a flooded soil is in the soil solution, the bulk of it idi .. the solid phase as hydroxide, carbon~, sulfide, and exchangeable Fe+>. Kinetics of the reduction of iron therefore is not complete without <I study of the changes in concentration of solid phase Fe+ +. \
i ron ill

" ~

-e.o
10'11

l f~-+ 1 ~JI.

...

I'i ..

-z.uss

plot

r LO.oG"':i"!I"

-4.0

There wen.' marked differences among the soils ill the rate and magnitude of the reduction of iron. Some typical patterns are in Fig. 3. The reddish brown latosolic soils with
pH values of 4.6 - 6.2, active iron COIltents of 2,8-7.6 percent, and or)!;flnic mat-

->,oL_~

...

~--_____;.'""'.,,-------;,.C;CO---------=l.~'----::,.,

'"
Fig. 2. Relation belween the of F...," in moles/liter and pH lion, 143 days after submergence.

or

conceutratiun Ihe soil solu-

tcr contents of 2.3-4.3 .pcrcent, showed steep increases in the concenrra tion of red ucccl iron during t 11(' n rst :30 (lays of ~11 h· 65

L~,1jo! ~~' ~ •• iil!!.: iW ~ 'jj

"Iii Ii;,&. 11''' ~ ,~",,,,,

~'!.'_i"
'~iI~'L'" 1I".,r.a;
!!I+.!"'!;&.,.

