Hand Out NVH Seminar IDIADA - SIAM - India

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

(Hand out)
20th and 21st March 2007 India Habitat Centre, New Delhi INDIA
Organised by IDIADA Automotive Technology SA, Spain
India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 1
PROLOGUE
The material presented in this handout is a selection of the most relevant ideas presented by Applus+ IDIADA during the seminar held at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, during the 20th and 21th of March 2007. The program covered during this two-day seminar is described below: Monday, 20th March 2007 Exterior noise measurements: ISO 362 and 1999/101 EC Exterior noise source ranking Case studies with applications Fundamentals of body performance Static and dynamic aspects of body stiffness and performance Fundamentals of vehicle noise and vibration and its relationship with body stiffness Tuesday, 21st March 2007 Interior noise measurements and characterisation of vehicles Sound level and sound quality: Are they correlated? Air-borne and structure-borne transmission paths Experimental methods for analysis of air-borne and structure-borne noise contributions. Breaking down the signals. Advanced experimental techniques for vehicle noise and vibration analysis The material was originally designed for professional engineers in the automotive and transportation industry involved in the analysis of noise, vibrations and durability of components who need a basic understanding of the methodology and modern experimental techniques for the resolution of problems in these areas. The material contained in this hand-out summarizes some of the most important ideas presented during the seminar. The text has been organized so that it covers important information presented in the program and has been rearranged to make it more readable and easy to follow. The author would like to thank Mr Dilip Chenoy, Mr K K Gandhi and Mr Atanu Ganguli for their help and support in the organisation of the course. It was the authors good fortune to have the collaboration of Mr. Indranil Das Gupta who gave a great support in the logistics and many other details related to the seminar. Juan J. Garca LAlbornar, Tarragona, Spain March 2007
Ismael Fernndez
CHAPTER I
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ACOUSTICS
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ACOUSTICS

1. INTRODUCTION All vibrating bodies surrounded by a fluid, gas or liquid compress the layers of fluid adjacent to their surface. This compression is transmitted to the mass of surrounding fluid and is conveyed beyond the body. In these circumstances, the vibrating surface acts as a source of noise. Independently of whether the source of noise radiates in an open space (free field) or in an enclosed space (reverberate field), the acoustic field at a particular point is determined by the fluctuating pressure due to the wave propagation. The measurement of this acoustic pressure is of vital importance in any test to quantify the level of noise produced by a component or vehicle. Furthermore, the analysis of the variation of this pressure in the time and frequency domain gives us fundamental information about the origin of the noise studied. 2. SOUND AND NOISE Sound is a disturbance in the balanced state of the air molecules, which vibrate due to the propagation of a compression wave created by a vibrating object. This disturbance is associated with an alternative displacement of the layers of air and a fluctuation of pressure (acoustic pressure) that, on reaching our ears, produces the auditory sensation. Sound may generate pleasant or unpleasant sensations depending on the spectral and temporal characteristics of the fluctuating pressure affecting our eardrums. A clearly unpleasant or annoying sound is called noise. Nevertheless, the level of nuisance does not only depend on the type of sound, but also on our attitude towards it, for example, a type of music that some people may like, may annoy others, especially if it is very loud. Another example of the subjectivity of the possible nuisance of a sound is the sensation that the exhaust system of a sports car produces: it is pleasant for fans of this type of vehicles, but extremely annoying for others. 3. THE NATURE OF SOUND Sound is defined as a pressure variation that the ears can detect, ranging from very low variations to levels that could cause damage. The study of sound is called acoustics and covers all fields of generation, propagation and reception of sound. Noise is an unavoidable part of daily life and technological development, which has produced a notable increase in the noise level coming from machines, factories, traffic, etc.
Figure 1 consists of a piston mounted at the end of a cylindrical tube producing an alternative forward and backward movement. When the piston moves forwards, the particles near to its surface accumulate creating a compression zone, when it moves backwards, the particles separate creating a rarefaction zone or dilation. In compression, the air pressure will be a little higher than its value of balance and in dilation it will be a little lower. Therefore, a series of compressions and dilations will be created along the tube. Thus, a sound wave will be generated in the tube, which can be heard at the other end. The speed of sound propagation along the tube is a function of the elasticity and air density, which depend on the static pressure and temperature. At atmospheric pressure and at 20C the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s.
