Molecular Milestones: The Mystery of Greek Fire

http://www.chemheritage.org/explore/milestone_greek_fire.html

Burning Question: The Mystery of Greek Fire Historians debate the chemistry and chemical engineering behind the most fearsome fire weapon of the first millennium. Fire strikes fear into all of us. Every child who has gotten too close to a flame remembers that lesson for life. The flame that warms our homes can also burn our homes to the ground. And although all of us have some fear of fire and flame, soldiers and sailors fear it most of all. The crews of the fiercest weapons of modern warfare tanks, planes, ships and helicopters share a common dread of what happens when these ammunitionand fuel-filled metal enclosures catch fire. In seconds, these modern dragons become huge metal ovens, coffins if the crews cannot escape. Of course, using fire as a weapon is nothing new. Reports of incendiary weapons run through most of recorded history. Fire-tipped arrows volleyed at opposing armies, cauldrons of burning pitch poured on troops attacking a fortress or city, and fireballs shot from catapults were the crude and terrible precursors of todays more deadly weapons. Documented reports of fire weapons used in ancient warfare begin with the Assyrians, who used a mixture of liquid petroleum, pitch and sulfur. A similar formula was later used by the Greeks and Persians, who got their petroleum from wells along the shores of the Caspian Sea or in Armenia. Beginning in the fifth century B.C., the Greeks used liquid pitch, sometimes mixed with sulfur, in at least three deadly ways on incendiary arrows, in fire cauldrons, and in fire-ships. Burning arrows are self-explanatory. The cauldrons were tipped onto the decks of enemy ships. Water would not put out the ensuing fire. The precursor to the modern car bomb was central to ancient sea tactics: fire-ships were rammed into enemy vessels, then both ships were left to burn until they sank. All through the history of fire in warfare, fire has been dangerous both to the enemy and to the soldiers using the weapons. The initial acceleration of an arrow is very likely to cause it to shed some of the pitch or tallow used to carry the flame a serious danger to the bowman and his fellow archers. Its also easy to imagine that the sailors guiding a fire-ship to ram an enemy were in danger simply by sailing a vessel with a deck full of fiery cauldrons of pitch. And the enemy will direct all of his weapons to try to stop that ship. Liquid fire Imperial historians report that Greek incendiary weapons were adopted by the Romans, but the next innovation in fire warfare came in the late 7th century A.D.

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Molecular Milestones: The Mystery of Greek Fire

http://www.chemheritage.org/explore/milestone_greek_fire.html

when Greek Fire not to be confused with the early Greek incendiary weapons weve already discussed first appeared. While the mechanism of previous weapons is straightforward, the secret of Greek Fire was so closely guarded that it was lost to later generations; no historian has been able to re-create the formula for the first millenniums most fearsome fire weapon. Greek Fire was invented in the Byzantine Empire in the mid-7th century A.D. by a man named Kallinikos. The weapon was a nozzle that propelled a stream of burning liquid that would continue burning even under water. Its main use was in the naval battles in 678 and 717 A.D. when Constantinople was attacked by Saracen fleets. The liquid fire was sprayed at enemy ships from the prows of Byzantine vessels or from the walls of Constantinople. Use of Greek Fire in both battles led to resounding defeats of the Saracen fleets. Many historians and experimenters have tried to recreate Greek Fire. James R. Partington, in his book A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, believes a mixture of sulphur, pitch, dissolved nitre, and petroleum was pumped through a nozzle. Other experts have speculated that quicklime, saltpeter and calcium phosphide were essential to the mysterious formula, but Partington dismisses these ingredients for both chemical and historical reasons. No matter how it was made, Greek Fire twice saved Constantinople from defeat and made the Byzantine navy of the 7th and 8th centuries the most feared of its time. Partington marvels that Greek Fire combined three effective systems: pumps, storage and a compound that would burn in water. Most importantly, the compound would not disperse when sprayed. For these reasons, he calls Greek Fire an achievement of chemical engineering. < Return to article list This article was originally published under the title "We're History" in the April 2005 edition of Chemical Engineering Progress magazine. This article was prepared by Neil Gussman, communications manager for the Chemical Heritage Foundation. The article was based on the book A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder by James Riddick Partington (18861965), noted chemist and historian of chemistry.

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