FI

~ ~\""\,

'i!I;!!::'o!i;I"" fI,~~

~IF....
~~~.
--,~--

!o
r:!

-3'
Ii~

....n
'II '.§j 5i.:U

Ii 'I:i~

"ililf
'"

I,:J,'!I
If.t
~,~ ~

l~!!! ~,,.iIi
~'.~,~

[]

~.,

.....,'~. ~."'
_!"tM... I--I!.~

.. .~
~1ftii
I:I!!~

'"'!"''''';

,J.

~~

l,'l.-il

'''!'! ~

~jn.IIl·

• .I~

r!l1 !i. .,. i!! 1l if",

~'II' ~_"~I ~!!'~ !!'i.", ".!.."~'II. _""IIIir.'i I_.~f

"'''.i~,

'~.!f'Iir

'I!!P. ~

~"""; ... .

~I!I!!

~
'I,"t:i~

..
~.he !iOU'"

...

..'
F~. 4., 'Ch~:n~e~ in ,t'~~ ~oi~.!>(;I,h!~'i(l:~
Imd~rgo l'educt'ifJl'l,
(l@lUl~'!'iitfaU(m

fig. 3. Ch~:ng,~~i.Ti ~\Q;jjc~iit~~:I,io)!! (Jlr iFt!·· im meql:emcc.

mi'lKI.m1li11l1

of 'M~" ~m
.

p[lrn,lInd

The c('mcc'llt'mt:ion~ ~1.ldhed villues (I(~bQlrt 1:O,OO(M5~OOO mma!~md mgire or less C01"l~hl:t1t
I).

[omliog

dlemfJife

~Qllll'

Soils wtth

IO\l!l"C'roon;te[lt of

,otga~ntC

mal·,

(\ompoul1d~. :Mangal~rni'\e is mo!:'e ~'il~i]y ~'educed than in;m, ~1:Jit tJiu~

r.:incUc~ o~ ~uii.\ng>lnoC'wred,u!e~ion i~ ~ilmiih"f 1)0dial o.f irolnl (' Fig_ <I),

bk:m~ng:ilnol1~

t:c]tOO'~ctt"'!e. ~ron, ]1egardl.ess (If pH an J tl?:dy~,c,aU~:il1ed ~owe:r maO'(~I~(1 (6,,000. 9;~100 ppm )lIl'1d 1it a slowe:rrate than. dle
n~S:l

gool]r,

Sgli~~lowil'l

ilcth'e: hoo,

ie-

The ~tmug~:y ;'JC'.uc'l ]'a:tosol~cd~y:s !:'~~i~d~iy

{It-c~n'l1l~dll~!ed !lo,lulh]£ M:n,,"'1- ~;lfgJhdy ahe~d u!f troli1, t,eilcht,d
rnllxumUllilCOI'!!O~fdnttg\om,

~~ctive (!i~ pHlInd Or£l,il11l~C maUfl'rOOIn,· tt~nt, 3um.i:"(~d! ,s:U]l ]rn:v·er maxima (500" 4,fJOO I~pm)o ~t a:n e-ven :slower ~flt~',
The f mct'io'l:l or ilIct"ive :i!)(UlI ~cd:uced ranged f'r·om! 5..5 pC~(jf;>id 'f~Jr' a ealeareeus ~by 'Witht 1 pC1iN'u;l o:rg!l.!fi,ic mfLU~r
to

nE 00·'7.0 [1',p!l~lInd

\·<~I~!c~mll!g~ugfrom.

f~P~(Uy dedined tn :2·,,[:0 ppm anc:. :l!71 dftr~ oE ~1_{ILllll\erg0ilce_ I~ sti"ildl:i[l: similll~i·

'1'i
\'>'

r~C~Ii,t

f(ir <lsli,gntly

"cid

clay loom

ty tolhe :n"dl~,etiolll and solub:i!I~;r;;{tfGfil of Fe';' +" d1e liIloc]eratdy ac~d dfl~':S:in.d
loams shmw,.'!Cffi,~Iow~r ]ncrel'!:Scs,
lowll~

ith 8,0 :pe:ment mgm.nic ID!1I.~tt~i!i fli~d COlfl1lm~)!;ii'f!<iflml ~]o'W·~rdcd:~IiI'es!,aucl! h!g;h~t pav<lblc ,q.elh',(l iwi'I corn t!;'IlI;t. fi nil,1 coneenrratlens thlli'! 'fill(! SloH~ of the

est Tbese results Sll~e:st th~~t:the miL:>iim;iJlm f~ grOl~p_ The ,oo1i!",<;!ete.:dt~roo£-oils. reg)IVil~5S ,o£pH~nd O!rgiiUl'lic .mat:ter ~ol:dcWlt, ~~m(lt]n 'ofred~.w(;d :i~on in a soi~. ]!i deter· t !'l,cclln~l1l'ltedJ' ~,III.lIs)'ii'Ii'I,ptm'ic fl'mn~U~iI? 11(1 Iniili,~rJ by the ilC~~\i~ iron "O!l'~)C'llt and iW'li]['!hUl~~y of m~g.u~ In,~tt!l:"r'~ ic the pH 'is mon' tl~a!fi 10 p,p1m ]I~~IT+. Th.ese:;ojils rd:ilUvl;·ly uni mportl)!IlIt'. W~i)f,il cNt:w!l':~dy low lin aoth!~ Mn+'. SUD'I'IC typi:ea~c'h;,'liliges am depictt,a in
K:~I~el i,e:; 0.£

l\'I<I~gal~c.g,eRed

UC~i01t

Fig.

'J,.

11h;' dnH~~~S cO!III::cnltwati:o[l i:n

or

~,~,afl'fo'n;~!~5jJ ,(.'I!~~mp(lW~l~~.JI~lS:~ ~lS £enie

.il'!)n, fm~ctiml as eleeteon a(lOeptm1S ln b~n,k~~c.11 {~!l:~d;tHonsin flooded ~oil'~ ,l!1Jd

~[)lu.ble ;or.'I'n~+ c-an he dcscri~cd by ~q!1l~t. ti'ibllLll s~:nl~ ~' to UiQ.5e" fOlr s,o~:u hie Fe' i ~, b
Two ~u'"~
~lmt'i(J(I~:l;

;tre givt"n h(!1low:

son

Nol, $ ,S..,U K,~~, 1.6

1~ (M!!··)

-:},35:1

-+

'lios

(Mil")

-Z,1~7 (36

+ 4~9

5.'189 It!",(

log

],,53:2. t !Oll tl ~ ~.:!1,:~6(log t)~

As witl.1 :"'·c·'· . ~olubLe:'llh + 1, although cC:<llogicall,!' s~,g:nificilllt, constitutes only II SlI1ill:l f.raction of ffital redueed NJn++. 1'b' l?~ctl1ll1e of the l:inct~cs of mangane~ reduction ~~ not ,oomplcte, therefore, without thc' ehsogcs iilOClllcenh'Oltio'll of solid

phase M1fI
IChltu~ei!l in 'C(illlCle~dl'1.'!1~0n 0"

Mn,++ hii. fhe Soi]

The:m were rl1l1ik'ed ~Hff\erellcCo:s. IUll0l'lg 'Illc &(li'is I'll tloe plltfenls of ~nangane$fl redlldi.ml, Soils with a. high ,oolltent of nctj\re m:mgill'lese, Jeg:il[\d~es<saf !pH aod
'Ilr~ilIl'1ic InilU r (.'Onteflf" showed

O~~~~~N~.

~=C~~~~~=3~~~.~~~'

steep

in-

O!r-

!IO'I

SiPII~Ir.Iii"eil

a ases ilil 1;.!III~ 'I. d!!lring the ftrsr 30 days a1 Sill bm rg:cnCCRfid deehned slowly til ereofte:r. Sools ]m~r h~ acU\l'(~ nUll:lg<lIlOSiQ h·I.·
creAsed.

Jo'I~. 5. l.he,!O@il.

CI!l.lln~~

iii

~11ICeil'iitl~li'l.iim M;n·· in ~f

slO'wIy

rooched
(mien

otmcentra.tion 1I1ld mnXi'I!I1JIUlil'!".lI~uell whi:ch 'were 'Vcr}~

fn1il.h1

+..Jl.

lowet diilll in the Mgh m3.n.g~ne5e £O'ils. Othcl:soils were :inte:rmediute.

olll,;:nidii'lg f<llcb"lr Ulnt d"tCfill'lll'ld the l:i'llC'tics uf ma:llganc-se rl~(h_lction wa~ ~~Ie aotlv 1I'l1illgan.ese content of the soil,l Th

d ibas,ic, ~I}"dllff.!l"y and 1:.IllS~~~ raJted car-btl'NY]· ic aelds, (.1'stehil , ~uu,d gJnt~thii)ne. Si~ e ~~Udres~nd su]fh:1es are p~e,s'eLl~ii'l the ~oU SoJ~It'ii)Crl mdy in: e:!<ctlcdingly sllll~n ai}b(ll!!.nf~,

oxidiZ<llM~ maHer.
;tbave method, is
,1'1

as detenl'li:ned

hy the
men-

!111, -'iilS~ue of dIe oonteilit

(fig,. 5), th,lI,h~es 'CouJc,eutf';lili,OiU of ~n Soh.Me OxidiziliMe .M~u~er

,of l"'e1-+ iU1d the nrgal'liC' subslnnoes I'ivn,(;-di aheve.

:I

Tbe ch,(l,)~,s in ooncentratiol~ of (lxldizMe mat'lt"r wi'lh Ume ~'ilri,ed! f.rom SQ,iI. h;)

soil, bodlj ililrate

<lnd m,agnHude.

Soils

The Sl)pr so,]ntf()!l (if a Hooded ,~(lil con~a:irn,~ reducing

snbdnnccs {C»!~ di~Jl.hk' mntIII nre than .:m ~nil~iequivflL\:"IIM (' rn,~. ) per h:~)o tt111'! (':'In compete widn. nee [i:~ots for 'Imler o~ ()~idi:zahie maHer 16 wooh ilftt~:r tl ~e OX}i~~I~ 'lmfl~(Klr~ d f roin the i1C~iiil £loodn.ng :I'lld dedincd slo\\,]y to Hila] [lllrts. KIlO'\,\'k·dgc of the Cb'Ulg~'S ~u convalues ,0£ about 8 millli,e.qtlivaliffib pCI' c,(>nh11~"ion o:f 'l'lxidi?:1hie matter win mer 14'3 days I!£terr SUhlll1"·rg)~nre., Wi.th (II.) 'tlnow (_~oi!~ider-abLeig]lt Oil the !'i.\'duc· l 11 dCCf'C<lSC in Or ~nic IIllllUeor content' ing sh'csl!o \ bid~ rice ~i)ots <l~.~ s,!I'i:C'<.,tcd of the soil', peak and ii~lal~I'lic'S too" o~idj;;:· oct cr.iticttl. p hases in the p;rowth of dlj~ able matter decreased ( Fig. 6)., TIJ, . pl~nt, IIlId (b) liIdp in ~lile iden.tification ]Iighly s",ignH ieant COonelaHol!l t~t\veeil (l(frcd~!ct'h)J~rrodllJcl:s iii the soil ~OIUI'iOIl, oxi(HZ4).bll~ mi.Ute~ am!. org'ilnic :nl1lti'.:,'I" COJm· a:tt dHfl''l'·cnt stag'eS of' ~,tl,ch,(ln, in cOIn· 'knt (:If the sOIil 'U~~~:prt!'Ssctl <IS
with ai·her uhem iClI] ,~tm~Iysl·5. AmoUlp( th~ ,oornl[JoIUl.'"n'~~ f die son soluo ~iml \"hid. are ,!!s:I'ionatcd by ",,"iM o:;;idll.~u!"lction

w.ith IJfiOr~ than ,3.B :rCl'ireil'~' (If-ga~lic matter, wUh few (>K'Ol'pH,ons, galo''C' [l~ik val'l1e5 of

(Ox)

==
r

0,:)4

tiOll "'ith 0.0.1 N J\:\'h!O. in acul sc)]ntion are, " a ) ft"r!f'o~ iron, 11itrite, hY'Jr,()~en IS !lul'lide. S;1i Inde8~ 1in.c1 (b } 1l1!roho:ls, aldiehydes, I!C!. tones, s:impl(' 511!1;US mereaptans,

==

+ 2..'18 (Oml) O,14;9'·'~

where (O:;;:)·!~ pe,,1l;: o;.;irli?nble lTii!tter in I'!U. per litt'f alld (Om is the org:tllii tr!atilti" pCI'Ceillhl~C ,of til(! soiW.

K h~,r.~ of i{'~
The
mi!'lt'rfl

AUUnOllli lii]..f!tion

fit~'1li~u

of orgalli.c :llut:wgeu

in~:he SQ'i~ ~top~ wt the ~.1I1moni:1 :;;~::I~eill, f](.)o&ed soils bee,'111 se or tn{' ab5'en~' Qr ~»lYg,c~~ to (,":1r.w the' pmc{,:!lS ~h·rOllJg,bto
n~trjnciltinil~.

Ti!.C

C~pi1lcttynf a

soo~, t~

11'·

i~~(l =li.:nl'll'iI'mi~\ he-f~ ldl Su,bulC'rg(l(-l is <l W gaol~ indoi'" (Jfit~ power :t~ "'~npl)~.\' ,~ihn,~
to Ji.fJ{>,

1"h~ "il ~('t ~,,~ ~umrnoJ,lli k:,.')tiOl~, or~~m" u of r mlOnii.l, Jj'('k'aS:l' ~nl flooded sO(ib is i~'nipo:rr~lll~t
.in ~i.<.'(' p!',o(h~,c:I:iQIiI because (i1) nitrogfl.'J! h!O~d~ UlC ~j' tn ~~'rfi'(l~Lctivity of ~~~,
'ii!:. (>. V!:1<fJug('S i.n ~Oii~;' f,~!iot'l ~'IiI~. r~<"l~litrri!l1 he' "D,H !ioliUl:ioll.
~If !J('~lvm i~·

Adtl:m~ngll therc ~M,l~a 5t~iM~lg p'U~'l~' the ,d~i1I.n"gesinl ro!1~'!dra" C!'itiCfl~1 ph<l$1es of ~l'()o\vtb, UOIl .),F ~ohl~~~ Fc' i'~' .uu~lx~M~;..a,bk m(lt· . le~" F~':' a.(.'(:fIUll't~~] :FltlJ.' Qlnh .11. tro.C:'tio!tl {~I ~ Theee we]i'~ asttmill>h,ing difJ'eoonc~ il! the o,~~:(~~Zilb~!IffflL'lU~r. Tbi'~. I'l]oii:"l~with l t]le rates ;'l,nd m;lt.gn~tml.e-.S 'oflllnm,olllia retIm i:nfhwnti:' of ,m!tanlc '1iI;}:tt~~ CQn:tr-lll ()f ]M~~ :ulIong) the 31 ~Oj]5 (fig" 7). S.oil~ d.,c' ~(li] I'm oxfdi,.~'l it, maUt"'f, is shf:l,~~'n~~i :ri.c1h ~111. b m:ga;lricn'll'!tter :rnpil:r~y ~(ll~.e.d T"M(' 2. i1nunonia an,dre'M:lle-d peak oonce.~!ratloI'liS offm,me lhm~ 300 ppUJ'l N H~-N illl the soi~ Thf' pll~'5eIl;0f' ,~~f 'high p~\tlportimi ,c)f a ''''iUl~n 30 d<!r~ ()f S~!~l'l"!!:lrg~m~(!. C~rtfl~1li I't,.'>!,hldn~ Mlh.st,'UiI{.'l!.,"l! ,ot:hGr ,thllll Fe+ ~'ii~l~k ~fl1:b }~'tw' j,~ OI'gan:~c malh;:!' ~Uai~led g;es~sIh,'lIt (a) tl~~ hOills:ysh~lnUlll}' not be m~ll\:'~rnaof IHl' mQu.' d~,'Jlili30 ~pcm, So.i~ Ih~ dol'l1il mnt !Jednf~ !<ystcm i:IiI, £ioo(l!!d HO, 23. W.it~II.~'m or,g;;.mic cOlilternt of 7,99 per,~lOib, find (b) or,galll i()red:uct'ion pr()du"~~ ('t"l1It, g,1'l1!'t~ a .n:.ei'l~'1 'Imlxfmurn of ab(mt 35l)
k":.lfsIIH hetwtwn m>ly ooi1'tributel:nore
t]lIlri
F(~'i !

han the 1l1it'mf,{eu t~k-e11l !LIP' rice cwp eomes firorn, the son, rurul .((.) yi(>ld (If gm in ~s big,l,.], ~e~lSitiv{/ to lin exeess (lj' defic[~"IC)' oJ ni~!'fIg_('i;1 ~U' .(."(';r't'a;in ,b)
~;Ii,OH' thiiH

by

9"

tQwnms

the sllllQthmung of dee rootlJ i~l higMy reduccd so~h. Abo, as ~he OOi~(lelllilratiol~ of
.:od:u'cti.o.n, pro(ltlotll t~ MgMy <.'orru]Med wHh cl"!c' urgmlh: lrn!::lU~1tOOlJlhmt (If t]w sOjli,

N lL- N an{'r SO d!flJ.y;!' o:F siub. S@H ~IO. 2. ]ow iii} 0'!i!if!ni.c n;mt· h':'~.-~:d~~scd. less th:m 50 pI>mNH~.N il~
rn~rgel~CC',

'PI)un.
~ he

.5..'UlllC

pCFiod.

~ddit'io~!l QJ :grc{'~~ m~Ulil~re mild ~t[fIW ]~ C{linbilim~k'llted ~oir POQrly drO\i~iu,~iI soib ~1lI \.vhkh H'th~d:ipl1! pr(lc]!;~"t~ 'lC(:I:~!lllU~:'lh'.

Jf th~~:m"H nyct~mitiO<f!~ hi NH~·N lIher 00 itty!!: subm:r.-rgcIlQe aM t~l-roJcl as sam· pliu~ enul'~ Or ·effeL'tsor l~mpernhtro

TlIIl1.!~ 2" .\]illkq'Llh'!lkl!b: {If ~.~i(li~,l.hki~1Uo:rrI;!.t! .fc·· lu 'th~ ~,il ~~ihl~in~1 t.~ ~i~ ruib~t h'il[l ,H<JI,~ of ~l!l..,~!~rW~I:Lj.,!:,

D~r:r.
'1,,8
<I_''i'
'!.>jj 2..,3

UK, m~~iW~

~JI

5.." 6;2

1Ml
M

,I}Jl: L2

.3...:.

I.~'

1,5 lU 1.7 n,,", :;J~

,14,.0

--~----~F'~··' DiH,
]1.3

3.9
It7 6.1 2.0

~2-.1'
1,0

0'1>

OJ

U;

:U 7.5
<1.1'
jMI

0,2

t1

, •• r..-j!

- 5.
1\& lot "'iHII!!
!II

."." .--~::'j ,
!L

rl ~Z'" .'PJ ~I 'IPi! ~H'

f:ptI

c:~1ti!o illI~

ft;_'11i

-1,~1q

''''~II

"l!1iC'!f"

""''11_,_ .....

1M"'!

f'l""pmltlill~ 141half IIW,III n"lximmn NH,.N I!l"Othtt'ti m I. ..\ccmd ins: 'In UIIS ~tlmdioll £'01: ,I mu Imi b .I )rotlw:,-!·iml. nl) ,~ppr!.l~i·aM,~ hi·
t rt';ISI'

ill

'\j ,1'1' • ~~

~MI

~JI! !.'1i·pE'C'~ed be~'Ql1Id

'

"".......,
'10

.t :l'H.·r;j,rJ,i

!If

a~)lmt

:.3 X t'

~
Ii

Chuuges iin 'CO]'ICi~IIII'~Uicm 01.1 ..nnn,on in hi I:he Soil Solnti,ol.i, \

1l1IUlli;!

Fij!", r, 'h 1l11:"~1i ill ~ol:i(~elllnl.lh'!i XH;.~ '1]1' 1i!1~~~ ,;jIlL

chan'.~~"~,11:!<1 ~Lliilll , I1tl1liili. prlN;i[tI,tl iOIn i~ ,~S. SlI!nlJd In, ~,o]lo\\' ,iu} il ~}'m.ilto'ic 'l''{mr~p. lill' ~Iillllti,(";:il I'll ~lmltlolli:1 rplC<l~.' irl ;-.111 3L !O{l!ls mil h~ dp:;;cr.fhl'lI ,~LS:' :\-y

itit'r.lbie ]lr-op(lrtnOll of the .un· f,mm'c] whcn .\ :SiI;dlb I'eft sub11Ie:ti!t'1i 11'1;1;' lie ~n the S"oh(tiOill pJ~3St'" .'~I)['("i;! II." in eoarsa-rextured salk Tbis fu-rm of ifImu'wllia i.s bighly n~ob~le, is
--\ ~ IU.L~

til(" dh,t'cf 8011~ree f ~lirtrQg\m for U'm Jl1c~ o plaut amli~ Uable to loss I:lo)' ill'adlill.u:, UCiIICC, the l<itlf"lic:i or soluMe NH.; merits
C'(111

s·idern.ti:ml"
netic:;;
~~tJip

whern A is the
c~m}~ntmtli'OIli of

!1Iit,,',1II1i

maximum

:-.a·i!..·l"

ill

.Jlffinn of !lu:~ dry

su b:lllllerg,e>!K"!:',

~Oiilmul

}lis the ilt."hm I N~h·N .1Jtt"W l d;i~'''~f f

()[ ~mlu'hlt, 'lI~~mo!lii.~. fOI'·· least ('''OInpl.icoJtt'd of al~ tbe dl~'m icaJ d)allgt~.~in Fleoded soils. Virt1lJ,~l I~' lilian '(:lI,:'d,in ,l n:dm::ed ubl'!.lill.m, b)' tl:\i(I~1 Hm .-n:d IICI ion" c~!lplex fonn[ltioru a'rill p I"H'ipH,lttOll l\f"'ldi(ln~'I., rUllIHWlhi:i. in.
hillillfdy

·n.q>~i

A is ,t\ {:ham'I:'{~ristic ror ;1 ~oiJ .at Ii gi \'!'U telY!:pcr~hm1 and i'~ Jel:er.mined b~'

orga.nic

m,~U·(·r eonteut (lflhe

sotl, for ~ht"

"1('

~liJ'~ 5tmlic,d,

a(~('or-din~ 1'0 the 'NII.mUml:

:\ ~: U.I-I
I'

-= 00.8100"

+ ;3!U-1

(0)

'~ ~ool·
1 w
~
N.~rt -

.~ "1"1

II~' •

~. ,U ):;
Iii!.

r.

O_!I!fO

\\i'h('r~ Ai~ '!'Iw mean mi~"illnlll'lI NH,.-N I'Ll co: 200 :r[)m ,t)f the dry ~uil!aud (0, is the per.: !.~'tIt;!ge '.If O~Hllii<: IIIlaUl('f {'III i ten t ill the ~ ~ ~oill (Io i~. .3), ~ P\':rh:lps t'fl"all,\' l>i~llm(':'I.nt. ("<.~dl'll'!il:.tl- it
I)" i~ the tinw !'~il~il'!:!lIIm mU(~llnt o:F ~'n,·N. 'fh~_~ I]i('l'i'-I('~ is d.·fiH~d hy tlu.' ('(~nat~,un: r~quino;:t
rCHr';l

!loH tn

rdl'Il-~P

ludf the

:~,

~Oi)

where t: is a p'll'i.l.IIil~.'h·l- '1" :1 ,.::in"l~ ~.lhl iI"~

UU'I

and t

~]!,;'r i:I'~(' t'rm.dll·iun,~ ~if • Itt' ~'~ "rimt'11It" p' i~ tlw d'l~'" of ~III U'IIII'r,!{"IK't' cnr-

lri~. ~. C~~neI3 i i.~n :~tW~(:'ln ~mifl~f!n,Mioll i

ill nOoih,d
Ihl'

~oin_

~.. ia~ ~I,d '~f.li'~·~i~ IIJmH~r ~"'[ltenl

'Dr

u~("(l:(')H ~~~1'lJltiua.l r ~l:lIIm'\'s OJ path G~I:\:t>d ml'l lJy two facturs: rate of :;li:nmollhl,prodl,~C'.
t iun and

calion ,~~.~,dhange I\eadkl~ .~• ~nlhe so~~,

:lrII
r§i

.As \\'iU~, ,~Lnu'n{)n iii produdiQIi.

l:ht~n~]If'i1Ult:'of rlSrmpl"otic (c renees

so]u,ble

=:llrll;nOI~[~~\ fol~nwed

L"'~~ "w
.,.'

[~"n!,bl!~ Un!C:l'(l\ww \,vid,C dif., i1mol1lg the !iloils in Ihe r,lh;lS and

~~
.....,U

i'lI'i'

''''

~~: ::::::~ "'~r!·~,;~ ~~~~

I'll!! I~.r I:~"''''!:! .psi"
~:!II

,,~t .,.
t.:J;
~,I'

~M

~G'!I'!!

c~i.'F.Ii:I,..iI''''lIi·' ~hll"ll"!-!I~!!. .~~~~!I?L I~I!.F~

~ro!I!!!l~

~.~I
I:r.. ..
!.til""!

j.

1l:la;;:~nltlm vnlues, Some of these d if· ferel~Ge~ '~~' ~ndic<lted in P~g. 9. A ~flFudy loam rich i:n. ,ol',gan ic maUier lmih up a ,000iill;)~I~,lfli!tiOl~o~ 70 pplttl ~Qiub]~NH~.N in aoout 75 days of £uhl)l'l~rgcnoe, '\\!'b'i~J(l a !~etlttal df!), ]tmrn" I.ow in orgllu1C maHer had aocuiIDulared ~;mrdy 5 ~'ll']~nii1 da,e

...
Fig. '9. Ch3:n~~~n inlh~ ~oi~ ~ohJUo!l. Iron} 10 percent
e x ch:il~'1~eeilp~city
c(lllcl!'nt:r~tii!!lli

sanae pel'ioOI.

l'illl

~inet:ucs oJ

fLlillm{~I~i3

,~£ N U~·,N

release f~!iO the ~(lil~ ~(lI'lltioo1 dCSCl'i~d by ~he equation:

'C~"f~ 00

A-y
---_.j,i

£Q~ ~!)Hs .(lI! ]nigh ca.t:~Q-n m uhC)!I:d 50 perccntfOir the roal'~\{~t~xluted sells, 'flue ~tudy of the ki[let'Lcs of (I[lun'onifi··

A
w]~lere

is

llii.e

rnll}': ~I1IUII:np(m(\elltl'at~.oTl

."!~lmOi~w. fn, the

~on $o\It~lioll. c
(lif

'of

l~ H pam ..

me~e:r depending no. ]8" the

on. the ~i], yi~ the em}· Qt:I.~tlt'atiiOn of Ilm:un,or,li~t M Hille t Fo~ ~o.i~, ..
Clol'loonlr .. tiuu
;lml:'!!lQnia

elttiOlili has shown dl~d (3.) ther-e 11~~ n~ad:· ed duf'f'erutlCes !Imlcmgroi.ls flil their capilI~ity to supply tnit:rog,en t)) th(l ~iue pl;a;rnt;