Fluctuating speed
Direction of propagation
Piston
Compression Rarefactions
Figure 1. Vibrating piston at the end of the tube generates a compression wave that propagates along the tube, producing a compression and rarefaction (wave) which propagates at the speed of sound (345 m/s).
Figure 2 shows the variation of pressure around the static value Po (atmospheric pressure) as a function of time for a generic point inside the tube. The maximum fluctuation is called sound amplitude and the number of oscillations per second that coincide with the rhythm of vibration of the piston is called the sound frequency. We will call this sound a pure tone because it has been created by a sound source that oscillates at a single frequency. Very few man-made noises or natural sounds are pure tones. Even the sounds of a musical instrument, which seem to be made up of a clear single note, contain more than one frequency. Normally the sensation of frequency that we perceive (tonality) corresponds to the dominant frequency of the sound heard. The range of audible frequencies, for a young and healthy person, goes from approximately 20 Hz up to 20,000 Hz. Frequencies below 20 Hz give rise to infrasound and frequencies higher than 20 kHz to ultrasound. On the other hand, as we will see later on, not all audible frequencies are perceived equally by the human ear.
Fluctuating Speed
Direction of propagation
Piston
Time (s)
Figure 2. Variation of acoustic pressure with time at a particular point in the tube, which is induced by the vibration of the piston. If that vibration is sinusoidal, pressure will follow the same trend.
4. THE HUMAN EAR The ear is responsible for hearing and balance. It is divided into three zones: external, middle and internal. Acoustic perception is due to the excitation of the eardrum by the pressure fluctuation associated with the acoustic wave. Figures 3 and 4 show a section of the human ear with its most important parts labelled. 4.1. Structure of the ear The human ear is a sensor. It combines mechanical, fluid dynamic and electrical aspects, inducing a sensation of sound in the brain, which is then processed by electrical information generated in the nerve cells. As a general rule, the ear can be described as a membrane (eardrum) sensitive to the variations of acoustic pressure which are linked to a system of levers formed by three tiny bones that amplify the vibration. This vibration is then transmitted to a tube (cochlea) containing a viscous fluid, producing pressure changes perceived by nerve fibres which generate electrical impulses proportional to the pressure perceived. The brain later processes these impulses in order to generate a specific sound sensation. The outer ear includes the ear or external earlobe and the external ear canal, which is about three centimetres long. Figure 4 shows the internal structure of the human ear. The middle ear is located in the eardrum cavity, whose external part is formed by the eardrum, which separates it from the external ear. It includes the mechanism responsible for conducting sound waves to the internal ear - a narrow canal that extends about fifteen millimetres vertically and another fifteen horizontally. The middle ear is connected to the nose and the throat
through the Eustachian tube, permitting the entrance and exit of air from the middle ear in order to balance the pressure differences with the exterior. There is a chain formed by three small, mobile bones crossing the middle ear. These three bones are called the hammer, anvil and stirrup. They connect the eardrum acoustically to the inner ear, which contains a liquid. The function of the three bones is to mechanically amplify the vibration generated by the incident acoustic wave in the eardrum. The inner ear, or labyrinth, is inside the temporal bone containing the auditory and balance organs, which are connected by the filaments to the auditory nerve. This is separated from the middle ear by the fenestra ovalis, or oval window. The internal ear consists of a series of membranous channels housed in a dense part of the temporal bone, which are divided into the cochlea (from Greek, snail bone), the vestibule and three semicircular canals. These three channels are linked together and contain a jelly-like fluid called endolymph. 4.2. Auditory capacity: considerations on the perception of sound Sound waves are transmitted through the external auditory canal to the eardrum, where vibration is produced. These vibrations pass to the middle ear by means of the chain of small bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) and, through the oval window they reach the liquid in the internal ear. The movement of the endolymph produced by the vibration of the cochlea stimulates the movement of a group of fine hairs, called hair cells. The group of hair cells constitutes the organ known as Corti, and they transmit signals directly to the auditory nerve, which takes the information to the brain. The response of the hair cells to the vibrations code the information about the sound to be understood by the brain.