the soH

~O~uUOl~ Id l.'my time die-ted by the cqUi;i!t~on:

f 1\ ClIll be poot

(b) tkereleascof lImlUOOl~i1, total aad sO]llbie" is alil:U;:ml to qlla[ltit;;utwV!;l <I,Cl'" hie ~1.:~ilJ?ltion. <1i:ITh eC]:Ull~ion of' tine typE:': by

klg fA - .11') ~. log 1..- cll:

( e ) the
V,,~tli!lfm

~g ('a - y) = log n - 0,0148

Ttltle 3 gives dle rnlcttlilk..u
31'1.d

total

NH~~~1 is

it

para-

achnll

IHeter for elloh~DH, h!gMy

Cf:lirr·e~at~d!'..wU~
1I~'

values for tilt: CO!!lcel~tnd~(I!~ of NU~~N :fOil' this :'>o,iil., Sill'li.llI~ eq~la:tiQ!l~OOll~d be fUfmu];Med far :nmuJ:y IIU the so~l~ sha.d~e.d. N 0 qt!f~ntUatruvc (lOiu~ehH:ion
If! U!C

lilt') o:rg::lllJi<: mi'lUer (;lontc[I[ of the ~on, and

( d }~l1dy

~oUsm~ybu~l.d

]~iigh.oon.

'\!,[Ilue~ f~.1irNH,:<"N
org1'm:uc maUer

du~ A soi~ soilnt~:on with

or

NH~·N a:nJdI,~f l1rel'e :i£ di:<liImg,~, may s~rfc:r lIea,..y ~OI1s:es of '~'l~e nitl'oge!l l'ck'a~c:I bya:rnmOn[r~C3;tion,
(,"OOh'lItia:ns of solub]e

'Q~mtei'lt or ~eCflUsc

soil

WlIS

poss;ihle

A '!<I1'ntl'~fot the
of vll~i'1.ti!oi'!ifl

Ch:a1Jl!~

in Co1J~mIU.r~l~o:g

~\[ P~I:;Jjssh~n1
in

~'he.Ctdiou, e;.'tchllTlge c:lptlCLty, The I':'J.li(), A (S()htbi~~)! A (tOi~:a,I), for N H;'N, ~';'lnged

Sinc~ pm.a$$iu~nlis nat d[reL~:ly im"Qlvcd d~:e J'Cdlldion prQO~SLS: ,in ~flIiC?u~:rg~d

Ctlicuhkd

nh~~ ... ~t

,.,.".

".,."

211JI

20:11

33,.0
31).8

<lt3 3.5.6

(to.n
~l,O-

(!:;t.41

------~(:17,;)

{l:;l,f.!

(l8,l)

70

Table 4"
OIl

~Ll1]{j!l~rg~n.;,!: -i~~~J r~FI!'iWI,tk" ~~,i,~

n~I~Homh~p

h~~:...~c.. .,

!liicr~J~C'

LIL (.lo:l1!';:l:~fill',~li"u E~. 1;;' :[lp:111 {]tf

"r

!\."

III

'thl: ~il

WIUUUln

O,~HI:

--------------------------------2,'}

------

md

----

l6,
j, ].t

~!LS:
5.(:1

~,~

Z!l, 31

'7.4

6,0'
2,6
Q:,!;l

t'jne ~:!jjdV l.oalll Smlll]}'~:,~ii'l1

~;_r
41,'7 (U,

'l1Ul

2,3 3/1

Clay Cbv
CI!ruv

Lalimv

fjllH!

s;."n,d,

liiO l85 !O(l IllS:

1®F.I 100

i_G 6.3
3,'2, ll,"i

!U:
~
5.!! 1,9 ,G,S

."l,g

5..1
2Ji}

230 3~:!!
3<10' 17i1 3'9

2.3
;3,15

UI

C~!I!Y

GO

(LO
1,9'

5.6 41.1
_,i)

13

00

.,~

UI

OJI

ooiis, any cblll!lg,~~ lu tIle C011C(iI)tlf,ffLtiOglS of e:xchallg~i1bl~ pota~sium and pOhl,~tl[!lln~ ~~

the sell solutiou Inn s,l he seC'm~d:al:'y I!H eets, E.xdLI;l~gellb]~ K.L inarclIsea s]ight]y il'l

CO, and organic ~C:~(k The numbe;r of ~lmicq.tlh'a]~f'lts Q£ HtSO. p~r' Hltrer of sail
HI! u;!iQ!~:~q ui,ed tQ .Iow>e'r-he pH vahre t of the !il(l~~. so,]t~tin'll to methy]1 orange .ocid· .Uty is a measuse ,ur tn.e: increllsei11l -50hlbH.

;'ln~oa'is a hel,'
MghNtin ~!lls ~i'c1i1il.'l
\~ltl5

slll:Jl'1i1l~rg~cn(lt~. TheillCl:leill~~t

the stmng~:y acid! ~atosol~c itv of tne'se m'l~:ion:!i" .J nthe 3l~oi~~ st:~.di.oo, tllka]lm;~ty inacti'Ll'eimf!, This sllggC's,ts dtJ(ld~()n ~)f ~u.hme:rgence;,. (hilt the e:rn.Ci~!l,C~· ,oif er",tmc,Hon of ex- ,cre;}~edwith dl~'~rIIgeflhlc Ill': th~ ]e~d~!ng 8,ge:nt WilS reaehed l~k VIlJii.!C'S !lJ 30-60 df,ly~,alld .!K.+
incromscd~,\'Bh the dispersion of ~oH pa~t'~" eles, fQl]owililg theredWllc~iOl~1 and i>o]~bm.
wtli!O[I

o,er

[ltJ:I'ic C!lIil[lounids

that

acted. as

bI~nii:il'lgag«nt~,
Pot~ssil1,_im fin, dlC' Slojll Sfl']l~H(m i:rl(]re~ts~d nlil:!"~d~y, eaehed pea h 'OOi~ult:ideJ'lt:wtth r mla}ljmurnred;u.c~'ion of ~:he ~{li].~nd deciFt.'iISed );i]gldly t'llc'Mcafh~j'Th~ ~llIcrea;m ill cOOlccntwt'~QJ1il !Of ~:ohnMft pota;ss~ll'lI~ W~lS lno:strn:lrkerJ ill the sllndy soib rich ill m:g."Illk um:U~r sad ]~ast in th0 cby ~(lils
~j)W

(l~)i:!leod" But thea'!;! were sh'IkfngcHffc[l"" ence~ in the pe:d,: '!o'1I1~~~s lIr1d :ill [h.endes of increll:se llIild decrease. These dUfe:r~ elilce.s appeared to bel ;lc%oeiflt!l;.td wah one
Or more of thefo]lQwirlg ~O\i[ propm:Ues: Pr~sc'j;'1cC' of hc~ ca~hl¥~atcs, organic ~nat· tc~oont'CCIlt, pH, and c:ati:cmeKchangc eapllcH)'. Some-of these d~f£ercncell:lnd t]~ei:r' IT',llt:uol1shiip to fe'i',,!- are ~l~ow,u~ iIllF'~g.10.. Thill ca]cll~eolls
~!I)l'IlJly

firm

~nd

.(Fig"

10, ~:oil no, ,[) with 2,6

pc'JCC!~t

Qrg<t[lk'

iflo<r~~'![~ic!l:'l~lU;er,
SiC'

The a;o;sociatlon

,of

mauersl:!o.wed

a ,~teep

~n~n;!asein

;dbl"'

thi~ iflcrea
eI'l[ili'ltiity

with

l(~'w m~Uon exchange

so]uble
it'is

;l'l!Id a Mg;h coacenrr ..Uon of fffll1' ;l]ld rmlllg,ll~l~e ~~gg~~t, dm~

'C<lm!!l!r] hy dlfl:

release o:fex.dmngcil Me

K+ byrorn:peti'liIg M[I+~ (T;},ble4),

]()JlS, d,!ielly

'F~+'I'~fld

d'wQrlnceiTI:t:mHo:n

b1.l' t'be
]y

~,in,!W, ~~wched a ~1ca'lI: 4,5 d~I)'"s lifter nom::'!"· Ing. and dedinBd ~]ow]y. or dl>fll pe-ak a]·· k~~lin:~t\'Qf m,le./]iter. If!'IOr~ tlnan 30 fjIJ,C" 38 '!NC'JC' '!-+, and ~{g~' The Jnerease i[l +. 3lbihlJi:ty ~~this !lo~l. w~sca,us:a1! Inrg~ly

,ea

IDohiliizll~:ion of

C:A 4' -;I-

;lInd

Mg+-t:

of .m ion jn the :;]oril.soi.u~ian g':lI\!'erllls its cuptakie by rice. d~.e:1l il'lcrua,,-'ted lI¥ailnbilitr {II ]{-li- lJTlIi'ly he ye~ a:n,othe!i bl,'ii\ef:ut O'i rr,nod~n.g" ifA:.,u!:;cs h~ ~\.~kaU~ilily "!;VlilCln :l. soll f~ :Ief~ sll;brne:rgt,d,
tlilHltll

by o["g,l,mk aeldsaad

eo~" '[Ill ~he ~~ong~ fI>C',kl l\t(l,:ro~:icsoHs,. alkal'ul1li~y increa~ed

~'Q!WIewh@Jtlesllrap!id,.

sh~~rply:!lwddl,lcl:i!'lcd

ble alk:ai illlBy

,olF

iinC~~mS(lbecause

'pH and o£the

!nobUi1.::Ukm

{'{II(!i,~m.

mfl'if~e~~~jl1l.llliln-

g;~n~:':1~. =w!d froll

r!'u~n the~o~id

I?l~a~¢bY'

~y, .~ as 5lohib~,eFe+ + did (Fi,g, 10, setl i;i~t no, 6). In d1t\lie :roils, Fe++ [\l)[)etlnl:d ~ ~!~I.'!' f.~socijlit);K] ~1I'i:th ue a ~l:y 50 PC!1CCl'lt' fir the totul ~lll.::f!Hnity. Alk..Unillyi~the illmd· ,cro:tcly ~d(] ~oib {dllmvcd .IIl [) ... d~ ~mJglaIy p(ltfi_l.IIt'l~.~JO. selahle Fe+ -1-. bt!t the oon,· t(ih~l~il1l!l oflF'e+ + to a]kal~l1I:ity 'l.Y:l;S oem·

""'f ...Ii:
• (I I .. II

15:: ...
1_!011 ......

1I.1I!;.....

C::.I~.
..... , •••

~.~~ ~."".

",,'i..

t .... ~ IH""';"._d ~.. ~ "';:11 I",

<0

~.'1

,s, .•

...~ ~,,,,~ 1 ... ""'...

.'~r.....

Itn,

A negative value for residual alkalinity could be caused by (a) cumulative errors, and (b) overestimation of the contribution to alkalinity by some of the cations. Allow. ing a generous margin of 10 percent for cumulative errors, there is still a residuum of :2.5-6.0 m.e. for the solutions high in iron, This means that the contribution to alkalinity by Fe++, determined colorimetrically, has been overestimated. In other words, an appreciable part of the iron in the soil solution at peak concentrations is in the Form of complexes or chelates. This was subsequently confirmed in a study of the fractionation of reduced iron in submerged soils.

Influence of Duration of Submergence 011 Yield

Fig. 10. Relationship between the changes in concentration of Fe" and alkalinity in the soil solution.

sidersbly less than in the previous group (Fig. 10, soil no. 22). The relationship between soil properties and the contributions of various species of cations to peak alkalinity are shown in Table 5. These figures show that (a) in neu tral and slightly alkaline soils, alkalinity is caused almost entirely by Ca+> and Mgt+, (b) with increase in soil acidity, the contribution of iron increases; (c) organic matter favors the development of alkalinity; and (d) residual alkalinity is llighly negative in the soils where the proportion of Fe++ to total cations is high. The last point merits explanation.
Table 5. Relationship between of the soil solution. Soil No. 28 4 31 3 18 6

Rice fields are kept Hooded, by choice or otherwise, for wrying periods of time prior to planting. If a flooded soil is the dynamic system that the chemical kinetics of flooded soils indicates, duration of sub. mergence prior to planting should markedIy influence the growth and yield of rice through its effects on nutrient availability and the presence of toxins. Two varieties of rice, Chianung 242 and Milfor 6 (2), were planted at the same time in plots (Soil: Maahas clay, pH 6.6 organic matter content 2.0 percent) which had been left submerged for 4, 3, 2, I, and o weeks prior to transplanting. Since the dynamics of flooded soils is intimately Iinked with the presence of decomposable organic matter, half of the plots was treatand composition of peak alkalinity

soil properties

pH
7.5 6.9 6.2 5.6 5.6 4.8

O.M.$ 1.1 1.8 3.4 1.2 6.2 2.7

Total 10.85 12.20 20.69 10.85 19.4l 17.12

Ca"
6.10 4.90 8.80 5.30 10.30 5.30

Alkalinity in m. e. per liter Fe· Mg'· NH:

Mn"
0.15 0.63 0.45 1.64 0.13 1.32

Residual -0.69 -0.14 -4.42 -1.04 -4.76 -7.61

5.33
6.50 8.33 4.31 7.67 5.42

0.10 0.22 1.17 0.20 3.04 1.08

0.06 0.09 6.36 0.42 3.03 11.61

72

ell with ~l mixture of rice straw and fresh green manure at the rate of 7.4 tou/ha. at the time of flooding. Forty kg./ha. of N. as ammonium sulfate was applied at planting to the other plots to balance nitrogen release in the organic matter treatments. All plots were top-dressed with 20 kg./ha. N as ammonium sulfate at panicle initiation.
The duration of submergence prior to transplanting significantly affected the yield of grain (Fig. 11). Delaying planting until 2 weeks after submergence gave the highest yield. The increase was of the order of 1 ton of grain per hectare over planting at submergence. These differences could not be interpreted in terms of changes in NH3-N concentration in the soil nor redox potentials, although both followed intelligible trends during the season. The experiment was repeated in the following hot and wet season with nearly the same relative results. AIthough the average yield was only about half that of the previous cool, dry season, with each suecesive week's prolongation of submergence of the soil prior to planting from 0 to 3 weeks, there was a progressive increase in average yield from 3.35 ton/ha to ·t~O ton/ha, increases III vield lHe possible by delaying planting l1fter submergence, in a nearly neutral soil, low ill organic matter, and higbly huHer",d ngaimt reduction by virtue of its high ~[nO, COI1tent, even more spectacular results may be expected with acid soils or soils rich in organic matter that build up an extremely high concentration of reduction products during the first 3-4 weeks of submergence. Although duration of submergence of the soil is an important variable that can affect yield, this Factor often is overlooked in field experimentation with lowland rice.

.J
,8
7.6

.- w",

0 '"

0- •• 0"

7.<1

1.~

10

I'

Fig. 11. Influence of the duration of submergence of a soil prior to planting on the yield of rice in the presence and absence of added organic matter.

Practical Significance of
Chemical
The study submerged iug brings availability

Kinetics
of the chem kill kinetics of soils bas shown about wide of nutrients that (a) floodin the of

differences

and generation

toxins in suilx which show no significant spects; (b) by mathcrnuticnl

in the dry state rna: differences in these recan be described of the type:

these changes Iunctious

If such substantial

~' = v=

a a

log y log (A-\) (e)

-+-

+ hx
a

hx .!- cx2
h(log x ) ;~ I()~ A - e:

e(log

x)2

the pmamdl:fS

of these equations products

can

be correln ted in the case of certain nutrient elcments perties inteus: and reduction reductive with proof -! first of the dry soil, (d) activity the period is the

weeks or sllbl1ler~en('e; (e) appreciable losses of even cations may occur in coarsetextured flooded SOils; and (f) the dynamic nature of flooded soils is an important aspect of the productivitv of lowland rice soi Is.

1'l1r,1'6 :il¥lp(lrl~mt eJedroc:hclIliC':J'1 ,dl:[loges t<lke pbc· when a sol] ii!> kept sl~hl1l1erg(.'d: {a )an increase ill [I,Hi value', (b) an in.. crense in speciJi,c eondaetance, and (c) a deerease in r .d!oocpuh:oti;al, 'fh~ \nu:'leJJlf~np:: esuses of these elm.n~:l.'s ~u!!od!erst:oo~l milis SC(l'fJllUS:1)"im[~cdC'5 ll'lt'erprel:atiolll ,of the as~ocia~· ec] dlell,ica.1 chllnges 11m'l the lise oflh~SIC pruperties ro.r diagnor.tic ami jntClrpI',ctatjvc PIH"J)CI!Ses in eice production. A sludy of the e'lectrochelliicalcll~ngc'S in flooded soils was, uiid; -rblkefl ~n the gr~iIlhou.se with 31 :l'oils,l!!i1Id under c.,lcf,I,IUy control~e~eondjttons inthe bb{lmt{lry,wi.tbllm~'e
:u,~I'O'~' deariy

:soi~ was LUIIlSIIIl\lly .Iow in botl~ ~cH\;'e ,i~Il' ami mtlllgane'C' and h ip;h in lYI'i!illllic mat ..
fer.

The tllc-we'I~!.l· in pH vnlue;;: wi floodihlg of thc~ acid hdwolic sells fs tUi,U!oub~~dl,y Cill! i~d! by Ul'-!' r<."dndlool of ium thus,

Fe {OHh

;::::t

Fe{OH!~

+ OH-

The stabiliz:a.U,on of the pH values of these :soib at 6.5-7.0 may be asertbed le the equmhriUD1i:

selected ,ioils,

1]1C'

1'l~i.~ was coli¥litiJ1lil,ed hrg n C1'lreflll Uy COliltroJ. The pH vlIhn.es o.ft'lJlooi1s decii',eased 1ed bbQ:rlltory c:>i:pclhncnt with t\V{I acid. slightly during the fhst day ofsubm~~(Ijls~ straw and g~ree:n U'lQ'IlJllf'e; at 0.5 per. gC1lCC an d th~i.l i!lCl'Il<l!iad til 2-3 weeks Ito celilt nmd'·e fill' measurea ble diff,eltillce, ill ",<lllI!:is 'which were rnalntail1:c-d .for -tile next tl l' f:iRal pH. diCSpi'te the m:uklXl mcrrose 109, days. 'fhe fai,rly stable maximlllli, pH illl pmd~l~liQR of 00.. and oil'glmic adds. valu W;l!~ rebt~ to soil properties (Fig. 1.2). r In "e~!hll~and o.1ka.linc' .si}iib, the pH The plf wd~.~"S od' the soi~ wUh iuUia.1 : wuu~d appc<!r to be regllbtted by tl!u~ 3 pH v,~]~~ ~f ':L6- 5.7 ilrlCr<ea~d Shllfply ; CllCOJ,- CO:.:_, H~O ,eqiJ~libri;lI.Im, ~1dilil to£l1axima between B,:S; ,-1,0. wU'h:i[l 20 ~cid s:oi]s ricl:! !I,l lron by the eqllii]ib:riitlm, (j],a,ys: of 5l1,blil'ii!tge'ilce. These Ieve~ Wl.'ii',~ ~~'f.l(OH)~ 002 -H~,~O, 10 rolls: low in active iron bllt high in a;o-tiv,ema;lIgaflc~e, m,mD IItaaTncd for U'l~ next 100 (lays. A cemMn(OH h may be tbe domh'iMt -(a;door, men :featu re .o:f ~:lJese soils was thci~ high ,~'bUeCO. te:ns:iOll l!I11i1y be iilllilpOilitaof ~n ac-li1"'llifo:n .(lnteot, Tile ~di.glilt1y acid soils

,II Va)u.esof filoaded SoUs,

pfe:reiQ'ce oJ so,]id phase Fe(OH h buf~ fcws th~ soil against furtihe'l" pH ebanges,

wUh tllU:i:d pH values ,of 6.2"6,.6 i[icoo.'l.rod;

maxim!lof 1,O·7~.2 somewhat more slow]y" MaD/yof these soils \wre 10l0.' in iWII bwt high in. 3ictiv~man. gilneS(l. SQiI No. 27 with ,iI'I, acti,'V'0 Mill co:n.tel1it of more dl;:},fj :2,'OO{I f:Pil!lil g,lI.ve a. m&lxim'l:n:n pH of ".5\, '[he. rnlelltm'l and sJigMly 'lU:ali~l(l sotls ~hoiW.ed sWight de· creases i'n pH a day after s~bl1Jlle.1'gcTb'ce, fl~cn r'esllmed. .arid maintair.cd. lI]mo.s~ their initiul\11i'lues. son Nu.. 25 'WfU;, unu51Jl,[I~ in, that (a) :its pH" vidlle fllloh.lftted mOre tim It the othcu. am.1 "b) the meiU~ maxiFIl~lm pH value was ]CSiS t:h,n-!6.5. Thls
in pH to steady

~d]~~ low 1'1\btlUI, aetlve Iron JIIII'tlngllne~c.

"~ia; •• H;! i!!i. Pli ...6!ii1 ~·.I~. .~i&i'EfI oi¥'i,'R.!

and

active

RI!!"-rr.! r..i,,! I",",", I_ "iii, ily;.!iilli

,.
I. <it·

"
~., o!i!l

i..6~ i.,i~
~ ,I~ I'ln

C!

'U'

,tlil'

~!Jl slu!IJmerged.