Auditory nerve
Acoustic wave
Vestibular canal Cochlear canal Eardrum canal
Vestibular canal Cochlear canal Basilar membrane Hair cells
Forced vibration at the eardrum Cochlear section
Nervous fibres Eardrum canal
Figure 3. Structure of the ear. The external parts are called the outer ear, which is the visible area of the ear, and the ear channel, closed at the end for trapping the dirt. This channel transmits the changes in pressure to the air, and the sound waves to the eardrum, or eardrum membrane.
Auditory canal
Temporal bone Hammer
Anvil
Semicircular canals
Auditory nerve
External earlobe
Stirrup
Amplifying lever system in the eardrum cavity
Eardrum
Eustachian tube
Cochlea
Figure 4. Structure of the ear. The eardrum is the start of the middle ear, which includes the Eustachian tube and the three small vibrating bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup. The cochlea and the semicircular canals make up the inner ear. The information goes through the inner ear to the brain via the auditory nerve.
The audible range varies from one person to another. The maximum audible range in man includes sound frequencies from 20 up to 20,000 cycles per second. The smallest change in tone that can be detected by the ear varies according to the tone and volume. The most sensitive human ears are able to detect changes in the frequency of vibration (tone) that corresponds to 0.03% of the original frequency, in the range between 500 and 8,000 Hz. The ear is less sensitive to changes in frequency for sounds of low intensity or frequency. The sensitivity of the ear to the intensity of the sound (volume) also varies with frequency. From 1000 to 3000 cycles the sensitivity of the ear is better and changes of 1 decibel can be detected. This sensitivity is reduced when the sound pressure level is low. The difference in the ears sensitivity to loud sounds causes several important phenomena. Very high tones produce subjective effects of different tonality in the ear that are not present in the original excitation. It is probable that these subjective tones are produced by imperfections in the natural function of the middle ear. The discordance of the tonality that produces the increases in the intensity of sound is a consequence of the subjective tones that are produced in the ear. This happens, for example, when the volume control of a radio is adjusted. The intensity of a pure tone also affects its intonation. High tones may increase with the intensity. Low tones tend to get lower as the intensity of the sound increases. This effect is only perceived in pure tones. Since most musical tones are complex, in general, hearing is not appreciably affected by this phenomenon. When sounds are masked, the production of harmonies of lower tones in the ear could reduce the perception of the highest tones. That is why it is necessary to raise our voice in order to be heard in noisy places.
5. SOUND PRESSURE: THE DECIBEL As described above, sound is made up of a series of oscillations of pressure in relation to atmospheric pressure. Therefore, it is logical to think that this pressure is the most obvious parameter to express the magnitude of the sound field. Strictly speaking, the amount to measure is the difference between the fluctuating value of pressure and its value of balance Po (atmospheric pressure). However, as the frequency of the wave increases it is more difficult to measure these fluctuations since they become faster. It is obvious that, even for the lowest vibration able to produce audible sound, it is necessary to make a time average that serves as an indicator of the amplitude of the signal. The way this average is calculated is as follows: Square all the values of pressure difference during any cycle. Hence, negative values become positive Average Calculate the square root
The final result is known as the effective value or r.m.s (root mean square) value represented as prms. From now on we will refer to the value of acoustic pressure that characterises an acoustic field at the measuring point as the r.m.s value of the pressure difference. Mathematically, this is expressed by
1 T 2 p (t )dt T 0
p rms =
(1)
The measurement unit of pressure is the newton/m2, called Pascal (Pa). Typical acoustic pressures have values of fractions of a Pascal, whereas atmospheric pressure is approximately 100,000 Pa (=1 atmosphere). Therefore, sound waves are associated with tiny variations in air pressure. Unfortunately, the measurement of sound pressure directly in Pascal gives rise to a series of difficulties, whose origin comes from the characteristics of the human ear, and which are explained below: The pressure range that the human ear can perceive is wide. The weakest sound pressure that can be perceived by a normal, healthy person is 210-5 Pa at a frequency of 1000 Hz (auditory threshold), while the sound pressure that begins to be painful is 100 Pa (pain threshold). That is, the scale of audible pressures covers a dynamic range of 1 to 5.000.000, which leads to the use of unmanageable numbers. Our auditory system does not respond lineally to the stimuli that we receive but rather has a logarithmic form. For example, if the pressure of a pure