Fii-f. 1,2,

Coonges

in 'the ;pl[ of ~lI,~'I! ,lil)ib·

74

,Spedf~e (~O[!.u:l:ueih!il'U,,:'e
. • .. :11

The s[)['cHic C{mdlldflr!CC o[ .(\ ~(llytiOOl . i]lea~ure (If Hs .iouic ·~-.onbmt It lS not: :UilPris:jl]!tt to !l~)h' "". h ~tT('''_'t~ in~p~cific

OO[ldiu.ctal1W

wl~en sQ.iJ~:u">'II' ]
il~:ld

:s~mncrgilld.EOll f:a ++

biliz.r,.J by' CO, orgnnk aekls,

II]L~(1Fe.L+al'ld Mn'

)'I':r'

jill.

NO- ~
I =tW

are

nnoI]W

•.
'I!.

;nldt:~Ui'tll'1 I· enter

L"r,.:r~ i liJg~.; "'~ ~m,I~~1

fioJllow:~llg dIe J:'E:'dLU::it'~O~l (If theil' jfl!S:QlubI1em:i.uiz.ed COllllllte'pi'lJits, :Iud .NlI~- lis relellsed rl'~1"Il so~i~. organic Il~ilt· 4 :!~1, A:s;!~blinity Is :1 ehem itt'!] m:l'aStll:e of the ormtent of' tlieseicms, dtere sholilld. ~a high cOO'reb~:io,l'l bl£t:\veens;pecific cooclncti'l!l~ :(\1iI:dI alkal:iinlity. Th~.s iis ~~ lustar!'lt,ed! in Fig, ma Ilud is d.~"Scil'iboo [or tia.e 3.n !o.iis~htd!ied by the C(I~ndi(m: A = 51)":1.7 + ,6U.a r ;;;,;; fJ:OtIS~'~· wJiJ.~e A l:5: s~f~:c col1di~u;;ta1'lCC ill mi·· ,tr.Q!D:ll~Qs/cI1l1, a:nd.8J, d~e~~llkali:d)' of dll.e 5o,i~~QluHonil~ m.e. per li.ter. The va]lllie ,7 is tilile mearn,s;IH!df:ic Qo:rulll1'c~mo~ 01

!Fig, ~J, 'Corl)el:aJ~~i~!I ibel:wreen ~~ee~(j~ ~'0!:!,·· al1Jd~'lbli~ldb' QfUle :>o<illsoll~lio!l. e!ll dllJ~ ~:n(!.r s!!fbirnl~rj!1e!u:,(!.
,olllld~:I1Ji!je

'-~ :U5IoJ]s

.It

tl1~ Hrne< of s"hl'ilc1!~enC,\C'.

The sail~ vaded. wi.delyill t~U1l c·h~.:nglls in spec:i£ic ''(mclll.1lcta.a~oewi,th (lum~ion of $ulhm~rg~'I1Qe, l'h~ neutral an:clI ~Iightly !llb~~i[l;esoils, Stll~t~liIg with hf£ilil ~])t;\cinc {1[uuJl]cU~IlC~s.iltta:ined ma1>:im:a ll~Ollt after 3{1 d(lYs (If st!bmc!!'ge:nce and mai:n:tainedi duml1 or ihO\vcel ,(,ll:ll.y ~ightdedifl~!>. The ~ ~Iiron:g~y acid s:on~Mth 1MY inHial speci. f!.e (lot"ldl!CI~~~('"e:S sl~Qw""([ ~:~~p i:nC"lellSeS d!llfi[l.g ~b~ ~i~d 3fD' d~y£ of stlbm,ergealoe an;di dJed~lJ.eclI s:harlli1]Y ~bc:rca£ter, 111Cl'\!l was: a dr]kuln'g p:tmUdf-ii"IDwith ~1.e oonCll'n:~ration·l~jff!it:l ch,~!~-es :~or ~o\Il]lJ~~ F'e+~·. ~'i:l! the S:H~ndy add soi~~. sl)CCliHc coo!aucl" ~Ilce' iOCi[\easecli slowly, rroe~.M broiildc~t

ma:.~irna inlerl'lled:iate hetWC>elll those (If drue acId and tbe l1I~tur;;lJrn soils, a:nd dedined ~m()wl'i'. e DU?i ll~nu:~mce of sell })rope:rties ~tld the cQf!tr~bu'tjru~.of th~ maillJ species ·of ca,tio!lJS to peak s[P'ooific ,oorld~qcl:an:ce arC' ~brOWf:I inl Table 6., 'flIiC'5e f~!:"t'S ~:how tn,d ( a) i!'! ~:ht:l ~]ight]y ~:ti.b]i~neoo~ the ~niemil:s:eill1. ~pecg:" Is fif.: cO't!d,~.,Cta!~ce c"lu.8cdal:moot b cnili:rely
~~ Ca"'+ and! NIg+ I-~ (h) organil;)' ~!1Ji!iUer enhaaees the oo~;IJ:bi:IHy OI.f Ca+ 4',. Nlg4i' 4-• Fe++ ami iIl1CWil£c:S sp~d:rk: coridtlctallC(t,. livid (c )in acil(] ~(li]~."Fi,rl ""i"!~,~kcsaJ!1! <"Ip~ lueda.bk contii'ihuilion tQwards~pecifi:c

Mn++ and NH:.+1!p[j(u-ent]y do i~ot H Ilrm~\!' he or-mclllded thal t'b.ei~lrC-rell:se tn, s[Jcciffc ccmdw:t31l1Ci.'l when .~ £oj~is k":ept: stlbme:li'gcdis C>l1J.I~cd by llL'lobiJi,za:UOIl. ~lfCa++ and Mg';';' ~il fI~litiml an:d alb~ine:SlDHs, and ~1iI1.del so~b. ~ lite illcreasea ~:n,(lono~mtmt:io!ii.of .Fe++;'lmd U'i.e dispLaceO(lind:lJcl:.:m,ce\vln:i:~e

n~.e

TaM~·e.
tim

~cl~ttonsMp
!>Olt~

bel~n

~Mion.·

wd

pr(l.~rl!.i~

:m~]p~~k

:s;pcdHG

OIJnth.lct3ince

Qf

$.o.i!I Nk
)

[liI-[
7,38 7'Ai}5

Q,M.$ 2JJ!5

m.e, CII'M!l:'" 1.7..2.

~~. rer U
ii'~"

~1I:iL

soil ~.olutgon
'Mlni'"

NU.,'·

m[iCromhM

26
24
~I()

1'1

'$..33 5,;.')1.l 4,!H

Uri :l;n
].:1.1)

1203 <I.fl

W,O
.:IJI

<"1-2

g e_u

2,fi~

:;3 ..

3.'7 "I."iIi

~:u
! 1IJ(j
1l·~1

U 0.1.

0,41 0.2 O.~ L2 1.3

l.~,
OJ. 0.1 U

2.'roe
2S(I!I)

1300

]~50

'7:lfl

7!'i

[l'U~lIllt

of ch~d~y Col' i1iml

~[g::' hy ~

'-:l~"
1ir.1ii~1 ~I
~ ~I

ion.

c;;:ch!'l~;Ijl)l~rC;lcHnm.

ii!ll,·
!)."r;!J'.·

~.4i:!'~ '•

..
The sin,glc e]ech'Q~h~m]c~WplWperty that diH~l1i"n~iil~ a flooded roH from an a~m;lhic soU I;S i~:srcdn:)( pO~!enU9,L tu~roMc !loH~ !U't'; (jh:!ll:a~'tll'ri:z~d by hig~LI]y POSHiVCi~(d~!l'tials w~1HI;': 1'I'J;(I~t flooded solls, an~ a fc:w
\'I'ceb of ... lbfiler~euce, ba\l'~ st!!'!)(!~g~y nc!!-,;,·' u ~tli\i'e pntent~a~~s, '1lfhe hfgh potrml~al, lhM thi~ p~'ul~e'l'ty ho1d~ f~J'!r diagu,(l'!ltli,c ,~nd int~l'prerntf\!e pnrpO!!lt!~ (;-a:nnot
• 'Q.

he-

f~llll)' ex-

ploU'Cd wi~liI;Otlt'lI d~ar 1,:mde:rlSta:ndin~ (If d'li~ ~lh:,siG~rehemishy oflfCd4~ PQtC'HU.... h

~I~m:ik l'~w [i($~: f~(rUu5it'c

for

mldJen;t1J!l~di~l~

~doo.:, l~~tcmtials iu nOQded ~(lil~ is il H~.<ll'- F1i1g U. C(l~~cla:l:i!lnb~~""IIll@~! re~JM! ~t~l~tii~ •. :BJnil pll. ·(If' aero(fu~i~ ~(lIlJJ.;. . 'fI~!ghk~lOW~ed!gCof t~f!C cileliJl"IJiclll compo~itlton of the soi]i'lm]~h(l chemici'll ch~n~t·~· dmt accrn~~'Pm~y thelmwr~ (~£~e~h)'.~)f~- i£ e1<~iflg~~\I' smal], ~'Jwchioice is lu~tweef! l h,:nt£."l~ls ~,vh~n. a soi~ i~kel>t . • Tht·1"("'co th(' !),:.,:ygt'lf!~yc~:tt'n;l~!ldtille fliiltrnre.·rnib'i'~ fore, tbt"', 3l ~oils ~)fknm"lln ~iVle1niC".I1 com· :ry'stE'm. pooiiti:{)I1i \VoI2,~reslUbn1J~rge(l ~n. poL~. in :I "]10 d~.ermodJy~18mic'pol~iI1l:n:tia for tI~ 1 g:J!ecl'lhoust' iln.d thlt :~\'doj( [mtentn~l~ 1lil:L'll~~· w,)~e-n ~ysh~in. O~ -+- 411+ -ie :;= 2H!O ~ucd at two liblnlk platinum dt'~h'oo.e::; i~ :e:h'~n by tne~q~udj!cm: permanent~;v ~ejd·~~at il clt'f!~h ~~r incites (i E~ = i.ss + O,O~5Iog pO~ - 0.000 pR ]neach pot.,!P\)tentiah ~1~S:.f] \~;~'W~1ewr-

,\ p}11lyiiIlg ,U~. (I:mplriil! oorMc:tion fo~tb.e ~'J'~'Ch'Oi~~If'ITi(; c;t·H. fneve;~~ihi~ity of t'~le oocyg-en p<lt'lll'ltml a:t iii :md pbj'5iQwd~~!'im:ic,~]d~aug('~in dlt, so:u~ ,.,,(Orf' IroU(~wC'dhv an~~k~i~; nf tht:- hv~~ht ])IM iUlJme~(:>t.1rod~~ the eqU!a,ijcm .. . ~~Iil .ilml~f~H ~ohdinu ;!~rr{!;qwN~t~!l h·n'nl~. Illm,- Iw ~,'ew.rit:t,e'il .:;'IS fo~lowl>: ]~Ii = (l1.OO-!'- (W15 ]og pO:! - (MJ60 ,H The l~o<~~nHaJls Uw .~l~Is hnl'hu,.. iakly uf d Qr: anit;'r nUji~t~ni:l~g. wHh fn'l' ~OOC,~l~ ,1 r, '.0 i

~~ined h~ d~,plill:'ud~!dt" a.!wl;~·m~~li~'nHYI' ~Iln

at 30~e

speci.1L~lyt;'(lnS~nll(.'~~~t
C]I!lH.tltkll~

r,')ngt,a from +35~~ illlV tu +6;;!O lliM', '~l1di, tlle pn'M'~lN' 'Olf ;J ~yst('m PO:iM>(1 ,~t a hti.i"!Jlrlo!)t'eI'lH~t~, 'fh{· [If.h·nUa]'''\1('~>n' hi~hh' ~:()Irtd(l,t~(] n~gal:r\.'~'k \~"ith pH Vll]~~;~ !ht~~~iiil Ff~, <1-0 ,q';[](h'fint'[(h~' or (

·c.~ tfllg:

Ell

= 0 ..92. ~ OAJOO pHI.

w.iwnl pO" .2M:

the

~egr¢S~~OIli:

'fh~" ~.b!1t.:I'vl:d v;;\~ne.~ of !fl85~ V(]]t~ fox thfO ili'llt"C¥oept a:nd ·~O,05B vohs per pH Ulliiit rm' the gri'ldi.e:n~.al'e dose!;(1l. these t"lleoret·

leal
iOIJ ic

'\·'l,~.U{lS £t)~

theoocygen

s:r.;~m,

CQJI.

s;de~~III~ -rl.~i5il~~p!i{'~ upfOr:difllli. in a{'robi.~ soih, t]u:" I~f ;J. s>"S~'{'Ull \\ Hh ;In E."Q 01£ 0,85 V ::H~IL~. an. ~~h/pH stope (]IF,-0.056 volts pl:'r pH ulilit .Sh~m~~'he (·mlUcul:lC.aHQH ·(d h~m and muu~~n~wse frlJ~lw ~nill ~nlu~'i(m
(jf

t],uH 1110 corr%1:iO"l1sw~m ~IIMlide

~t ~·t~ngth ami

~Qr l11t.'H Hw ]~re¥(!l:'sjble

t:I'a,C:IlllQ·

OiXyfi(('!l~bl'g !ti;"l]

is no<~a p['eei:se

~I.t'mb~e ~(l'~b

dyniulilio qfla!~tny. This~h'ox!~J.y $~~s:t:;: that II1Jfi'~,(·do.." ~ys:oom in ae<t'v~ic soils is, the ]nl'~'('rsi'hk (;X~enfiy~reml. The on.ly

show;!I b_r the

~,b ~

pJioblel1'J:li is Ih.:d til!.: l'Iil:rott··nHr:itc, syst~!I~ has :l comparable s,lan,llard potential at' a pJo! uf OJI ;llld!he same' EI• 'pn stope a
i.'-'l1.l3tion ~

f nr the first I'},"]) e, in the early stiigt:£, Ulll}" he caused bythC' llighcrcontcnt ilcli!;!'e !!Imlg<lnesc, and tho buffering of _th,c," Ilotcntilll deer,easein Uw re "to(ll~ -50 to

or

RS,'j'~

:'200 mv may be ascribed to 'U\e h i~h

111"00I!o~ NO-;t/NO-~ h_lln of ,adi'\I'C

(;'011'

{U160 'pH. J d ~L Y oJ 5ulnnergf'm:~e, the' ~k!~U~g]~ of all ~o~b decreased. This drop was mostlflharked ill, the neutral soils l!1.nd Af'I,c.r

imn, So~i no, 21 (Fig. 1:5) is all cx,~mp:le ~f

the t'll~rd paUcm of E~ dmng'C~. Ah~r a sh::np drop ill pott'n~:ill:1 to 11~Qld +lOO ]jf~iV in a fi.;,\\' days:, Eb doorcu~eds.10'wry to ::'l
minimum o~ ~:lH'.l order of - 50
l'IW af1er

least in IIhe S:lr-ong]y add ~o~1s. The suhS'tlCl!uenl dm:ngcs: in potentials and till(' ,miliiimU'm\lalue~ reached varied from soil tol son, but four broad p"tt-ems w~rt" dl.'lul~ disC'~rlD ib'II,' (Fj~, 15).

ubout 150 dllY~ of submergence, These soils were reJli'liv c;lylow iu OI;g:miC' l'llilLUPI' and Ia.i~h .ill acU\'t! rmlngall,~se, The scin,gle soil UUI't 111aintain'ed II I,?o$i-

The :Filst type is m:empl:if:ied b;' SlOiii 11tl. '9 ,(Fig. 15), 'flu;, plJtential dropp{.a C'.'I;" troemely mpidly andre;xdl,ed ~he ~.ow value 01 -2500 1111'1' r1t a pH of aboat 7' w',itb~n, 3 weeks of nfloding. SQ~18 that hehfl,>ed iil1
tlrl~rnmmner wer-e ooaTSe.tc'Jdured; 'low ill. ir,on and Inangalle.se, aml\\"en.Sllpiplit'd
w.i'fh org)lI'I~C matter,

Uve E~ durit!g tbe ~Idire pc~riod ofsllibmergence was soil ne, 26, It had du~. ~~~.,elit co.ntelfl·~ of organ ie matter ;j[moYlg the 311 so:irsstudfl~d ,find ,lIfa11' CIlint,elll~ of active
'~nalliga1fU?~(l,

1i'hi~~tudy has ( n} ,confirmed the role of uJg~mic mat!'er in lowering: tIIC redol! poten tials of Ileodcd sOli ls, and (b) lilidicaled the' pr $ 'nc-' of two poisiJllgi'systems iii flooded ~(ills. '\liz, mang:mcse ill tbe E, nwge +100 to -50 mil and iron jn the ".'1I.flg"--50 to -200 m,,,. kID}' ~mi8ing ef..· f cot by 1~:it:rMe was not ob511:;rvcd, beoause the ~rn itiid ooncc;mtr<lt:irms ,n~ nnra~,e (;If '~lw S'-oHs WCi'~ e1i:tl'crndy Iow,

Tille second tnl!,~ h; ~'ilp~esellitcd by s(Jjl l!l'o.28 (~i;'ig.1.'1)_ Tilt;' potential dccIilled :rap:idly dur~l1I,gthefirsI :1 'Wf'eks,then decreased s~owh', and aUll'ined a mhdrn um cd -250 mv ,aher :l.hollt ][50 d:!l}'5 ,0£ l;1J1:nl1lerg,.mOl>. The sIo,~ver dl'o:r in pO'tenti!n~ '~,'iuw

],
I.:.", 5'. ,. _!li,~. ""::"'11
,,1:-1

In

vi:f'W

of

the

aSSOdillUO\l1

fIJI

'IE~I \l.I'i:tJl,

Iron, Ulls~oCCSl!lful ancm:llt~ were rnf~dletto cerrelase the observed pOlrell. ti:ds \\'Uhtbe ceneentrations fIr these el{··
Qlllllganc!tl1ll'll'ld
.i.~1

'.~

[I iii

'!IIi'

-C.n
".j< 1I.it5 '!'(I

!!3D1:"l

~.I>i~

'!;cijli ~~, •

...... .t' 'II

4il"~
!I!.!IrW
~'"I§o'i.

I!'i."'_. I._
!,"_o;;

m!i\!1Jts ill die

soil so'lution.
LIlOlllahr

"~I

"_II

TI!e fi~st
"

was thll~ th!: trends

~.

-~
• ~-'
~,

,.~

~.

-~!'~

of tbc E~, oJ the suil lind (.".(J!}t,;·cntraUon.5 d SQJub]c Fe+~ and were i1nmos'l: iflVi.1 r]i'I~h' mllt.radiC'tmv, except in 'llw initii!1 pl:'ase (If reducU~n (Fig, 5e('· Qndlv,"si)in~ at the s[lm,eE., had ,C(mcenh'l~i~lS oJ Fe+f tbat dim~:red bjl a fac· tor, sometimes as high as 20, l.. stly, tlw )

~f~~""'"

Un,

actual cencentraticns of ir,Cln and raan!oI)

.tanes:e
'r4!~D:I:

~~

':H!i~I~IMi

Fir., :15, U!.mg(!s. i,1ll th~ lUlll'iiili'llii ke]lt >!!.Ib!!\i!f.ll",~dl.

:p;otential

o.f 77

;roodl,

in the son ~'l()lution did uot 8.1"' eve]1 rc~)~tdy.-the vahb('s predi~tequations:

ed l)_\'tbii

E .. = 1.033 - O.O6{)log Fe+t

E •.

= 1.250

0.180 pH
O.lZO pH

0.030 log Mn++

• f .... 11110' -0 (~ ". _

AJ> .... ,. .... IIIn.j~

...

u~
,...fU·

"'i

.tI.".~
.... .,::, _;:

"
...

.I. '.'"

.~ •..

t"~I_

".

ter 80 days of submergence unlike the SOil potentials which showed fairly stead, minima. This is shown ill Table 7. Th( higher E" of the solution could be caused by (a) oxidation by air, and (b) pH M ferences. Since air was rigorously ~t. eluded and the pH differences did nO! exceed 0.2 pH, an alternative explanation is necessary. The most plausible hypothesis appears to be that potentials measured by elec, trodes placed in the soil are bacterial poten. rials, Potentials obtained with suspensions of bacteria cover the entire range observed in th~, soils. Further, they are known to IUlvl~H slopes of -.'30 to -120 mv slopes encountered in reduced soils, as will be shown later. Bacterial potentials are believed to be caused by redox systems generated by bacterial metabolism and activated by enzymes. Presumably, bae. terial cells and enzymes that catalyze the electron transfers in the highly negative systems am filtered out Or adsorbed by the soil as the soil solution is drawn out. The potentials of reduced soils, as shown earlier, were far too low to be associated quantitatively with soluble Fe++ and /\·In++ concentrations. With tbe higher potentials shown by the soil solutions, a quantitative correlation appeared possible. The best correlation obtained was between Fe+ -i- in the soil solution and £, of the 31 soils, 143 days after submergence when tho FI!++ concentrations had leveleel off alit! assumed values close to those permitteu by pH. The regression of E, on
soil nile! soil solution with duration of

Fig. 16. Relationship between the in redox potential and concentration and Mn" in the soil solution.

changes of Fe"

They were far redox potentials governed by the centration in the

too small. Clearly, the of reduced soils are not iron or manganese COl1soil solution.

potential of the soil was determined by the concentrations of Fe+v and Mn++, there was a possibility that the E, of the soil solution might be. Therefore, these potentials were examined.
1101

If the redox

The redox potentials of the soil solution determined under the strictest anaerobic conditions differed from those of the soils in two important respects; (a) They were higher by wide margins for the highly reduced soils, by smaller margins for the slightly negative soils and were lower than in the soil for the single soil with a positive potential, until the last stages of submergence; (b) they tended to increase ufTable
SU

7. Changes bmergenc e.

of Eh

(mv)

of the

---_9 10 26

Soil No. Soil Solution Soil Solution Soil Solut;O'l

10 -If.l +445
16

25 -244 +195 - 12 + H):') +168 + 50

39

52 66 ----_.

_Days subll\"'ge~ 80 -24.5 + 6.5 - 50 + 93 + !=1.1

101 -235 + 75 -105 +170 +143 + 40

115

129 -240 +157 -118 +223 + 89 +173

i43
-235 +170 -2·10 +275 + 82 +380

+445 +20A +'W)

-219 -1·10 -229 +173 + 07 + 80 - 32 - 47 - 68 +22.') +15." +130 4-110 +112 +119 8 + 6.'1 35

-i-

;;

-218 +11.5 -103 +247 +123 +160

iH

Fe-J-

is given

by the equation:

E, = 0.967 - 0.:168 log (Fe+r } r = 0.862··

The marked deviation of this expression frOm the theoretical equation:
E1

= - 0.227 --

0.060 log (Fe for the Fe( OH }., - Fe++

I -i- ),

'vstem implies that the correlation is ~I spurious or fortuitous. With the exclusion of Fe++ and Mn+ +, the only major components left are organic. The concentrations of organic reduction products, as shown earlier, were several limes thosc of Fe++. The organic constituents, then, qualify for the role of the dominant redox system even in the soil solution, Further information of the redox systems in soils was sought with carefully controlled experiments with three soils in the laboratory. The criteria used in the attempt to identify the redox systems in submerged soils were the E" and dE/dpH. Three soils were incubated anaerobically with and without organic matter, and tile variation of Eh with pH was determined potentiometrically within the pH range l-10 in the complete absence of oxygen after varying periods of incubation, dE/dpH was determined for the soils in air, also, to furnish the curves for zero time of incu ba lion, The earlier finding that the dominant redox system in soils in equilibrium with atmospheric oxygen is the oxygen system was confirmed. The three soils studied (a) gave aerobic potentials of 460 -550 mv at pH 70 and Eh -pH gradients of minus 50-55 mv per pH unit, compared with the theoretical values of 530 mv and -60 mv/p'H, respectively, for the irreversible oxygen system, (b) responded to increase and decrease if oxygen tension by a rise and fall in Eh, and (c) registered the same aerobic potentials in the presence and absence of 0,.) per cent rice straw or dried green manure, though the dE/pH 79

gradient was sl ightly decreased by organiC matter. On submergence and anaerobic incubation, the potentials decreased (most rapidly in the acid soil rich in organic matter and least in the neutral soil high in manganese) to give fairly stable potentials after 4 weeks of incubation. The addition of straw and organie matter steepened the initial fall in potential ill toe two soils of medium organiC matter content but had no appreciable effect on the rate of fall of potential in the soil rich in organic matter. OrganiC matter did not lower the final stable potential below the corresponding potential in toe absence of organic matter except in the neutral soil rich in manganese. In this soil, straw intensified both the rate and degree of reduction more than green manure. The E" - time curves for two soils, in the presence and absence of rice straw, are shown in Fig. 17 for the very strongly acidic soil and the neutral soil rich in manganese. Two other points of interest about the changes in potential arc (a) they are amenable to precise mathematical description by the function: log E,

=a

+h

log t

+c

(log t)

where t is the time of anaerobic

incubation,

.10',:-----:----:--:-----7-_~

~ __
",it:-' with

11""'-t,:
Fig. 17. Changes in redox potent ial lime of two soils incubated cnaernbically and without green 'manure.

and (b) the minimum potentials arc considerably higher than for the same soils left submerged in pots but lower than for the soil solution. Apparently, the soil slurry used for the determination of Eh represented conditions intermediate between the soil, with its ..bacterial population, their metabolites and epzyme systems, on the one hand, and the soil solution, on the other. In view of these findings, recent attempts to interpret redox potentials of flooded soils in terms of the iron system by extrapolation of results obtained with thin suspensions of soil must be view(;J cautiously. Studies on the variation of dE/dpH for different soils at varying stages of reduction han> elicited points of considerable theoretical interest in the elucidation of the redox systems in submerged soils. They show that r a) for a given soil dE/dpH may vary with time of submergence; (b) at a gi ven time of submergence dEl dpH may differ from soil to soil; (c) organic matter may alter dE/dprI for any soil at any stage of reduction, and (d) dE/dpH of a reduced soil varies markedly with pH. Some of these points arc inclicated in Table 8 and depicted in Fig. 18. The changes of dE/dprI with time (after :2 weeks) was least in soil No. 6 with no organic matter und in soil No. 'T! with rice straw. They tended to increase for the other soils, with one exception, after 4 weeks of incubation. Green manure and rice straw increased -dE/dpH ill the two acid soils.

Fig. 18 shows how dE/dprI for a given soil at a given time of incubation varies with pH. For the aerobic soil, dE/dpB is fairly constant and approximately -58 IOV over the range pH 2-10. Below a pH 1, dE/dpH tends to zero indicating the operation of the Fe+t+ -- Fe+r system. The slopes of the other curves varied mark. edly in the pH range 1-6. From pH 7-10 it was fairly constant and equal approximately to -110 mv per pH unit. These changes in dE/dpH bear no reo

lation to the Ierric-ferrus system in terms of which some workers have attempted to
interpret the potentials of flooded soils. If the ferrous-ferric system were operating, dE/dpH should be 0 up to a pH of about 3 from the acid side, -180 from pH 3 to 7, and '-60 from pH 7 onwards. The actual values diverge widely from these theoretical slopes. have shown that (a) the soil is highly negative and much lower than that of its equilibrium aqueous extract or suspension; (b) the po· tentials are not even remotely related, quantitatively, to the concentration of irOI1 or manganese, though iron and manganese can buffer potential changes; (c) the redox system in soils have Eh-pH slopes of -40 to -140 depending on the soil, kind of organic matter, and stage of reduction. These studies

En of a reduced

All these observations are compatible with the hypothesis that the redox potentials of flooded soils are bacterial potentials.
011

Table 8. Influence of soil, green iuanure, rice slraw and time of incubation -dE/dpH (HI natural pH) of three snils kept submerged. Weeks incubated
(I

>---

0 lli

Soil No.6 ---_. Added O.M.% 0.5 G~1 0.5 R5 120

0 116 113

Soil No. 24 Added O.M.:t 0.5 GM 0.5 RS

----------

._

Soil No. 27 Added OM.l 0.5 GM 0.5 RS 48 100 118 108

---_44
111 112

.>

55

53

6
10

102

III

125
116

51 100

.0;:0

na

126

133 132

IOO

127 126 80

131! 131

us

40 120

120 113 1-t0 145

40

100 106 114

51 52

121

113

100

1QOOr

o_._.~ :2 soo
0___
X ..........
• __ 4

._-

'OM

o
G

rIme w-eUI
'IIi'~tI.5

~OO .

-,

('0 __ "_,,

.. ~Otl""e .2' G

.!'ch

o __

_nit ...
wt!!'b

WC~~,

.... e.e.-;-s;

10 ...eee

s
600

~
':'...

X.

.to

600

'00
('"

~. \

\",-

"- \

400

(mil'l 200

"\:-"\""':~<:.:-""

~...

" ,~""]
.zOO

~lOO

-100

••••

1;

-400

-400

4 oH

'0

Fig. 18a. Changes in redox pH of Louisiana cia), incubated IONIC

potential with anaerobically. EQUlLlBRIA

Fig. 18b. Change-s in redox potentjal with pH of Maahas clay incubated anaerobically. IN FLOODED SOILS

."

.0

regulate many proper· soils that are of great theoretical and practical importance. Aside from controlling redox potential, pH, specific conductance, cation exchange, precipitation, and complexing reactions. they determine the availabilitv of all array of plant nutrients and also the concentration of substances that can be (oxic to rice.

Ionic

equilibria

ties of submerged

appreciation of its relationship to other forms of Fe+ + are essential prerequisites to the quantitative study of ionic equtlibria in suhll1erged soils. The fractionation of reduced iron into total, exchangeable, cationic, and complexed iron was undertaken a, the First phase in the study of ion ic (:'(1u iii bri ol ill flooded soi Is,

Fracriouarion

of Fe+

Since iron is generally the HUlst abuudaut soil element whose compounds uuclergo reversible oxidation-reduction, ionicequilibria in flooded soils an: likely to be dominated by reduced iron. More than 30,000 kg./ha. of reduced iron may be produced ill a soil within -i weeks of flooding but less than 5 pE'l'cellt may be in the soluble [orm. Of this ,,) percent, 0]]1.1' a fraction, depending \lpon soil, stage of H'duction, and kind and amount of organic matter, is present as cationic Fe+r. This is the enti ty that directly enters into
III

in Rc(llIcecl Soils
Twenty-gram portions of three soils, with nod without 0.5 percent green manure 0111(1 rice straw, were incubated anaerobically in the presencc of 50 ml, of water, and the following categories of reduced Fc+:", determined at fortnightly intervals, exchangeable Fe+v, cationic Fe++, and non-cationic Fe+! . The figures for the strongly acid soil and nearly neutral soil are in Table 9, and some of them illustrated in Fig, H), These fjgures show that the contents of non-cationic varied with

o~t

chemical
in flooded

and
soils,

electrochemical
Its accurate

cquilibrin
assav and an

exchangeable, cat ionic, and Fc+t ;1nd thl'ir proportions 81

~f

,~"l1~r.lhkilK·Uf~~t.~m _.;",1 rf"'....~tr·"w on ·the di-Ui hm-· . U~.. I.~<l-· Ii;; iii l~r'-rfl (]if {~ry !1IJil: {... tiu!liC' l~m! hlmSIl~l!lLof"}

.W

<ll~O
213 7 0030

,'1:1W 1.3

1~1M}

·H1U f.I ·1 :')J.JO

4JOo
i"i

64 33
c'I,~!)',

5100 43

:'Iill®cl

~.~ .~

ss
2l

29 Hi

5090

~O
15

oroW!!

M_ l~H GJ~. n.. :m,.~2~ 4H 37 O.ll t8:,iiO S

4 Li5,

15 0.:3
O..'i~ rk~ ~rl!W E~. f:e'" Ca~. !!",'eo'
.,'OOii-t<Jit~

56 '0.8
UlSO

9!

n..5
18;30 9 8

0.1
1&')0

OJ

:r~···

~a6® ~.S
B

the 001:1,. duva!iQn

llre.5lenre ofllhscmlC

,o~ 5'~bm~rg~ru~c,,,,nd
of riee straw ..

The ,~Iru!~g]yacid son built 1:.Ip, widlil~ 2 weeks, an ~~~iC'b;an ge.,Mc }~c,+·~ con~c!.Ir;dimn
Q~

Or~, t'b~ <l!vemge, il .~ !~g]!~'r pro"' soluMe Fc+ +- '\",',u !!OIiI-cl"tHOIn~e ~u H~,is nem.dy n(1lut~1'll soil
[1lwtian uf The !.1f1.0stimlmrtalnl~ Qb!1Crwl't:ifl[f!., WfIS

" centr0!UO"n.

]5

n·w

,I:bout 15 rn.c.

per ~~)!I} g.

arid

the tJU00r~·etk,d ~t,mdpo.int,

n~e io·

frnllfll

main~:Il.in1cd this vahre for thr~ neXI: 14 weeks, Ritt M raw j'lJcr{!u~l?d trw ('Q:"Il~Jefrlt of thf~: c-ategmy of F~" ~ OOl]y sl~ghtly. alt,ll!ol!Jt;11 !t~llihaBo~d I1Klrked!y the clIHrmic awl 110rll·q1liQ1!~]C Fa","'l 1;!000!c(!utrotioul. -r,he mlio of nen-eauenic to ~i1Htmic !F~'~'!' ""'r~s 1'1'"ughly .~=3 chH"i,l~g~h~ fi'rs't 6 weeks Qf ""d~H::tion :md mereased '~(I f!bo~!'~1: 2 in ~h()' J~U;tr S;~'l'!.1!{·li. ,,,,Hlrnl'lnCl wHhoi:it'rloo ~t;rl'lw.

-r

i
';j;

,iljiilOO

!
l

~
lICU~'I'il.l

~Q~(

Till!
contrast.

~oil I)I)C-lJented

The (:onc(lnt~:aU(Jm

rIlm.rbd alf both C1>i:!I

'~

,~
1I':c,Q

dl';'],1g('i1h'leal1 d soluhI~ frol~""'e:rre ·~x~r{.']l~'[:.'·

Mghest Cfln'~nt[.Mi:on of c.Nchange;.thk Fc++ was o:n:ir O~'3, m,e. ~J~:I:100 g. while SQh,ble- 1£'\: f ~ did 'not C'~~d ,[ rj)lH1li. Hire ~~ra:w bad a dnu:n;'ltic efrec<t; e:\;~h,'n~,t:flb~.eFe; 9- W<l~ e-h:v;.IJed ~:o abcJrut "{ m.{'. ]".lC!r100 g.• aud sO]l]M.e i:~fm ~nildcr;"'!)'I~~' 2n·fold im.:r;ea.>.e in <'"OU,fI

Iy low. The

,•
I.

.•
,

;
..-.... -- _,I~

t .... ~11iI--1.

~~:o;;_

.Hl"'1 ~
it'

l~i"'i'. t~~ I I,M I'IIIIIi I! ......§~ ...I

~ r-'~. ~i~ii 0; ~1I .. ~.~r4J

l;l._ __

~""'-a:~
.;: .,...

__ ..... _.,.:

:-,_~,.

-,"'_IOi!i'=._._-_._.MJ

...... ., ••••
'" ~iI!

'-.ni!

~l'

I~

ol~

¥!iil f~Si '!;I' !'!'!C"'!!Jii!t!l'r!'J.~

fig. ~.~l i~ ~JnUen~~ (d ~!ume ~f 11iI~:~.i!J,~t:t~!m, ~ie~' £~j"llJ"'l!itdj gr'C'~1I m~nl!l!le 011 .t1o:l~h~rn!l>e;~~):!!e

f·~··.

l;:rell:Sl! :iill eoneentratien of OOU-I 1.'.!UllfID't: ,~st Nll'lCt'ms Ih!.; f,rrrtl;·f eUOU5 redox: JI'\·Slind ROIl·cat ioni,c F e+'" II!} ell'l tile .e SlOalS h>' I(·ilf~_ Shlc~·" huu t QII~·th ird to o!1le·hrllf of rio straw and green rn;ltll!lre. This mt':l'Ils .hc linUl jn '!he soil 'olll'lio:n !IIli!}' be h1 the dmt d'U2' deoompm;i!ioll'lofo'lg:mic matter flii"m (If !:Iightlly dissucittted eomplexes it prmit,C€s,in anaerobic soils, sUlhstm:li;:es: is <ju!1'litiol'mbl'e wlilCil:her the ~:impl.c other dum cj}Jnpr~.\lllJgagelits that can in- !''l_ ( Oli ) , ·~·e++ sy'Slit"'fll ,ollcmles iu c.!',epse Ut> sQlub:i~,itr of ~"e++. They 011"(1' floeded so;il~. FUlrther, tl~e-1.1~(l ,of the total prdbll hi)' CO~ and 1~}werf'lIU:}" ~dd~, "i. !J!H:!i soluhle f'e·!- .... OOIJloentnt'iOlil for the <'I~HYHv ,tilt- 1.1e.t"O"i'I['io~itf:ul1 ,1)£ t'lite Qrganh: acids ~. ,ca,u'onf,c F,e- + in redllX: 'b~~~d6hemi~1 and! loss ,1)£ OCO~ by d:iHusion ,and baetertal cqll'i~ib:ri:il in soiJs :~sinlept. ~~lct:i(irI to eli." the pH s:hould il'lc[,(,!',L'i,S!l The inferel1ce;!; of l)f~cti(.'nl ~],gnifioaMe ,~lighdr mU]lh· ,oonoentraHml of (;atio!'l~c ure: (a) eH!ls:ider ..b~c' a1ilOI1l'lts of NH,!+.

Fe:++ ,sliould liflOVe towards fhe value dec fil:!!od by the il"W I)H or the 501'l[IliOlI.00 Il~: cllliillg is I1-C"~S;}ry; au iillc.rcasc (If 0.5-

pH

unjt

i~ stlffici - nt to

decrease

tIle

con-

o~ntmti(:)n Il<f FG+ oj- 10 tumes. The ob~lkincUC!l (If si}I~!b'le' Fe++,in tMs exf~!Ji'ime[1t and il:} the ~t~dy repor~ e:.l'ri,ic!r, an~ in hll~lllrn1y \\!Hh thjis ,e:...:pilnIl3"
HM. An addi'l:iomil point ,of tl:u~oret:icllru 1'lIter·

K'I, Cn+-l-, (\'Ig-+ may he disp~~I!:edinto IIH~ ~uil lYo,]uUnu al!ld made !lv a.ililble~o' riee amI al~so ]mt in the drainAge by C~iil)li ~xclml1g,e with Fe++ in acid sells,
( b} or!j.'fll! lc m:~"lnuli'e~ lTilay a~~vat'e jmlll tmh::i'!:Y by fn,e~H;,h'lg, tile ooneCl1Ilmtlon, of ,("atli:onirc allld eomipl~,(:d Fe+ 1- ,il.l ,add ~ntl8,.
and (~ ) OlJtg"ll~C li!II~Her may
~1Ji

be

the'

rem,MY for iron,

d~fic!cmcy

n.ellt:r:a~ and

alkaline

soiVs,

j~ ':.Ihnu~t uu iv, '['Sully ~o,ils,~]lc ph)l;!;io;J:ogi'~'l1 reasons for thcnC'CessHy (If th:is pmct'ice are nOlt ,cle~~~ understood. y' ~Jqe prinei~:d (lh]',~i[1~I!()gk~!'~ ['!d~',ru~t:lges ,0E flood ill!!

AJUlougb

ric '

gro\:\'11. in floocll~d

ali(\, dlmilla'lii)~D rof W'lti" stte~~, g !'lIcrl'il~cj'l ;~\~d ilahiBty ,at!' n ntl"il'l1t:s, an d ~~d nsf on of nibate,. it' mi,gl'it be [lOl."'iS~iMe ;1 ell ieve the to bf!.lWfits of floodtll'il with d:I!.'lTIklll! treat'm,~!I't. ofSIOils <It £i~]d c>!p.lcity or wifl'l a pllrti~ln\' saturated profi'le. Thts SUli'llfl$S' ~',aste;ted ln p~l't ~uhl~res. ill (he green· house inld in I~Hg~ dmlll:l1l om soil, out·of· doors,

Peta, an iml,ica \I',lfie:I)o", was ,"rowij; ln pnls on !'Im't' soils, s:ubjed ,to the fol]ow· iUI:ill W;I ter l~~Id chemllc.,.l treatments: ( :b~', Sl]bau:rJ!l,;d ~u a ~h~'I)~]~ S indu?~. of ( b ) ~,llt ~II le~l~ (c" m Udd 'C~Ll)~l:C.i't~'!I" ({~ ~ n.eM C'.~p:ldty piliis a H cliCl!f!iCl~] nmendments: (e) (d) - F!.".; (f) .(d) - Si~ (~) 111) - r): ;"illl(i € h) (d) - 2-,c-hlor,(j·ij·
t tll'id~lormnf"th:,I), Th.e soils
(1

pyritlinii

(Fig .. 20). !\..lllahlls

wLouis,ial'iil dilly, clkly, and a ealeareeus clay.

The
tnill

G:["t'!(iuhouse

S t lIldy

11m pu'rpQS'c !If Ihg~ :sh'idy W;IS to :IS(·!."t·· to whot cx:lI:a-lt UP dWlnk,,'II,I:!I' ·fil~ . of noodill~ ('auld ~ ,i<l.ChlC;'\'t·d hy II!' uddHi(Ul
ilt

A I~ troatm 'n ts re-ceh~ d [,000 kg"o£ W:5: 10 Iwr 2 11: 1O~kg. ~oi] M plilnting. Ft- was appliC'd as a ::l: ljfilllii :r~ whltion of the d~el:l~e, i'\f1FdE.DDHA~ SI ~t 250 ppm us ~DIi;ea~d 'P0'w'de:~,; P as hone :~~om' ut JOO ppnl p~ 0." and 2-ehioro.ifH lrich· 1~;imi!dhy'll) pyri~Hnl: ~~t 2 PI?'1II1. til n;'t:!.fd
ill

it i'ii fi'(?atioll_

of iron.

dt'prl':'lS')[

field c.~pC'ity. n

or

snicon, ph~~I,lwrll .• alltl u 'n itri «ic::'ltiol~ 1001 h,1' SlLlil kept

Tbe
~llr~

aUempt
, .... l:O <

to simu'I:lte

In~dllll'lt'llt

tl!it" chemicul benclits of lUll t'ulirdv :il~lect's~JlIl

hy dlen1:iC'~ll! "00(1-,
Rice

&1

I;<'ig. 2U. The physical gime in flooded soils.

a r rangemenl

of facilit ie,~ f 0,' 1he greenheuse

st udy of th e will er re-