tone of 1 kHz is doubled, the sensation produced by it will not be double. This is a clear demonstration of the non-linearity of hearing. For these two reasons it seems reasonable to use a logarithmic scale in order to quantify the sound pressure. However, as the logarithm of a number lower than 1 is negative, this would mean that any sound pressure whose value were a fraction of 1 Pascal would be expressed by a negative number. In order to avoid this problem a reference amount for which it will always be necessary to divide the corresponding pressure before taking logarithms is introduced. This amount is in fact the threshold of perception, that is, 210-5 Pa. Based on this, the level of sound pressure is defined by:
SPL = 10 log
p2 p = 20 log 2 p ref p ref
(2)
This expression is called the sound pressure level and is measured in decibels relative to 210-5 Pa. The word level is added to indicate that the amount has a certain level above a pre-set reference value. The acronym SPL is used or the symbol Lp. 6. ACOUSTIC INTENSITY Another parameter of interest in the definition of an acoustic field is the intensity. The intensity of a sound wave is the amount of acoustic energy crossing the unit of area normal to the direction of propagation of the wave per unit of time. Therefore, it is expressed in units of power (energy per unit of time) per surface unit, that is, in watt/m2. In the case of a flat wave, as seen in the tube in Figure 1, the acoustic intensity is given by:
p2 I= c
(3)
Where p is the acoustic pressure (r.m.s), is air density (kg/m2) and c denotes the sound speed (m/s). Figure 5 illustrates the concepts associated with the measurement of intensity. The vector crossing the plane that denotes the unit of area indicates acoustic power and has information about its associated direction. As with the sound pressure, one can talk about the sound intensity level defined as
SIL = 10 log I I ref
(4)
Where SIL is the sound intensity level, I is the intensity in W/m2 and Iref is the intensity of reference that, in this case, is taken as 10-12 watt/m2. The
measurement of sound intensity offers the opportunity to detect in situ the area of a vibrating surface that emits more noise. In this context, the expression emits more noise suggests that the surface injects acoustic energy into the environment and acts like a loudspeaker. Intensimetry may also reveal those parts of a surface acting as energy drains and subsequently absorbing noise.
Pressure P
Acoustic Power (Intensity vector)
Acoustic source
Unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation
Figure 5. Acoustic field created by a source expands when going away from the vibrating surface which generates it. The measure of acoustic intensity in a particular point of the acoustic field indicates the power going through the perpendicular section into the direction of propagation.
It is of vital importance to keep in mind the vectorial nature of the measurement of intensity, i.e. all measurements of intensity have amplitude and direction. Therefore, it is very useful for the location of sources in acoustically complex spaces to be known. 7. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF DECIBELS 7.1. Addition of decibels When two sound sources radiate sound they both contribute to the existing sound pressure level at a point far from both sources. Let us assume that SPL1 and SPL2 are the sound pressure levels due to two sources that are radiating simultaneously. The acoustic pressure at a point in the space associated with each source is given by dB1 p12 2 SPL1 = 10 log 2 p1 = p ref 10 10 p ref (5)

dB
2 p2 2 SPL2 = 10 log 22 p 2 = p ref 10 10 p ref
In order to know what is the total sound pressure produced by the acoustic surfaces; we will refer to the concept of intensity established previously: intensity is the energy per unit surface and per unit of time. Therefore, it seems logical to think that the intensity due to both sources will be the sum of the intensities of each source. We have also seen that intensity is proportional to the r.m.s. pressure squared (equation (3)). From this we can deduce that the r.m.s. pressure squared due to the two sources will be the sum of the r.m.s. pressures squared for each of the sources; therefore, it will be
2 2 2 p 2 = p12 + p2 = pref 10 10 + pref 10 10 dB1 dB2
(6)
And the total sound pressure level will be

dB2 dB1 10 10 + 10 10 p = 10 log 2 p ref 2 ref
dB1+ 2 = 10 log
p2 2 p ref
dB1 dB2 = 10 log10 10 + 10 10
(7)
This result could be extended to n sources, i.e.

dBi n dBn = 10 log 10 10 i =1
(8)
According to equation (8), the sum of two equal levels of SPL produces an increase of 3 dB. Therefore, two sources producing individually a sound level of 80 dB at a certain point will generate a total pressure of 83 dB when acting simultaneously. 7.2. Subtraction of decibels In some cases it is necessary to subtract levels of noise. By means of a mathematical development similar to that explained in the previous section it is deduced that the difference of two levels of noise given by dB1 and dB2 is
dB1 2 = 10 log
dB2 dB1 p2 = 10 log10 10 10 10 2 p ref
(9)
The most usual case of the subtraction of decibels arises when we need to measure the noise of a component in the presence of background noise. In these cases it is important to know if the measured noise is dominated by the noise of
the machine, the background noise or by a combination of both. The procedure is as follows a) The total existing noise with the component in Ls+n operation is measured. b) The component is stopped or encapsulated and the background noise measured Ln. c) The L difference is calculated = LS+N - LN. If L is less than 3 dB the background noise is too high for an accurate measurement and, therefore, the level of noise produced by the component can not be measured accurately as long as the background noise does not decrease. On the other hand, if the difference is above 10 dB, the background noise can be ignored. If the difference is between 3 dB and 10 dB, the correct level of noise can be found using equation (9). 8. FREQUENCY WEIGHTING SCALES Section 4 demonstrated that the human ear is not consistent in its sensitivity to different frequencies. Therefore, the ear will perceive a sound at 1,000 Hz with greater intensity than one of the same intensity at 200 Hz. In order to take into account this phenomenon weighting scales of different frequencies have been standardised. These are shown as A, B, C and D in Figure 6. Initially, these weighting scales were developed for different levels of noise: scale A was for low noise level (40 dB), scale B for medium sounds (70 dB) and scale C for loud sounds (100 dB). However, in the end scale A has been applied universally to all levels. Scale D is used exclusively for aircraft noise.
20
10
A
-10
B C D
dB
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60 10 100 1000 Hz 10000 100000
Figure 6. Weighing frequency scales A, B, C and D.
It is important to observe that scale A noticeably attenuates frequencies below 300 Hz. This aspect should be borne in mind in the analysis of vehicle interior noise at low speeds since this is dominated by the structural excitation that the engine introduces into the passenger compartment, predominately at low frequencies (< 200 Hz).
9. NOISE CONTROL The term noise control refers to all those techniques that reduce the level of acoustic pressure at a point in free space or inside a given enclosed space. The method used to get this noise reduction (or control) basically depends on the level of understanding of the noise source and of the difficulty and cost associated with implementing this method. The techniques of noise control most commonly used at present are based on the following principles:
Acoustic isolation Acoustic absorption Reduction of the excitation force that acts on the radiant surface Reduction of the level of vibration on the surface of the source Reduction of the transmissibility of the medium of propagation (air/ structure) Cancellation of noise through destructive interference (active noise control)
Of the above techniques, the first two stand out for the simplicity of their application in a great number of situations. Acoustic isolation and absorption use the idea of inserting an acoustic barrier combined with noise-absorbing materials. The combination of both principles could be used in those cases in which the noise problem is found at high frequencies (> 1 kHz). However, these methods are ineffective in reducing noise at low frequencies (< 400 Hz) since; in this case, the wavelength of the sound to be controlled is much greater than the thickness of the materials and the absorbents used in the construction of the barriers (or encapsulation). Noise does not always spread freely in space (propagation in free field). On many occasions the sound reaches obstacles such as roofs, walls and structural panels which cause reflections. Vehicle engine noise, for example, finds an obstacle in the wall that separates the engine compartment from that of the passengers (the firewall). A car with the bonnet open is noisier (external noise) than with bonnet closed since the bonnet obstructs the noise escaping to the exterior. When an acoustic wave reaches a solid surface, such as the firewall of a vehicle, part of the acoustic energy is transmitted to the other side of the barrier, another part is reflected and the barrier absorbs the rest. Figure 7 shows the distribution of the acoustic energy of a wave that hits a barrier of this type. Isolation and absorption are the two characteristics that make a material interesting from an acoustic point of view. They are two different characteristics, but the combination of both is very desirable from the point of view of noise control.