grell' ;\ IIc1 : 'iodtled much bette r ill the su bmerged <inti saturated soils than ill the soils at field capacity, regardless of the chemical treatment, but for reasons that a pparel1 IIv vn ried \I' i th the soil. In the ~Icid soils, better growth and yield under flooded Hild saturated conditions were associated with a highN' uptake of silicon, iron mul II it rogcn btl t parti en Iarl y with a milch 1011("1' uptake of Mn, in the nearly neutral soil. with higller contents of silicon, iron and manganese; and ill the calcareous soil, with higher manganes(' and phosphorus COn ten ts, in the plant organs, The chcmicnl treatments producerl only small increases in yield of straw anti grain aud slight differences in the chemical cornpcsition, relative to the soils, (It field capacity with no chern leal treatment, Thc calcareous soil was an exception; in this soil, vield under well-drained conditions was improved by the addiuon of iron, silicon.

and phosphorus (see Fig. zt ).

Fig:, 21. Increased 11\' ailah; li I), of l ' is one or 1 n~ benefits of floodjn~, .

The 1<1(:1.: of response to chemical treatments appeared to be associated, in the acid soil, with an inordinately high aCCl1mulation of mangallcse and low iron uptake, and in the neutral and calcareous soils, with inadequate absorption of iron rcsponst'S of rice ill the ,three soils to the water" anti the chemical treatments are indicated in Table 10, - If Peta performed poorly in aerobic soils, Chianul1g 2-1:2, a iaponica, in it subsequent experiment fared disastrously in the same ioils under well-drained conditions, even the presence of chemicals. It appeared .to suffer from Jll>lnganese toxicity, and in ~the absence of extra phosphate, from acute ;-~osphorus deficiency, in aerobic Louisi~,pa clay. In the Maahas clay, where It "gyew and yielded much better than in -};,ouisiana clay, especially under aerobic conditions, the problem looked, from straw analysis, as if it were a slight iron and manganese deficiency. In the aerobic calcareous soil, visual observation indicated the trouble was obviously extreme iron

.ll-pd mangflllcse, The differential

in

Fig. 22. One of the benefits of flooding the increase in availabiltty of Fe.

is

deficiency (see Fig. 22).

The conclusions from this study are: (a) The yield of rice is much higher in saturated and flooded soils than in aerobic
on the

Table 10. Influence of three water treatments and chemical amendments growth, yield, and chemical composition of rice on three sotls, Treatment Panicle Straw Grain

No_

in gm/pot

Louisiana Submerged Saturated 29.3 25.0 24,3 28.3 to:! 95 92 101 110 124 81 84

------------------------clay, pH 4,8, O.M. 0,14 0.12 0.11 0.15 0.97 1.07 138 1.20 0.59 0.74 0.36 0.40 Maahas

N %

K
%

sro,
%

-------282 224 91 87 783 840 1870 :22.50

ppm

Fe

ppm

Mn

2.9% 15.2 15.6 12.9 12.2

Field Cap. Fld.Cap, +

all Chern.

clay, pH 6.6, O.M, ~.O:b 0.32 0.32 0,26 0.25

ChI)', pH

Submerged Saturated Field Cap, F.C. + all Chern.

37.3 33.3 2!;!,0 30.0

140 144 114 114

158 148 96 101

0.27 0.28 0.30 0.32

2.46 2.06 2.33 2,27 7 .. , O,M. 5 0.3.'5 0.18 0.70

n,R9

13.9 14.1 13,4 13.8 1.1% 12.1 11.7 13.3 11.. 1

200 149 133 92

690 432 141 96

Calcareous Submerged ~·t"rnted field Cap. F.C. + .11 Chern. 27.0 2.5.3 19.3 23.3 110 97 78
89

118 f)7

;;0
70

0,27 0.26 0.33 0,21l

• in grain,

0.31 0.30 0.29 0.2,~

77 75

43

364
337

41 54

'18

R~

MlnS,.

(h)
tu

nund i
iWn

it'nds
h \'HV

oJ

~niJ s

ut ~;"il:i 1:1 ;,1 ~i':.( • lit- ~uj] Iii diU cl'~,'IK"l'~ iI'i I)wdu('. ~I~ tl u,: lL~~i't)hk~ ~I;lh' ~ ('L') lilt,
[I ~

'fhf' Ol~(~~n:r ~

r)l:'~~I'III!

S~.u.~lly

Q'\I~

'che;l~(!1I1 henr;ofib ~l,r :1: loodi!l~ {~III'!ltd hr· lIu.~hu'!d in m~mhk ~ni]~, {'H'Bin thl:' ~tb" Sl'noo of ~tl;u'~Shm~strt'S$. h" t'll(' ;l~ldiUo:n ,~f' chem ictl'~3, UBiless (r.... ces~iy~ t'I~)sorptiorn ,of rrKmglnil:l1tSe i~ :mppr'~:i~"'''tt ~,u add s(lih, 1I~!d H~c uptilliJC! ofir<JH :md mt~ng;m~~e is ~ii,

Thh ('X pt~rillll('nt \\';"I~ dl;;'~ignC'dtn ,<;,i;~~- lin \\".h;tt~:\tt'nt :mnu~ of the physi~)lng,t~'a~

tWIlf:':fH:s ilJ r~(~fld in!!

,1 pi'l!'t~a.llly l>.~tuut~~1

COi

I,M. bt· a,Uit inNl pjjo:FiI'f'.

Il),

creased
Hl

~nI

ncu~r:iLI ill:ld

~'1l~C{i,rI!ml~ ~(li]$,

below th~ slIrfl!loe. eh~mge~ii:"i fl.:doo: r1~lhough Ullf'r'C is a ~(.'\i~i!"'l~" fn11d il~It:~ca~c,~n P'Oteq~th"llwere .fo~loWL->d]IiI, a n. t'lreflhlJ,e;n~~ Ilililmga~esc (\tlJ1Cel'lh'~t ion fu, du~ s(Ii~ solu""'ith pill til"!1:lrI:lek'Ot'rodies pcrITlm~~nny ~~~ ~iO'n; ~n n!';utndflild a llwlill,(l so~:Is, His ,m,. at 11 Glflplh of ~o (:m."~1Itd S(IU~.!Il\OfLL~h:lrll creased dJespB;ea ~rnaner ¥chdi\'(l ii1CrC.!l!~ t~!1!,~imll' '\Vil$ 110~,ed! iil t'JjLUll : partial]y satJiJrnt. ~ufIDoodir,g. Thi'li [OQi~:lt:s to d~rfert'I](les illi' cd soils wBh '~Clls~orn>e:~er$- e~: i_d <1 ,depth £ tile phy;slQ]ogy of rjCf'root~ ~n, "d,d ~u!d of IOCR). (F'~:g23l l~ei.!tral $luHs, bo1ig, ~n the {I,e.rohic :UQ,clJ nu: yicM of gil'~!n ~V~.S, 3;5 fn. the ,g~cn. ,mll:e~o:biic stlltij;!l. ]u)~.,'j:e ~h,ldy" b~gllc~t in the subrnlf)'rgoo

l1~'u~ 5tm.!y a:IS1f1, has apllio1reut]y I~solved confikl itbout m{tI~WIUUo!£~ ul~'~akC! hy rice in flooded ~oikln add soib, m ;!ilI· gltn~se ILlPb'tk~ i~ 'd('(;',~eils~d by ntmding

"rhu!'e ~(lils ( rn.tH!II,isianll cby. pH ..1i.8 . .. OJ.!. 25J ~~{·~('ent;. J!.:.lmdaas day, pH fI..I, f O.1\. L ::l:.U ]"J{~rcent :tIld :1 C1I!C[llll'O.u~ elm:y [l ~1 6, 0 ..1.,1. ] PCI\t'lllU,t ) were sub]ecl~d II!] '1.. 1 t'he :F'o:nrOwin~ waterlreahnc'llt',~ :~i~ dnun~ holdin.~ ~D kg. (Jf 5o.i~.: (' 1'1.) sl~bn~cr'i!:cdoo {~depth of 10 C1.n; ( b) and (c) W3tel
~{i.MI:l at

:2.0

em,

~l.Ild

40 em, ,rt'ls[)ec.Uve.ly,

f!IIl', :;!;l. 'FM !Il rloMl!>iI ~Gi~~

p!1;)"Si~a'~

""i'f~,jjg~iilrl~iilI:I(II' fiJJ~i~lil:i~!; :':~Ir' ~h~, ,dlrlJJm

$tlJdy

orlh~,

'W::l~,~r ;rCi!l;im~'

t~~al~nt.'n r~fn~ .~ Ufirec sflik The yidt~~ U dI.",hn'-'llprn~r~'~~in:l\· wHh l!lWt!Till!g, ~11r dt~, ~'~'tdlt'r~:ll,l,t: In 'tlile Louisiana aud cal,r,~rellll~d,!:-5 but almlptly ~n ,1\laah,,~ d!~ty. The deC'n"'l~p i1'1 )'Md ~dth df':lt'llnf wntC'rh~h I'~·wus a~~odat~d ~~'ilth ,rn inCi\l"'I~~ Ha, 5~Ji~: ~hlll\c tem~{)u ,fl">!)j~l (lO' - Z7U m,ill· '~~'li

)']3U~ ;I!~d. [1(i'lly ~~~h t Iy i'd('rio~ i l~ ~~~ bj~m~~dfl~"nr ).~.lo.J:. f

I!'I

tht>

St-'(_'ollid. I ~[l'~ I I \'~~~~ie!it's .SI'I ff~'rl,;-,d hom ~~ight nih'n:;:m ~ldfc;:icll(:Y fl~ t];w ~~llbmt'r~t'd

)'hmhcLs d~~r im~ :nut in tht, plM·t~~llly satur;Hl·d "[~lah;l~ day.

;"It £0 1:11111, I~{I :2 ]5·S~0: 11Il'~~h ar~ at 4(]' b 11lil:d, hoth v::'lrit,t ies 1mHt!'n~d :f~.·mnacute :ilJlhe l ,.onisk~na cby <lJ.nd hQ(l'lll l5Qfrun ddj eierl()Y in the ca km'f"C'J'usM,fl \,\1 he'll 500 rnmil);ilf1i t~ :'ll5··I,JOlniIH~.. rs fGrlhe l11C''!iV"I~~,t(lMcwas 4(l em. ])~kh\' lh(' ~~urc:liC1lre01!S clav, Hcdo:<!;. polentials ~rldf.· face, ootll'doll:!dizil~g conditio~~ fit a depth of 1l'h~, i~'lnut'Ulccof level (If '!.'<lt~rh\b]!t! ,on ]0 em. in a 11' soih e~c~pt Ule ~!:lbmcrgtild.•'/;, the ehern iCI~] (.":OI'I:rpooHi.on (J[ dl,e ph~!\its ))lJJr~ngthi~ ch"y seasen, \;r.Ulh~s cby C".Ihd \l'lUied with the s(li~. :lO'l\,'eidrlg d~e Wf!tl'r!'lim! c<rr~cked badly. m~Rslill.~ ~t:'VCl'croot tnl-J]~ ;l;ppe~! ed il~l!he 1lC'.~d £oi], to d,eCfit:ll.Sle r

~,~'l~~
~,

r"l'l!!'iiil).[!

and

also

,dt!,1Lt~ ng

h~~!S~,O!lIlc't:cr

~ltiid ~'OO(l~ readings. 'flile yiddsaof ~J'l;(lgrainlll5e ~nl TaMe mt

straw

the p!.'.fcentag,~ of n ilt ~ugen. phosphorus, [~~d8Js~i)jjlm,a.l~c] iron but mad:Il{Hy hICl'~llSlt:ld
Ih~t

of

1Il1,mg<111I;'Se ~n

the'

stra:w"

[!II

ivJfill~::tS d~ty, da.e e£fects wc',m d,iiffel\f'l:it~ S~:l'l,l:"h.u-ea ~~d hydrau~ it OOlld'lll{:<~:iYi~r1[l' r [l'l~Jed to be ULU~ !i,mill £aetotsi~£lll1eirlcamlg, I pb:lillts in ~he ~;~Ibm,e,rged 'h'ca!:ments had a IO'Wer cflIlJltenlof rlUrOig~rI and .~ hi:gher th~ ,cl:i£.re~1fIcc in y~cW! ~(1h,jCCi;'1~he stJb'OO!:ltCl!lt (If !lIf!;lIll:f;:II!l'''IlC than lhQ.~~ fl)om ~'hl~ !IlNged "nil ]):JLrlia Illy' S<ltil..!'8Jt<ldsotls, hlW 'IA•."h:l't.,h lie-lfC4Ii.tmc:nt~; the COIlOOlmt~ ,of The ,e.xp~rimcu~ was l'~pe~~t"Cd duri:ng phospnmus, pDtas;sf~11'IIl and ~ool'lwcre f1]1· llocriol.lowi'lllg wet £ea.Stm wilth fi1Chtlific11pa.ent~y l~111.~tfr:ected, t'"Omposi;!:ion of tio;n~:: (.1) M.aab'15 day was h~ntJi;'dw.iUI i)~a:nh for thl! cak8Jl:eom day shQ\liI'\:.'d ~~(I it !lo~l rondiUoJ:IC1i"lo pr~d~i,dc cabng mid ,d~Qr t~rends" fC'.rll;.ps ~j('{:~u~~e eon taml~o:~

n~.e

mlIcl:ing tm dryalu,g:; (b) lu~olher\,llriet;' \,,"'$ind'Ud~~. !~nd (c) 0'.15 perC"ellt ;t 'H~ l1niN:hllN! [l,t ~t(I~if!d r,ioe st(,~W ilind

or

IiIMiO(~I,

Glyrnf:.Mirr !1nlC'ulc~ltl was €eUmzer nHrog{·n ..

sl!h~l:th;~tcd

tor
ua-

1'h~ n::£u]t~
nStI.a'l
~I,~

of t'h,e el'il~e:rf~llelllt wt'l'e

[llmny wily.:>. Fhst,

W~$

the

20 em,

The beUc~r'gffAl,I'dl of ~nc.'t;·\,,·ith the watc.ru.ble 20 em, bdO'>\I'tl~e ~;~n£l1aet~auwHh ] O"JIfI. .rIIbQ'I!cthc SU~fOl'CIC' du~ing t~lf,~~,t ifA;.~tsOJ1 ,,,,hen thClfC' W;l~ 'n(~ ;I'[ilIPI~~i;l:bie soi~. mt~ishl~c hm~~tOnirl the ,~(I~i mJ)' b~ assodifl~:e wri'th a .. j
~mt~•
QJ],

w.a1ert;lb~~ tre.umJC<ll~
~he
Ci'll<:tlrl!'(!u~

~~Il~e'.ra!o:r ~hc W hoth

p.et~
:I~,~d

sufr~.cuency ,of

nut:ri,fmts:lIm1

5'I.\bllJilerg.~(1 tre<iltt'li'le"Jm~ in

1II,[a,~.h do!!')' ~1'I(1 01$

Il'.I.q1"1nl c1OiC'1~.ls~lon(If lo::.:fc i

~~d~!cHo;1I p:rod.

d~... ..

for

r.abt~ I I,
IXpth or WiUI.'t It~M"
(~rt"lll

,1!)!11I,j;;n ..'C {If ~!~iP'th vi i.!intli g!""~i11 ~d~'~ri~ly rctll"

~\;.~kr t~M~ in thr·('l' soils

the yl~ad. f>f

~t[~W

----------------

HI !

oo~
402

PHYSIOLOGICAL

DISEASES

OF

RICI::

A physiological disease of rice known as "bronzing" occurs on acid lateritic soils with poor drainage. This disease has been variously attributed to excess iron, excess aluminum, potassium and phosphate deficiency, and, surprisingly enough, even to hydrogen sulfide toxici ty. The occurrence of this disease on acid sesquioxidic soils and its amelioration by liming suggested excess iron as a cause of the disease. This hypothesis was tested in a semi-quantitative manner in a preliminary greenhouse experiment. Louisiana clay, an acid latosolic rice soil, was strongly reduced by incubation with 1 percent sucrose solution for 2 weeks. The soil was then leached with de-aerated water to remove the organiC toxins, and treatments, designed to give varying concentmtiOTlS of ferrous iron in the soil solution, were imposed. prior to flooding and planting 2-week-old 1\'[302 seedlings. The treatments were: (a) Control. (b) HCl to increase the concentration of soluble Fe+ +, (c) aOli to decrease the concentration of soluble Fe+ +, and (d) Ca ( NO)}, to retard further reduction,

There treatments.
rnent

were The

marked plants

reSpOllSl'S to in the acid wilted,

the and

treat.

turned

purple

overnight,

died. in the

The concentration soil solution

of 790 ppm irOn lethal. and submergll1l

was obviously

The soil was then drained

again with distilled water. The replanted new seedlings fared no better. Fresh seedlings were then transplanted extremely shallow. Plants in the calcium nitrate and alkali treatments grew Vigorously, tillercd profusely, and were deep green in color. Plants ill the HCI treat.

ment were the poorest.

Within

replanting, brown spots appeared lower leaves, and they gradually reddish yellow and died. The

a week of on the
turned brown

speckling spread to the upper leaves and within 6 weeks of planting, the plants were

uniformly purplish brown yields of straw and grain

concentrations after planting are in Table point

in color. and 12.

The

the Fe++ 10 weeks

in the soil solution

These known

observations as "bronzing."

to excess iron disease

as the cause

of the physiologtcol

Table 12. Influence of four soil treatments vield of rice and Fe content of straw. Fe" soil solution Straw gm/pot

On Fe"

in the soil solution

and the

Treatment

rpm

---_._--_

..

_------138 78 131
155

Crain gm/pot

_. __ ._-

Fe content of straw, (ppm)

---

-_ ... 192464
108 169

Control HCI NaOH

260 623
150

111 67

Ca(NO,L

248

130 131

DIRECT MICROSCOPIC
different "HltphOl\ogical

EXA~lIN ATION of the rice root surface, forms, Hods (~), and. cocci (b!:f:t).

showing aggregations Ma!!:!lifiration l,flOO.

of two

Soil Microbiology
Plant rout systems sti III ula te the soil microflora, This sf mulatiou - called the rhizosphere effect, increases the microbial population in the root zone. The rhizosphere effect, undoubtedly caused by plant root excretions and plant debris, develops as the plant ages. The microbial population of the rhizosphere to a large extent determines the immediate environment of the plant root because this population covers a significant proportion of the root surface area and is in immediate contact with the root surface. tion is essential the environment to

of

(-! II ullderstarlllillg of the rice root system.

If the rhizosphcrc population produces toxic substances, then this could result in immediate and severe changes in the plant. Certain physiological diseases of rice, if not directly caused by the rhizosphere microflora, may be aggravated by the metabolic products of this population.
Knowledge of the rhizosphere popula89

In submerged soil, much of the carbon mineralization is anaerobic. Reduced products resulting from this decomposition may accumulate to such levels us to be toxic to rice plants. A more complete knowledge of the pwcess of organic matter decomposition under reduced conditions is essential to the deriving of general principles for the timing and rate of application of organic matter to rice fields. It is important that the types of microorganisms involved in this transformation should be more completely characterized and that the mechanisms and environmental conditions involved be better understood. The increasing use of pesticides on both lowland and upland rice crops necessitates investigations of the effects of these chem-

it';t'~~ ~ 1)(~!11 h~J~h'Ih~ i>tJH m,icrof l!rJ!i';,~ ;~ml d ..,