Acoustic barrier
Incident sound Ei Transmitted sound Et
Reflected sound
Heat
Absorbed sound by calorific dissipation
Figure 7. Sound reflected, absorbed and transmitted. The energy of the incident wave is not destroyed, it is only reflected and transformed into heat. The rest of the energy generates a transmitted acoustic wave of lower amplitude than the incident wave.
10. ACOUSTIC ISOLATION As mentioned previously, when a sound wave hits a barrier or panel, part of the incident energy is transmitted and part is reflected or absorbed by the panel. It is said that a material is a good noise insulator when the sound energy transmitted is small compared to the incident energy, i.e., when it does not allow the sound to pass through it. The coefficient that quantifies the isolation of a barrier or encapsulation is called transmission loss or TL and is defined as the relationship between the acoustic energy that hits the barrier and the acoustic energy that passes through it, i.e.,
TL = 10 log
Ei Et
(10)
Where TL is the transmission loss, Ei the incident energy and Et is the transmitted energy. This coefficient will be greater when the isolation capacity is higher. The transmission coefficient is also defined as the relationship between the transmitted energy and the incident energy. This coefficient can be expressed as
Et Ei
(11)
Where denotes the transmission coefficient, Ei is the incident energy and Et is the transmitted energy. Naturally, it can be verified that,
TL = 10 log
Ei 1 = 10 log Et
(12)
10.1. Measurement of acoustic isolation If we consider a barrier separating two cavities, as shown in Figure 8, isolation is defined as the difference in the sound pressure level (in dB) between the two cavities when one of them is acoustically excited, that is D = L1 L2
L1
L2
Sound source
L2 L1
Figure 8. Layout for the measurement of the transmissibility of acoustic barriers separating two cavities. Level L1 is the acoustic energy of the cavity that excites the wall and the level L2 is the proportion of the acoustic energy that has crossed it.
Normally the difference level D is corrected by the reverberation time of the receiving cavity, since the isolation of the separating panel must be independent of the conditions of the cavity. If the receiving cavity has a very high reverberation time, the sound level in a particular volume of air will increase in comparison to another cavity that has a lower reverberation time. This leads to a lower isolation
value. In order to solve this problem some corrections, dependent on the reverberation time of the cavity, are used. The corrected level is equal to
T DnT = D + 10 log 0.5
(13)
And is known as the standardised level difference. In equation (13), T denotes the reverberation time of the receiving cavity. This time is defined as the time needed for the sound pressure level in a cavity to fall 60 dB after eliminating its acoustic excitation. The reverberation time is due to the reflections that the waves undergo on colliding with the surfaces that make up the cavity. A high reverberation time indicates that the acoustic energy in the passenger compartment dissipates slowly. The transmission of sound through a vehicles structural panels depends on: The direct transmission through the separating panels between the noisy zones and the passenger compartment The transmission of secondary paths The internal losses of the structure caused by friction and damping of the structural materials The transmission and attenuation of noise by means of panels is very common in the automotive industry. In general, the passenger compartment is soundproofed from external noise by the isolating effect of certain panels that, as well as having a structural purpose, lessen the airborne noise produced by the engine, rolling and air turbulence of the moving vehicle. Therefore, the study of the physical principles that control the transmissibility of panels is very important. 10.2. Panel Isolation. Simple panel We shall consider a flat sound wave that hits an elastic panel at a given angle of incidence. Under the influence of the sound wave the panel will bend as shown in Figure 9. The displacement of the panel due to the sound pressure on one of its sides will generate sound pressure on the other side. Applying Newtons law to the movement of the system, the reduction of noise through the panel will give us a function that depends on: the panel mass M per unit surface, the frequency f of excitation and the incident angle of the wave . This reduction (in dB) is given by
Mf cos R = 20 log c
(14)
Where M is the superficial mass of the panel in kg/ m2, f is the frequency of the acoustic wave (Hz), denotes the incident angle of the sound wave, is the air density (kg/m3) and c is the speed of sound (m/s).
Reflected wave
Reflected wave
Incident wave
Incident wave
Figure 9. The spatial distribution of pressure produced by an incident wave on the panel generates flexion waves that will radiate noise. This noise radiation of the panel causes the transmission of some incident acoustic energy by the panel.