dl,mges in t~l(" ];IOOltHu:F21oo n~flC'.,(,f1ofa of U!~ per~istcn(\etJf cn:e<J'I1Iicl1Jlthe :r~oc phnt~ O\YC'~t~1C fuU g.nwdl IH!'ftod m)eM:ud.de-sil'l fiQod.{">J~Oi~tsmay not ncces.mel :in flooded find ~;m~ ·J~;ijode(! ~nfJb, stu"il~' ~f.loct tirl~ 'rl;Jlillh~(Jlb~aiw~d ~()~ UQ!llIn ,connection wHh~he.s:c ~tud:t~s the Qe. fh:ml~ml! sojil, F!u:rtIUJ'.rmoria, mk'\l"o:b:iil~ {lle- ,eu Hell'lOe ~md numbers of I!he :~o,~lm'i.·ing-ni. m gmd(l,t~o!'l of tne pcst~cides may p.ro- emo:rr,garJhm~ are bei:nginvusUg:dcd: Ba~. duce mcbbo]ic 'Pr-odu~ts m.o[etoi!:i.cthal~ terla, :,tc:l~I~orn;>,cel'~8. :fungi" algae',. <U!lIe' d~c Olll~.g:~rlu.d chern:icll~;s, These p(Js5:ib~Hti:e:s robes, ltc~rlut~i:Fiers.511Uate 'mdl,lccr~.. A.:;:.a!\J •. !iJJI'~sUate studies o:~ ~1iIf) m;icrobi.oklgicai, ml,CWt uitro-gen.fiKing CI:fjo$trMium s:p" dl!oom])'O&iHm~ of these peUucidal cb~m" Illitrog~I~.ffxitlg blll!l!.green a~g.l{~. NUraro, it:Il~~~ arn,c] the dUtrlU;llC[,izl'Itilofl o~ the mc~ 1n.or;JiJi'!$ :11),. aad N!~rQb.actef sp, t.abo]ic [ll'Odlllct:s" Although l~h{t~"C ~t[!I:He~ have !lot ~tlen S(lIi1l'1~ ~.eg,(Imi!)ol!~cmpll, ,"i[u;ih as Sesbd· IOOilfllplc'h:.>d. ea~~y ~leSIi1:I,~ind~c~t~tliliU th~ nfimhers: o:~ nnM~ernl.:fixirlg ammC{l'~bic ba.o· ~~{(!~p. und PhrucoJ\1S ,rlitllyr-oid;es, show t:e'rli:afil'c greM:er M die ~oot MJ'r("U;)1';l 'l:hllln ]XWlfl"!is~ ,(I~ green i1i1:l~UH~ ,crops ;lnd ~I,l be ]1"1 soi~ whi.cn is (ree a~ ~If,remob;, 'Ihis gf(.)WIlII 'unde>r nmJdJ~ oOlldtti.o.n:s;, The ~,IiI,cre!:l~e rmm~rs in uJiI(kmbted'ly ~'e5u]~$ ]e.~u:me.,IUii:wI).if..ltf! symbi~Uc slfltem o:~ i: rtml S-Ol'lle' I!'xcre~iom ~1!rOOLhJH~t rice rOOils. of .. ~imgc", fb:atiQI1lI[i[lPC;US to opemte 1r;,'\lCI'! ~Imle:r the (.educed condiUen of flooded La:~e' numrerli of [Ii~ro~ren.:fi!{~'ng:.mac~oil Thi~ p()lScs~ev~:J'l] proMecms O!n the mbi.c i:ulcltenl'l w(';re £'ouod h.'! lh~ ~hi,'Zo· tlhYSi.ol.ogUt,-:~]~ned~i3.nlism of I'DOtinfcG~~:tJfI ~rl~!(l're, Th~ p","Senee o~ thi~I~~ge pOpUl· h.\' t,ne nl!~;U;lbil~m ~p.rmd offen: U'gl(!: ~!l' I.aUon ~~i~C~t:S Ula~ d'!CiOC l"!'1!cmooff;tat'l~SiIfIH p sfbility of a green, m:i\I"~]N Croll wh~ob C:lLlll F~I;ry plllY a ~ignHicalill~ ~oile i,n ~he fiJi~llio!l he grow,iII, m~d~r ~nbm~rgl!d oOndmJ(lIll;8, of atmospli1!er,ic ~~~trog;enl in. l'liIddy soil
V1th1.O!'l

irilli)Oi:hil!lltllilicrol:~i{J~,ogk~! '~ra:n~:f'm'nMt~m I ~~ in the ~oH. His \'ititl ~Qk~~m\l'~~hDlnt d u: i)l..'~fs~lf.'ncc' ,otf dlc~:(' ch~n~~rn'ls~n t;~e~lI)il. h ~nlly he po.~s~Mc U~i'lt tliu.'.se ~h~mkllis (;,,In aQCn:ml~~a,te Ii!Ihe soi~ to ]evc']s toxic to bQi~h tl~.e rit:t· p]~~!d the S:>CJH .t~ld! micro· f1m,l,

IUee rtJ~uu,~,
£;x IWrimt"ltlt:s

Rh li7JU!ii)h~'rrlC'l't,ul.l
IIH'

~w I;~lllio~~

or
to (h-'~~r'-

hi

Pf(lW'~S:S

1lil~lle; ( .1) Challi1!{'s, in sol ~ 1'111 ucwflnr;! 'F\IJ.~:uwi'ng fI~JOd~ ,it of the ~![Iil: (h 1 >t1~~rihi:r.QG. n l)hetJe ,p.rff'"C'~(~~ rice pbn ts ~rml\m ~.1lI 'mt~ ~ floQdedllml non·nll]!c:Jr~·d ~oi~. a'l<l {'J)

sr.,

~e~-ea;rclil PW!!:faIH ~.ll seil microMo~ogy £!!cb~nl dbta:il1l d3t~: to pm:mi,t a ~~Ucr !;llll{,lJerstarnding: of the uurv~ronmtl'~t 01~ file. rlee ~oot SYSlt~fllJ. rW;sc>l~d~ on lillie ~ fOn(Ji'iN~liIlg ~Qpi,cs w>lsii'lHia:ted f'lllllte 1963: ( ~~) Ch~nge~ ~fI the mi.<:'fo.flOnl, fQI~(}wi~lg
-

The

M~cmSlC'QriC

C)!"lni~,~,.liQ!II:S (If t~~~ surf~~

of rice: fl!i111t mQ~:S:, folkl!wlng~n it:abi~, sh~in· i~ [J!r"Ooodulre.s,to re",'~~~, the I'll iCrQO'rga:n. Ig i~ms, revealed tbM Ul~ _(lot ~1~Hflli.-e w,a~
!>I'r~dy IOOl1~OO

hy

ani '~mili'l>C'llSC !n~lC'r'OfklriL,

(See ~il'h;~stl;'aN(m.abo'l'f'.") Noduln~ ~omrS~ud~c:s

PilI~'C cu~h~w._~(If tn(' mtt~bi!m~~p_ re~'[lOl1fli;iM(lor the nC!i!~I'lil~io:n £If Se.slm~i,ie f ,R'.tI)(W. S. aCilrleff,M, and S,(I(lgypfiac!i were i~o\I~t~d fn:)fl'l emshed :lIlodl~ie:£tak~ fmm

S~Ibm.erg~nm~ of~~H ~ (b) RI!i::;obiwu· ]('~ume -~irll!lb£osi~ ~nl(kr ~l~bmclfgc(I (lundi·

~ion~;; 9;ud {c) Ulc 'rib~;>J05rhc~e pop!ll'h~~im'! .!ce 1r18J~dllgrmV[~ ~llndeT bolli, tlpir!l;ul IjLIl d ~.m~.land (\cm.dit:ion~" The ftlhijjB re:;r.·~u-ebpN')~m un 'lO.,·~ilinch~(~e 5tud:ue8OlF dle
(If

{.r!) (;hi:lmcte:rI;,o';;lliO!1l or tbe ~1[Ihl;t':lnces ~n,

lrk"e fQOIt c:'(lud;"ltes,
'CfI!!'!POSHiQIl,

:md

(b) mgauiemaH:c:r d~(0» pes:tkikl!e decnm00

hu~t plami:t~g,~ln,wi!f!~ tnl,dc~!I;~bl!lfmtged ,eondHiorns. Th!;,~lIl'Ctl;lhm.:s ,lrl! b~:h~g (l~.un· in:led ~;o det~n:i..:~I1l~if ,tbe!y 'C.UI ~c~nlfed

]l(,~it iO!n,

thdr

lIesp('ct~\!'eh.ollt

:rlal1t:s.

Agronomy
Dll1JnLug 1963. U~C
<l!gllOl'Ioor!J}" group

era-

nmjor if!\'!o'~Ug~d~on~ it~dttded

uation

{~)oon~ in"

ph!!£ized

~it'!J.Id ies

of dfl.e prnoHo~s \vhkh,

·(),r

lh~

lililaxil'll1Jlm

y·ie~.de~]1erim,ellt,.

mdi\i'i:dml~ly Oir t'Q,n'!b~I!G..uJ, calli be cxl?cct~d 1:o~aJihi:blt!iC It} I'f!a.~i!ffi!~im }i~el,d:s [X!'r c,rn]), ami lll)f~ Yf',,;}rum]eg' the Va.r:L~]US rice-grow,. ing omuHtion~ of th{' ]~,~ mid tr'(J'pu('s.Tilie IVI,A)!; t 1I.Hl~ ()fIELD

(h)

~()!~~U~unt:l"Qp!:OSJnd gf(.~n ItlJaniUl~es, U~,e!1:' tl~, (d) weed c(~ll,tmJI.'lnd (~) p]l:JInt~ug ffle'~hQd$"
r( C )f~ft~lill.._it;;'~"'nd

EXPEIWMIEl'.'T

In, tbis ~:OI~,g.tcrme'\:pcril:n~:mt.prHcb~,~f gm:in yicM lI:~e at· t~ml?tooi~mi2ir~g. h",o diU~t~rlt varletles,
(kin. of :highlco\'eb
IDlriec ~y~telills of w~~h;r ~fiiillli!!g,eanent, aad

a \\'a~bb~!eil ~ th~' S[1rU~ tl fr'lC Q:f pl..nU~lg, ~U Ol , p~ot$ receiwx] 11bout .32kgJha. Nin 1,'1HLmIH~ flUd rice shea w" ~uperim,pmlied were'
t.!;l<lhf'!t'llib ,olf 'to', 00, ]20, ~'lrld160 "'g./b~., N. The 40 :mdOO kg./h<l, N ~~catmel'lt'ii: n'(.-e~ved <10 kgJh~. ~'ach aif P~O~ and !K Mwh i~!: ~he 1:20 il[ld Hm li;~./ltm, .~ tf('atf!f!c,,'tc~ !'!'c('~\I'ed 8(l'k~, /]!~\. or f 'O:j

(-,
,~U~~

levels of
lor
11

nHrogen

f~rti~'u;l:<lUOl:I.
;l:~~

nCo-

h~l] y'~~trnow

a'!.la~I'lble,

1:%,2 W,et Seltsou. Resu,hs

_ TIl.el ]alumit=tl \/ar-:tety Chkm ~Ing: 2~l:2f.~Qm, ~Uld ICliO, 1'o1!iwaJilanil the Phfl;[pPl!:lil'l!i~I(n~1"lFB.,liZI The two v~triel~ies di:ffell'l~d !T!!~fkcdly in WP..le OOWn Mf\ ,24~1~ 11 he<ll\l:~~y £~r!i~i:lAJd bd!:lvmm' ( ."it!(. 2:)<" Chiammg242 [)Iro:seedlx:d ;mdw(;'r~ t:mllspl!;li'lih~drut II uCl,;d r~om14,015 tfJ ;),:229kg../ha, of c]cmll. :00 102®<(,TII.on J un~ 9. 'f.hree sy:ste~m of thy gr,lIli ~ (14 pa'rct~ln~ moi~:~tI re J fn 93 dllYs

'!i'i'a~r :rrn!ll.nag;elll1~nl ~1J,ei'(ti.I~l1d:: (~) l ~~.~.S'llIbl'!lC'rge!K~',.

COl~il:i,.

luft~'r l~'ansp]'ml,t!i~g:; thli)

crop

did

~I~t

ij;!ga:r!d drllinag,c'.

r( h) "btn:at(' iflood· :md {c) (1~",ff~;G"(t SIII!rfilCe

( F,ig, .W). In~~dd

it:icm to

U!I£ n~tr()j!;('u

lot]ge e.... :II U~leh~ght'ls:tl!!vt'I~ of !~H!1clg!J11 -eu r:t"rli:liozali.mll. These W@lr~M ~~W~,inc~Ud dil'rClr~nCl~li~,u yie:M asmciilh~11 ('iUi(![with

I. ~·h,,~~· ~h'm.•.• ~~ ~ L:~'~ Ii,'ll' r;n~,n~~I~~n~,"!fII' ~~Ifll • ~:i~ ~!~ I VI I ht" m~ x lin,jlll. _,I,~M t~~~ ~TimNlI. In I!i;~ "d~~in\·;1 ~~ r·h.:~··· ·t('~:,!., m~!lt (r~'i:Uuu ~!'r~ ph!! ~). "il1I.~~~ d il.dj~".\\ 111'il~\, id. ~cl: ~ wlm~! ~'111~'!l 111M. 'rh~ W;!t~f~~II):I,~ \\':i~ filii i,H~ ill~~
~wrilll t'(·il1I. i,nut,~~~ h~'I,,, ... I h~ ~,~i~~11rrj~~jl': '~h~ I'~'"~
'iii

"'i~_

,r

.·r,~

Il'tt

~1'~'i.'~1"

~Oh'!~iI{·'·i!!"'~~

'~I,. e ~ t li~:;II.I,1N"h im'"I!, ~~ h •.~. n~~ If~f cont ~IUJ(UIi':i I'hl!i1id~!7!~ h~l!l!<~rU~ft) ,!L~dl~ !~"'~I':llt, nol'!dinll' ~ 1".1 iii r'-~~ n;i;:'~ hl!lIW~ rL~IM)_

'II'~IE:LD

'6000[--500'0 ---4000 - --

{ K'gI.lIHaJ

-~-

,fl, pplilled tN,j tl!'iogen (KQ.I tic! 1 I'~~, ~, In Ih~ 1'~[i2 w,~t ~~~~1'fI. ~,~pHe~'ti(!fi~ ,.~ ~ IIIJII !;[reJ I ~J ~I f~,,"! C~ i~1/1J.!~I!.:: 11~_ i~~
lll!'t I ~~~n

~1"li"'.'''~.].i yi~'~iI~ "f ,F!I..~~I 1'l~1

i]~Hli,gCii'

ill

!':lIllO.'

(;IU"LW~i~'d; th.Uli \~ ,'L~

~J(!1l,ctk'"

1';11 lier

1('nil' ,~ l.illL

plilAo"'L·I'~iti,\~· j'j,lij'.rt u~k::, h,.L\ .I:~ phl:t-_ awl .L.I kJ'¥' {lil~~'. ~r;nih \ il":ld~ l)md'L!('~"d ill! ~d I I. n\ t·.. \ id~h_ I,.m'o!~ i'lt! I Iu ~!!ill~ I' III)~ II~ ",: l~ l .mlH I,:~_ IM, \\ ~.·n·" J,IftlIH~Sl1'i kl!;- h,l. ,Lt lj~\~ ~~'\ "" ,111 Hilill" , ~Ih';dnt·d_ Tin" 1.~1 't-d~idj\ ih. Ill' tln- h~.. ,1 ~ ~1j'llQU~ Id'l'H~i7..~timl U\\ I! I,; 1.167 h~:! iliL d ;'It ,~]U.lM~ht,~tkrtili'[\ In d, ~ t'UI[;('IIIC'n'lil II !'",b~'H t!,,·.~h!it'~,lt~\ ," ~,~I~i.\· a!mut I~. kg, '1·1·,II.!!'('p.-udm'Udty ,It! pli!ysi,ol~~~.."\ [H "r~lllu 'I! t" ~~ \~, L~ II'~I i,L ~t ~~~II kL ~II;11,\. \~ hUl' th~' ~~, ; u I.h~· 1il..I,i I~ l'r,~jP ,~! ( :.11i;Uli ~111~ :!:t1: \\ ,}, 115p:mcillo~ n] ~u ('n~. i~ I!ult.'h hOI:1d'~"I: .1(1.;; k\il. 1M, da.\_ for- "'llril·.rt'~I'~ ~'hl' ~)hLlII~ t,,\ pt" ih thj' \\ 1'[ F IIH~l~\ Ii ~ I~W: thp mh,c 111.1 u~( ;hj.II.1 1.1 I 1'Ig: Z4il ~c:u:on, ;;lldl '~hill hi~h.'~' k'n:I'~ul ;Ip"

FU.j.::n-

FB·I~ 1. ,L r.~ ~ (-mp Bf tl u hl~~! p~'n~ -d, .'\.h alP 1)1i(';~t~[H I ul ~ m.I, W.I' 'Ipplk,d 11111't'l'jr.III'~ Un"!

;!-I~

~~I.I~~~!l.,d IIHldi

It.,

::0 \

'e ,

.uw

i)H,edI1itm\1;~'I'1 B·~Lllt ih _ im'ft"I~1.~I, t"l!;.d;l· hve gro~\,Ih. h I~-~I '''~I'j.i ~h..(1i i log I Ii ~~ d~'aHi I

oJ ]~\~t 'I' ~t~in'~_ vj:~ids" TI~~' bh' (

~hi~ph"~tl~.I!~iU\
I.'

,I!.~t'l ~r-t ·;I.tJ;\

'IJ~

~,'dun';1
hIt hm

phll':~ill!; nllr;N~

dl'h1l!'11

.ull~tl

"''>Ie,

Uw Inuvi-st t)~ .FH'·.I::!L n'l("ph~I~~\Tr~' pl"ol. 'p'~r,('d a i It t ~:Jjl~~HII~'I ~t s~,~,d[·d \t·il'h u S~".I,I}tmirL This gn't"ll ~11I.i~IIIH~'("rupprtw~>d ~Ij h[· phhIT!"'!'h~Hh t' ;IiH~ ~i'nwth Wa.~ pfj«li' ,On Ft,:hrLl<lry J_i1.fh"" ";'.) ~~b~ ~.iHlh" (jpkl.
iliid ~I

eady;

H l'l'~IU~II~ r;,.~ d.u~,~ .. d I"r,l[hldh"H~ j~1 ~r;lih v'I' BiI.' best h';.·.lh~wll!1 \~ a~ ~iI,l'~~.';'k;.1:.' h'l. dil~. l
t',!n~l'1.'I,m'llitl;\_ W,rn,'1fLtui I'. '(ltElO (1(9.1 Hili ]1

Hu'l!t' ~wm'" Ihi.L~I I. lUll ~WL' l'wd;i n- 11'11 .rJI'~aHk· !~~.~th.·I' WI.L~ p]{i~\L·tI hmkr. t.'O~i~ dl:mHI il~ ].[.,~ ~hl.~!1Ul k!!, hu, ; d' ~i~t!iu(:;, I
I,

6000

Or(l,ililled,

S~r'(I~e;
IN,lrQ-gen ~IK.gI, I Hla. )
F,ii!l".~" hl I lilt" !\II;J!, ,dor- ",,~~~'I,n" '~·!Ii;LiiUlti~~! ~ ,:md '1mfur II; '~,~·n'~f'd t~ ,i~M,~h ~I~I ~~,~ ~~,'-n~ ""!l~:in l,:tI~h i~H~1 1.](' ni! 1'!i!~~II~ ~ p~,!i~~ i(ln lII~d ~'I. t~<'Lth WiL'.N' mi~mLJ:''1Tlt'm,1 I~... •. :":11m~nt.. Wi~ h lUo~t ~r~~tmtnt", '~h\' dlr~ ~~~~Dlj }'i'~ld~ ~:o:;~~~d.;:.;! w,~~ ~~'L~mj ri('M~_

1."63 ~)ry Se,.'illiOh R.esuh:; For th!! wi')d rice pbl1t~l1Igs,

c~:per,hlIC:1'!bll

a. rt"~'f5~'d ito des~$I;n \\!a~~do.fJt~d. 1'11~;5,

IElf,e-ctg. nf S.e,sHI;(Ii~~CilnRC:SI~~ngfl NiU'o~en,

used \·J:ri(lH,e..~9:S; m~~i . plQt~ and \",';,U(~r n h·'~i~tm.e1JU~ as sub'JPI]ot~. Levees WC[,fl l'r~~ti,c-]inedto, provklc bcUlC'r COOlhol o'f S~t~pll~e. C:h;iilllll~lng ,242 rlm] the .Ph~l~ppi~ne ('utUca ~<ljlfDil' (6) 2werelmn$p.b!'lt~d a~ 20 x 20 om, (om F'cib:milry 18, wHfl 0. 30, 00, amI .li20 I<g;./lla, .~~ lIsaddit~,Oll!ill wuii'lb1es" Chlilll'l~;Ulg .242 proCluced! groin yie]d~ ran,gingrrom3, 1.22 to ~.8,jg k:g-l~lfl. alter 100 da:ysin the mMn. fiekJ! {Fig, 3) .Th~ "'~lr:iet}' prodlK-OO IE:llSo.lIIilbly geed )'ieM~ 1l~ all ~e\!'e~.sofn:bogel'l f!!ll:rt:i~i"Hl,U,on whell 1ICOa'ltiilllol101l5 flood w~tS;(lmp]oyro. hOllAI"

j'ncm;'l~ed ~e\ic]s ,of nitro,gea ~u'eilf:i!ges F(lr dw Uue:e wa~ hmlhmmlsare il~ Tilbl!ll. Ne:iUlc!I' ClJOp ~['ldged. ;om! .it ~;:;.possible dLla:t Iliho~ k'\!'el~ eV'El'!l. h~g;]a.eI tham'! UO kJg./~lll. ':vouI~ Il1Ivefu:rthe~inc[eased tffilc vic']d . yiclds with
fer~j]jz,id:ioll;

In the di)! ~":.:t'.S(ln. b~lh Ch i<t!:'lung 242 m'ld M~iilkj. (6) 2. produced Mgh~r~ic

the wet seaseu, CMiI[ltU:'Ig y~eld~ 242 lIhcIIJit equaU,y wdlllt dte four ~evel$ ~f fili~rogL'n" lmt an .Iey~b we[\e I:mneoe.~sa:l'iQy high, Adcl:Hion. ofn:it:roge:nredu:oo<J. graib )'i~'~d'~f FB·12L Onl ~h~ l'e~l1ti¥ely f{]!!1til!: o
[11l

]~\l'(t]s of J~ut~,oge.~.bu~ thc[e We1'~ mark-ecl! a(h.le~l ~HrogC:Il, The hes:t tOO1l:trnru!nlprodw~cd 58)5 kg./I:!:a.! dily of dry g\!'<J:h~,
ICSpo.lIIS~S!1O

wiith tlle~h!lr:JiI~de [1000. ,Olf dli"h~>ed! slII:fl'loe trea:tlilflcnts, yi;(lld~ WIll'I!! Jow tit ]ow c~r,

gai[1~ from

of t1e Institute farm. 1.0 economic, nih'O,gc~,!O(IS fc::rtm~ers have 8$ )'t',t been obtained d:lIdl,gth~ ",ret Sc@.LSO~ even w.ith~he efficient ~:r(,lI'J'iC(i$ £r,om
$:QiI$

'.filiwan.

WiU'!, Mil£(lr 6, gra'~n yic'lds ranging bmn 3.136 fo 5,9;)0' kg;./na.~vere obu.i!l~d! ]n lZ8 days after trarnsplm'lting, n~e:~l! W!'18 im .i[U1cr'(,~,iI.e of ahout' 1 tOrTI ]per heetare of gtai:fl Lfi th~o(mHo~,Qn~ly snbline~,ged and ;}Ihm~~t~ floQd treatmeats as app~i~d nHrug(~11 was

W n]!e~ M~nage.tl1lenl
In the .1['962wet: season, lhl!rr,e WI;::H"l :no d!nerl!!'!Jce~ aI'JlO!ng yidd~ !)1}. tllii1l!;ld wid. cont:i[l~ltlil.li!l flooding, ah~ma~ nood~ng" or d:min:t,d surface he~~tlLncn!s, b:u~slUgh~l:" ~(Jw{tr Y£l"ldsw(::r'(' ohtailled with al~rna'~~' fk~(ldil:lg<tnd drahlag,~,tl~· ~ibly a re,~~11tof dmiln ing a way nHr6ge~ (Ta:ble 2:), 1':1u: dmincd. ~~nf:i,re tn:'>alirLen1: wliiS as good as toe cU'~!th'itlO'llS fJ!()Ooti£ng; hO\\I'~V(tr,<'!.Hhm .gh ,fhe plot~we'rl! H(I~ S:tlm .. 11:l(~r,g~d1.themils never were dry because or [reqll,e:nt :m~llS"
S~~li!]nC~\!'It

fnereased f~om to, U() li;g./h~_; i~:1 tnf> drain~d ~mfa!oo tn't{,\lment,~h~ l'.ie~.d with flO, ilddi1tional nUrogell wa~ q~1 ite l,o~v. blllth~ yieM ji1lcr~ascd even. mare rIlilrk:od· I)' wlthfncrenses ln llrpli:ednitmg~I~'A]-

though

to!lai.

'f('lu:sooa,My

g(1fH~,

yldJ~ wid i Ulis vllrj;~ly W@lri';! it was k'S.'s! p:-ocl!~~clh'e

242" :producing Gmi.. )'i~·ltIs

than Chia.ml;'g :rrnW,~!.

rate (If 41619./hl~./dily

g;n'L~,111 at the in th!! main fUeM,

in the
riMe]

1963 dry

S~Il~(I~I,

dWilUer1lfla!:e

tlle,Lli'lloC'Iltag(l~!~ a:pp~a~rcd ~fderiox k

In th~ 1962 wvt .lllt! l'l~rre witter t~;thnclLt~.

or" h,,~

.rk'C~~li~~~~ wilh f"liT h~\,'<:I~ Q{ appli~d I:tihug..:.n laSJ d•.vS!:'~)Ni~' '-·F,ugr:;~"r riil'lr ;re~.li,GMi{'m~nd a ____ I--'9GJ_:_-::_··--=Dty_:~e~n_ _
MiI('Or

tl~JI'.~,)
40,

Nilll1',!;t!im ~.p:p1i~

N~t~DiI:~'n

Gmil! }'i~ld~ (~~.jh~ ..~

~Ilal!ii!d (lr~./h,l.}
1·~m4

0'1)2
42~O

11!fII 1.60

SO

i~'I~~ 46';)(1

4~JnE~

!?!il:2i 19f..t l500

12M

'1143

41.1.w

~915
56:})

~1~:16
49gB S44',R

:luMe

C[,]j'i1, ~'ii;,M" of h"l(1 \-;tridi~5, wil,1ii thre[' W.tlCIf trelltln1A:I~:h in 'the 1%'2~9113 dJi)' s.;;'Sllib; 3,\,\['mg('.!i for fom ~c[llk'lll:t{]lu and rour diffl)'fi,!'fl:!, !iC1~offolJ!r IlilrugC'111 11:"d~ ill I:.td II ,8. '~ron.
;J'wet

~d.

w~wr

In'ati'lll~f!t,

_U:_'!6-_~_' _\~_·i;!.!_,~~::.:n:___ __

19000 Dr". Staron

Chiaral!li,g

Chitlill!I\1!l 242

fll ]2J

M~~n

2'12

~'Ulfur tfj~~
5'H@
45)tU

i\.'!('!;!11

Q:!Ilti-nu_~~
~jIlg

4809
4,s~J 4800,

,18~~ ]600

J"WI

15282
.;tEWS
42;53

,~iIG

~'temil.L

,Nrii1ee

~~ ~

3&19
3498,

4004

2100 lind

3966

·noo

",nil Cbia!ll!.mg 242, a drs il1li!c.1 s;urf .. ,"C. an apIdiCl'lliolI of 120 Ikg./ha, N ,and wilh a 944 kg./ha. ,ratoon erep, TIle best yi"ld duoed yie:lds when ,~...,~ru:g~s ,i)~ 'tbe :Fo'!,I:r in the d~y season, 5,900 kg.lhu,. wils )Iltm,ge1Jl )ie".e]~ we~ used ('Is,],lc 2) but FIg. S reveals 'tI~flt Chiaill,Ulg 242 and Mil· ,wx (6)2: }lidded 5,40:2 arnd 4,,898 kg;./ha., Je~ectiv~ly. with a d~ai,1Il~15u.r£a0e ,l;lnd

the:

OQlltillUOliS

nDl.ld.ing,

~'lg:TIil~ UlI,s

'W3>~

'both \i'nr]eH~s, The dra:illed ~umfaoo t ... eatments g~V'!.l su~stilHtiany reh'ul)\!l'n'll

high lic;"Velsof

nitrogf'1Il ftpp~icilt iOllI.

Tit

'"ir

)Ii'elds wil!1'! 12<1 kg:./~'l~, find drilill~ed s~,,· N fa·ce.s: were llbOtlt equal to. 'Ih IInfCi.'til,i'u-cJ, oontilliuol~S<ly Hooded plot". III the d'mli.rnl."d surface plots. the upperf>oil 1m, "hi<:>d y",.r a~tI:cracked b,ldly (Fig, 4). hut this pt'[.
IffiUcd
IIllerel'S
'W1litier

Ililovemenl

aC:l'CIIlS

beds

:1

'w,ide.

DII~i:ng the (hy seasnu crop. water utilf~.at£(ln was measured, 1I)w-d.~dng ('011kltlllptivewatcl" use Ii,g'mes £,or thel:hIT't' water :manillll' 'meni:' sYiiteills. The dmjned3ula.ce Of IJOrd~r·ditc,ll tuC:llihntllt ap-