From the previous equation we can obtain the first two laws of isolation of a simple panel, which are the mass law and the frequency law. That is:
The mass law states that every time we double the mass per unit area of the panel, the isolation increases by 6 dB The frequency law states that every time we double the frequency, the isolation increases by 6 dB
Until now, a specific value for the angle at which the sound wave hits the panel has been considered, but in reality the incidence of the sound is totally random and we cannot know all the incidence angles. A correction factor has been found experimentally which takes into account this effect, and it consists of subtracting 3 dB from the above equation. It is known as random incidence, noise reduction and is given by
Mf R = 20 log c
3dB
(15)
Figure 10 shows the equation (15) for a variation of M between 5 and 15 kg/ m2 and a frequency range between 500 Hz and 2kHz. It can be seen that R increases with M and f.
The panel has an internal elasticity and a mass per surface unit that determines its characteristic resonance frequencies. These affect the isolation of the panel mainly at low frequencies since these resonances imply structural weaknesses. We can find the resonance frequencies for a simply supported panel from the expression
f res =
h
2
n 2 m 2 E + 2 12 (1 ) x y
(16)
Where E is the Youngs modulus, I is the inertia moment, denotes the surface density of the panel (kg/m2), h is the thickness of the material, (x, y) represent the physical dimensions of the panel and (m,n) are integer numbers.
Transmissibility R
f (Hz)
M (kg/m2)
Figure 10. Variability of transmissibility R with M and f (equation 15).
In equation (16), represents the Poissons ratio, which for steel is 0.3. The lowest resonance frequency corresponds to the pair of numbers (n= 1, m= 1). Figure 11 shows the shape of this vibration mode for a panel where x= 1 m and y= 0.5 m. In this vibration mode the panel is displaced in phase when vibrating, so that the panel will be very effective in compressing the air of the adjacent layers. Therefore, their transmissibility will be high at the resonance frequency corresponding to the structural mode.
Mode (m,n) = (1,1)
Y (m)
X (m)
Figure 11. Modal shape of a simply supported panel for (m,n)=(1,1).
10.3. Coincidence effect The energy lost in resonance is small and depends on the damping of the material or that of the panel supports. From the second frequency of lowest resonance, the isolation begins to follow the mass law (zone of control for mass). This continues until it reaches the limit frequency called the coincidence frequency, in which the length of the sound propagation wave is equal to the wavelength of the bending waves of the panel. This coincidence condition means that the panel would be particularly ineffective for isolation. Sound spreads in the air by longitudinal waves at the same speed for all frequencies. Nevertheless, in solid structures sound can be spread by transverse, longitudinal or bending waves. The most important for noise generation are the bending waves. Unlike longitudinal airborne waves, bending waves travel at different speeds depending on the frequency. This speed increases with frequency. This means that for each frequency above the value of the critical frequency of the panel, there is an incidence angle for which the bending wavelength is equal to the sound wavelength hitting the panel. The condition of coincidence is fulfilled when sin = Where
(17)
= acoustic wavelength, B = bending wavelength of panel.
This condition is very important since at the coincidence frequency the isolation is no longer controlled by the mass. In theory, at the coincidence frequency the isolation would be zero, but due to damping this can not be so. We can calculate the coincidence frequency of a panel from the equation
c fc = 2 M , where B
Ed h 3 B= 12(1 2 )
(18)
Where c= speed of sound in the air M= mass per unit area (kg/ m2) Ed= elasticity modulus of the panel material = Poissons modulus h= thickness The ideal isolation curves of a simple panel can be divided into four regions named according to the mechanism that governs the value of the noise reduction coefficient. These are:
Control by stiffness Control by resonance Control by mass Control by coincidence
The idealised curves of isolation for a wall are shown in Figure 12. In the control by resonance range the variations of the noise reduction value will be greater or smaller according to the damping characteristics of the panel. The control by mass ranges from the lowest resonance frequency to the coincidence frequency. These two frequencies fulfil the laws of mass and frequency described above. From the coincidence frequency we obtain control by coincidence that will be dealt with later. Note that the damping only acts at the resonance and frequency of coincidence. In general, for a given material, increasing the thickness reduces the frequency of coincidence.
Figure 12. Ideal isolation curve of a simple panel.