par'-ntl!y requir,edles~ w,ltc'r than d iii the 'oolll'til1lllouS and ,nhernate nooding ~yS,I'(·IDI~. 'Wh:ile.the m!!lIn yields with the dl:ai ned~ll_rffilOO ,~y$I',ell1
'w(t;nl

~'igf!'incnllitly

]ol\:\<t'r

'lililiin thooe oJ dl(~ other two h('fltl Il€:M'!S-, ,it p~oouc~clI sat:i!sJlIctor), yieMs with 1.U'uclil bs ~rJiga~'iOin ater dUTing the d ry s~nson w w'hen od~'qpOlh~ fc:rtm!l!crs· were ~uld~d. Lx:immll
g~lIgn

VU:- ,~- TII\~ ·'dr~ifiedl

1:1I~ftt S)''!I;~l'm

~\lrfa('j,('''

w;Hlli'

m~b'I~.g:~·

p('lo[~d.clioiiii. per" Y,eal'

d,lIri!i1l the ~96S !If)' ~~~SOIl. W i~t c~lIJek~ in, the m~n,t!lwril'l[Jilil,it ~ ~'!3)' ~oi~ ,(M,3J· i
nhl!5 ,,day) Ilumitiotd 'I\',ater ~OVel'!el!t aeress bed!!, :I mdl!r6 wiili!. Yieills ,of r!l:e 'I\',er;e :slbll'lll ~o l!Ie'r~ent th .i. (!I!liii'l inllolls nooo:ing wh'ile w~'l'~w iilliill w,~s r,~dilced b)' h~.Ir.

In 'the 1962 w~t seasen, 'I'h!' 11~;lldmmn yield obtained W,(lS 16,]73 l:g./h t,

or

obtained
!lUaUS

wi til
of

\1 ilfor these

(6
two

under N.

cuntiThe
an

flo()Jill~ and at 120 kg'/ha. crops

combination ( 14 percent Howe-ver,

gives

annual total of 1:2,10.'3kg.!ha.

moisture l gmin.

of clean dry

the best combiuotion from an economic sta uti poin t ( 11,436 kg./ha.) might include Chianung 242 in the wet
season kg./ha ra toou crop 242. with N continuous (5,044 kg./ha.
<Ill

noodill~

and

40
ib

of grain),

(754 kg.illil.), (5J"l:}S kg.) high

d the dry season by Chianung and continuous water is surFig. 5. In the 1~6l wet season, Cniauung 242 produced about s 10"/ha. of clean dry grain in ~3 days after transpla nting, In the 1963 dr) season, this t rea t men t prod uced 5.6 tonJha. in 10(1 dnys after transplanting. Neither crop lodged. With suitable early varjetjes anrl irri· gation, t hrec crops [\ rear should he possibl e.

produced fertility

wit]:

flllOding
limited face might

(Fig. .'5).
be used.

If irrigation

in the dry season,

a drained

Chianllng

241 occupied

the main

field

only 9.3 days and 100 aa~'s during and dry seasons, likely. the three could adequate
rlS also

the wet of that varieties with periods

"'\0

respectively.
ill

It appeals the report

suggested of this in or 1~

Plant crops he

Physiology grown provision

Department, similar rncnths=-

between crops to plow down the crop residue and (0 allow partial decomposition of the oruanic matter. Production of three .":>
C!"DpS of rice would require

the elimination and the

of the yielding

green ratoon.

manure

crop

low

for 14-18 dav

HOT!\TIO:-':

Cnor-s

CREE"'"

\L'l.NunES

Evidence throughout this report indicates that development of e.nlv maturing, non-photosensitive varieties may permit the production of.' two wet season crops of rice per vear ill parts of the tropics, or three crops if inigation water is available. Or, early rnatu dug varieties may be used in cropping systems involving other grain crops sIId1 as .'()yhean>, cowpeas, com, or sorghum, or illcl\ldin~ tlie use of Ii~g\lmes as gwrn manure crops.

hom India nnd the Plulippincs. These introductions are maintained in a nursery where plant characteristics nrc noted and preliminary yield data are obtained. Yields of green matter and oitrogen of 15 species evaluated as green manure crops ranged from 15.4 to SUi ton/ha. and 42.3 to 202.4 kg./hn., respectively (Ta ble 3).

Grain

Legumes

Legume
By
t he

Introdnctions
end of 1961, 10·1 varlet ies or

species of legulllcs had been received from Cambodia, Philippines. Taiwan, Thailand. and the United States. During the past .vear, all additional .1:2 aec("~sil)ll> arrived

Soybeans continue to appear proll1lsIIlg lor use in rice cropping systems, but yields of the varieties in the Institute's collection ha ve not been eonsisten t (Table 4). Inoculation did not appear beneficial in the April, 196.'3, test, but it mar!' than doubled the yields of the same varieties in a test planted in November, 1982 .

96

Fig. 6. towpeas.

Dete rrnina tion of optimum

spacing

[or

grain

prnductjnn

or

mungo,

soybeans,

and

Table 3.

Green matter and nitrogen yield, of 15 promising green manure speCie, planted April 30, 1053, and harvested 2'h months later. Green Species Malter
) Nitro~en

In May, 1963, six varieties of mungo, soybeans, and cowpens were planted in a replicated spacing trial to determine the requirements of each variety for maximum seed production (Fig. 6). This is the first of a series of agronomic experiments to acquire information on management of legumes in the tropics, especially on rice
lands.

( tonyha.

(k,::.fha. )
202.4 88.3 129.0 121.6 89.8 98.0 103.8 96.6 98.0
42.3

Sesban;o sesba" c .otalaria q uin que fol ia C rotolar ia it'" cea

Swban", oOI,/ealo No. 72 P haseoi uS lotlay ro id cs

51.5 15.9 45.0 31.<1 31.8 29.6 28.7 21.8 21.0 19.3 17.5 17.0 is.R 15.5
15.4

Crotolorio o"ogyroides
Sesmm;a ow/eato No. 71

C03sia m,mosoide.' Cono t;QIo fins; to rm is i P fwseolus cokoro t us S e:sba nio micrOCIl rpa C1Vcine koid:wmii
Styxolob;um
Crof<llorio

Green Manure Crops

The yields of several of the more productive species of green manure crops were examined by timing harvests of organic matter and nitrogen at growth stages which g:.iVeadequate returns and minimum difficulty of incorporation. Figure 7 illustrates

87.5 71.4 69.4 75.8 8f).2

deeringimlUm
usaromoens;,;"

Dollcho$

b i{IOrlM

Table 4. Yield of five soybean with Rhiwbium.

NOVEMBl;;R

varieties

when

unmoculatcd

and when

inoculated

1962

"'-Al<T!1<G

Ap"'L

1963

PLANTING

Variety

Unlnoculated (kg./ha. ) I03f)

Inoculated
249.'i

(kg./ha. )
2076 1461 1363 856

Uninoculated (kg./ha. ) 1274 2220 729 2217 318

Inoculated (kg./ha. ) 149()

Head Green flIng Tam 8110rni 3 Black Manchurian Shieng M'li

499 349
7-17 243

1905 947
2655 335

"..,.

It,c r(!h!~iQn~h:ip 'i:lf U!nc ,nf ha:r,,"'Cs,lto

tlf

ric~
all I~~

1I!'). m~tttc:r.n ibogcif!. rmd gr~{'Jil (JJr!,!:'II~i~

f!m't:l:~~ fiOr

Stmlwn 1(1 $e'f-htt~!g[(iwnin

rotaJiun O!'lil field ~:e.llc. l[ilfvi)s,t ,~t 57 d!l}'~i 'Dfng;e ,gii,W !l!.lll~fnIY!l1i ni:lTQgi:'i!!

I.,ud

y~~J:dj~~~IIn(,lrf~ Ih~~ ~g.1h1h .tlO

Dry '1'Il:):~ter y:ici,{[ ~hQwl!d I! 0 t!e'ndfln,~y '~t) d,cd[n~!il thi~ Itime, :nud 55 tofJO dt\y~ reS coni5,idc.riCd th!l optil1l1!1l11l lime ro,v im:::a<r[wrn:Urng th~
\I'!l~~ety ~n. a wet GI1I\I\r~h rates
~(l,

~l!aSOll pJ~ntf:llIg, of gm.·elnl raan lUl1)~

ai.plieat~

b-e deore.1s-edv, ...h,el~ nmxleil :I:t p,~ant~'mg Of '\'IItle'l~ gm~vn undc'r OClIIIC i~IUO~"~ £;~"bml!,rgl'uc-e.; however, rtodl/J,lationof !>i(,.'ver,aj SttliHes of !he ~fit!r~;genpoo:dnmt~on a.lld ~lliH7;;ilt~{lflof ,sit!. . /.llni,u ,tlcl'd!l'aM, S. mi{,·~OCtH·lffi. P'hfi.roi;il~ '/"t!lhur()M'~(~ and C~'a'!l~tlriilqlli~iqlletjJIlija ;'I~e heing ('uutim u~d, Tne l:JfIicmhIQ~ogb't 1J~e5 In;'lttrr!la~ frlltr:li tl1flSI1 Ite.~tl> to Slt~~ly seme nl~Ut,lrr. ~In~>e~ .<\ 'iipect;;; of thll !~!~chill:'!~~cm tlod1:l'le [l f@~ o,J ,,,r ~:I'I~ dudfnn ~!n(I~~rs:t"blm:rWi{,l cHn~Ht·ifJm.
tillry IlI1:der

'!ipec~c~~l£ the ~e't1:,uIMC seemste

lse ~ab~f~

l!o"....andml,lt~ne, l

N'rti! ",~N'I!N~

pj\o!!g~t:i~fjj ~f ~lit.w,g!~Ii.ilr;,\'! !lind 1:1I'e,en ~~~t~ri~] ~!ii S.e~&m:Nm' ;r,p'!I'~1I upland! C,ililldiititlrl~ i~~ <if:r:t,e~("iI !I}" ,~gc'
~:r'l]I!• .

'Ji'ilt'. 1,.

'I.',HU ~NS·H'Ut'~l·,,;!:;,r.~ MJ.~:';Y 'li'IU)J'1CM, ir:!:i!T' "'E!'l:j~~ ~nn " •• l!fi!G'~~~ :Iii'i

LRCP~!~Ir.s, fo)~ !IriJ~sj~l.1e 'g"" ~

!lf~~'~1itLullllm'~ (lir

98:

THill· A{ln.ONOJ\'I.~f,;l' Ii: !1;~'ORIS RESULTS

rl:l~lt~ion to
Iii it

r~~f!

I~~~!

:1Jjjd sp:;jcic~~.

!:d :~I! <C~,fl~~~·m~~ en ti rille {If Q,

lliU<J~tf!~P@~,itilti!j(1i1J

ill

an ,e:.~r'~l:iu'nt ~;~gg.ested by

At dw b~g!!'!!'!fr~g of thl.f 19(;3 d[}~ sC'<LS!(m, Yidkls over ~ll~ tr(,;"l~foenl j!~v(llvi[lg ing a~ the t'ime of" t!lflll'il~plan~ing. dn,e soll ahem-

Hooo-

M was inituMoo trJ tt::;~ tht' efFect of re,d!]("!iurlul dw SU~I 0111 the yIeld of Chillnu~g 2:42 ~nd ~.mf@r { (n.~l_ rlo~_~ Wtil!"C es,t"bli~hed to p[lrllni'~FloQi! ~ng 4, 3" 2" and .~ week befor-e. and on. the N::une day as bl'll1!~lPlm.I'IHng, .TWQ soueees ofnihog,el'l W,tl:fll C~tf1,p:n.~r:d: (1) i\ t<lh"l] 0.£ '7..;1, tons a. rnb;:lu~c of rice stra w ,and green
oJ l,ellL"'(.I'("j~t1 g/m~G(I wc]'c

k!'.I:\'c~
to

nr

Y~~I,ds ~"'i~h the tw(lSO!J~~£ ,of llJiitroget! were not S~'Il'inc.lI.ndJ diff~l;'i:!t. Ch£i!:f!Jl!~g .~2 yieldled S,03flkg.!~l1I"of dryg.m.i:n w'~tn org1'llllic m~U:(:'r am] B.,{iI{Ij' 'kg./hll. wBn am· wGnitllHI $uUilt(', For MUfor {6)2, y~e]ds j(\,~~~~ 71358 and 7,.137 kgJhi!l" teB[leelh1cly_
[11" IlJ11[ld~"r

fi~M

(t.\]X:rilnJ'umt,.

Ule eHects

U'Il"l plolt:sM'

the time

.jJOlkgJh~. N, ~~ ~1;T'li'f~nut~fn~!.'l~ffLhi,were ;'Idd~'I(I {he (lthcr p,!()it$ on dw d.~y ~1f b~~

~f<llliipb.nli:ng"

fir

added

h~"IH

Uuoding,

and! (,2")

('J!I 8~~ ic~tiC £erl~k:.!;lliQ!~and thfling (If n!llIiiQ~en a:pp'lk-ati:um on yields of (;hi~uu,'l[lg 242 ai~d Pd~\ "",ere de~:lll11'!i.led, E~1Ch \/tU':iety i rceelved h<l~~~;l.PL)~ 1 il,;~tu(m~ (If [00 k:g,/ha:' SiO:,lts ~.idurn magnesium s~Hea~e, In ~ddiUon,. 60kg./hil, 1\' were a pp]i!1'd ~ITI.. !;p':l~t "PpliCf!1it1ns (Table ."l). Dj H~renae_~ a 1l100g f1i~mgrl'n tl'ealfnC~;l~ ,t'crt> ~jlot sfgtlincant. but atldlitiou £If siliea

An

treatments

received

so

kg.!ha.N .• lIS anlm.oni um ~u'lfat~. :.1 pan ide init~~Ji.(m. H"'"tlS0rln~idered that the
,~:linQU"!'t'i!, ;'!Na~k~ of bI~!~itw~en (rollil

dw

two,

seurees ~hrll~hl hn aholUlt (,_'quill

I1,e,~,tlh~ 'II lis C'xr,{.'r~l1~c:tlt re.~cl'!t(!·d, of p
i~!

n'~!1t:(·tliH ~
than

si~u]fkal1it' yic:td ~ains of more

a, of gra~ n. }\~H~~:.m~hlhe

the

seCI:~{)H

<m Sull

that dcbyil'lj! weeks .1If1iC'f flooding:

eh~m]~tfr,. d~,mon~t.ah'~-I ha:usphnt~n~ for a l Lr.c;lst2

500kg,Jh

m~uk~~ny

i1llcr·r.'(II.Slf'd

si~ica a])p1iC::IUOIII rille was 'r:Ofl~idc~d b''! he t{)Qlow. ;~ml Iht· l\'lmth;'l~ i!ll )'to wh~ch

Tuble 5. Yield, in k,ju>;,,,nlS per 1"'('I,lIl', of I'da without IO{) kg./ loa.'S;O" and with fu"r nitrog"" 1963. Tin,ing of nitrogen applied at 60 kg./hd. 10-1.·,,£ Basal 0 30 Panicle
Imnatiou
St:l~P

and Cloi.",",,~ 24::! with ,U1(.I timing 1"·,,,IIL1cnt,. <If)' season,

~<:Id of rough I'etu __ 1\0 100 kg.lha. SiO,

57-16 5372

rice at 14.
);0

n~'t'''l'

_____21iallung SiO, .. 00-1.

::!.J2 _

---

:':0

--

Ht·ading
::!()

::'.0,
5i:3~ 4Sn ~6~4 5320

100 k!!:.jh.l.

---

20
30

- -----4213

s.o,

,HJ70 ,1607

20
0

-------

0 20 20

0
0 0

20 40
\ lean stnusuc»: LSD:

:923
5549

3956 4197 3913

-1017

--_
__
~Iean

4497

4963 4592 4838 4820

5648

Sig"i/koll/

mean Silicon mean Nitrogen mean

Variety

603 379
n.s.

S.E.

C.V.
3!!: 3%

154 13:2

it was applied was believed to have sufficient silica, the calcium magnesium silicate was an effective amendment: Examination of stem borer counts. tiller number, height,

number of productive tillers, and other yield components did not reveal an~' signi. ficant differences that might be correlated with vields.

\VSED

CONTROL

Screening tests of more than 100 chemicals for weed control in upland and lowland rice, under a variety of cultural conditions, find in several seasons, were completed. Some chemicals, selected for further study, are being used in advanced combination and interaction in management studies. tests as well as

grasses

well,

it

controls

broad-leaved

plants

and sedges

if applied

wi en these

are emerging

from the water.

Of the rna terials tha t Fa11 with in the range of practicality on the basis of effectivity in controlling weeds, mil imum toxicity to rice and fish, and cost, MCPAI (potassium salt of 2-methyl-+chloro phenoxyacetic acid) has the best record (Fig. 8). MCPA has been particularly ~ffective in controlling sedzes As sedges .onstitute a major weed problem in the nousoon areas of ASia, ~'[CPA has COIlistently ranked in first place (Table 6). .lthough this chemical does not control
I Marketed as AGROXONE-4. The use of ",1" names in an Institute report is for idcntifitiun and does not constitute all endorsement.

Fig. 8. This weed-fr-ee plot of BPI-76 rice was photographed 18 days after being sprayed with potassium salt of 2-methyl-44:hloro phe noxyacetic acid 22 days after transplanting. This treatment. provided excellent weed control with little damage to the rice.

100

Tobl« 6. \\·<.'~d r-ontrol (as p~r("('ntng" of initial count) hy 13 promising hcrbicidcs in transplanted rice. Chemicals were sprayed 2,) rluys after transplanting a"d wi-re evaluated 13 days after 'praying. \\'(-'cds were in 5·8 leaf sta~<,; gn's'ses Were nnt a maim problem, IRRl, 1862 _ __ Herbicide Control~p~fl'cntag_c Sedges Total _

group

Trade comrnou
----------~--~

or name

R~tc

of

Broad-

"ppl icatiou

....----------.....--.-

MCPA Triazine DPA BCMU (Ncburcn Trigz.ine MBA MCPA + ,\IBA 2, 4-D (Amine) PCP NPE NPE Barban

Agroxone·4 Ametryne
SIRIn

---------------------_.----9,5_7 1.0 !M.9 95.6

0,6

( kg.Jha_1

1'·34'

Kloben C-346901 Banvcl-Ds

3.0 2_0
3,0

1.0
1.0 1.17,( 1.0) 1.0

2, 4, 5-T

Shell 2, 4, 5-T
Banlene Hcdoual Suntobrite 101V-92,5 (Grinding) 1OW-925 (Florex)

5_0
3.0

3_0 0_5

93,2 95.'1 95.2 92.5 91.7 91.6 85_::: 83.9 80,6 76_7 78,9 76.1
100,0

79_2 76.8

67.1
64,4 84.2 80,8 50.0 57.6 37.7 41.0 lOOO

no

7Ll

Handweecled
I

90.7 90.4 89,6 88,,3 88.0 86.2 84.9 83,3 75.9 73.9 72_4 70.2 100,0

Moderate

2 Spreading

burning of leaves, of tillers.

Evidence

of

phytotoxicity

to

rice

of

other closely related substances ("hormones" plentiful, rates. but little

growth regulating such as 2,4-D) was such effect was obat proper

in the United States and elsewhere, and it has proved to be selective and highly effective in controlling grassy weeds when applied to the drained rice crop at the 2-3

served with MCPA when applied Figure

8 shows the effects of appli-

cation of ~JCPA at the recommended rate, while the photographs ill Fig, 9 illustrate
the symptoms of root damage resulting of from an application of the ami11e salt 2-methyl-4-chloro phenoxyacetic acid.

The relationship between weed classes and control measures applied at times approaching farmer practice is shown in Table 6. Although total weed production was high when not weeded, the proportion of grasses was less than 5 l'crCl'll t_ -During the season, several dozen upplications of DPAt (:3,4·dichloFopropir,nallilide ) were made at Widely varied times, and environmental conditions, chemical
Company.

rates, This of rice

is used on large acreages

as Starn 1'-."34 by Rohm

, ,\ 1arkl"ln\

and I laus

Fig_ 9. The plant (58) sprayed wit.h amine salt of 2.---;llethJI---4--chlorophenoxyacet;c acid shows typical toxicity symptoms similar to those described for 2.4-0. III comparison with t lie unsprayed plan t (C), t here i., a loss of roots, swe ]]ing of leu f bases, a nd spread illg of t illers, Se a le divisions a re 2 en'.

101