Control by stiffness Control by resonance Control by mass Control by coincidence
9 dB/octave
R (dB)
6 dB/octave
fc f (Hz)
10.4. Control by coincidence From the frequency of coincidence, the equation expressing the isolation of a simple wall is:
Mf R = 20 log c f + 10 log + 10 log 3dB f c
(19)
Where M= mass per unit area of the wall (kg/ m2) f= frequency = air density c= speed of sound in air fc= frequency of coincidence = damping coefficient In this zone, every time we double the frequency the increase in isolation is 9 dB. If we double the mass the isolation increases by 6 dB, and if we double the damping of the isolation the increase in isolation is 3 dB. 10.5. Double panel Two simple panels separated by an elastic material, a damping material or air, basically form a double panel. In this case, the factors that affect sound reduction are:
The individual behaviour of each panel The joining between the two panels The acoustic absorption of the elastic or damping material
A double panel can be described as two masses joined together by an elastic element with a given stiffness, as shown in Figure 13.
Force M1
Stiffness M2
Oscillating speed
Figure 13. Equivalent system to double panel
This tells us the system will have a resonance frequency f0 that can be calculated by:
fo = c 2 1 M + M d 1 2
(20)
Where c= sound speed propagation in the air, = density of the material placed between the two panels, d= distance between the two panels, M1 and M2= surface density of the panels. If the material placed between the two walls were air, we would have: f o = 60 1 1 1 M + M d 1 2
(21)
From these two expressions we can deduce that by increasing the masses or the distance between the walls, we will decrease the resonance frequency of the double panel. 10.6. Curve of isolation of a double panel Below the first resonance frequency of a double panel the curve of isolation has a slope of 6 dB/octave since it behaves as a simple wall of mass equal to the sum of the mass of each panel. In this case, the noise reduction can be calculated as
(M 1 + M 2 ) f R = 20 log c
3 dB
(22)
where M1 and M2 are the superficial masses of each panel. The location of the first resonance frequency of the double panel tells us the frequency above which the isolation is controlled by the double panel effect. In this zone R increases with a slope of +18 dB/octave. In practice, a curve of noise isolation with a slope of +18dB/octave is rarely obtained since a double panel is not a pure mass-spring-mass system. On the other hand, since there is a separation between both panels, this may produce a resonant cavity phenomenon that is created by stationary waves between the panels, which may generate a very irritating pure tone noise. This phenomenon occurs when half a wavelength fits inside the panels. From this relationship we can find the lowest frequency at which this phenomenon occurs
d =n
2 d =n c 2f
(23)
=
nc 2d
c f
(24)
fg =
n 170 , d
n = 1,2,3,...
(25)
At the frequency, fg, that this phenomenon occurs, the isolation decreases. Therefore, whenever a double panel is installed some kind of material should be fitted between the two faces; mainly an absorbent, such as glass fibre, basalt wool, etc. This step will eliminate the formation of stationary waves. From this we can determine the isolation curve of a double panel. As has been mentioned previously, below the first resonance frequency the slope is +6 dB/octave. Between this resonance frequency and the first frequency of coincidence or the frequency in which the resonant cavity effect takes place the slope is +18 dB/oct. If the resonant cavity effect is eliminated, then from the first frequency of coincidence the total isolation of the double panel is equal to the sum of the isolation of the two individual panels. Figure 14 shows the slopes of the noise reduction curve associated with a double barrier.
12 dB/octave
R (dB)
18 dB/octave
fo f (Hz)
min (fc, fg)
Figure 14. Ideal Isolation curve of a double panel
10.7. Secondary transmission paths Not all sound transmitted from one cavity to another passes through the isolation panel. In practice, there are other possible transmission paths (secondary paths) that often mean that the isolation is not as good as expected. In all structures there are several transmission paths. All secondary transmission paths reduce the direct isolation calculated in the previous sections. In general, the greater the attenuation introduced by a barrier, the greater is the percentage of energy transmitted by the secondary paths. 11. ABSORPTION Materials are good noise absorbers when the sound energy dissipated inside the material is an important part of the incident energy. This absorbed energy is normally transformed into heat by the material. Therefore, the material needs to be porous since the air inside the pores vibrates transforming the kinetic energy of the wave into heat through friction. The parameter, which would characterise the absorption of these materials, is called the absorption coefficient, defined as the relationship between the acoustic energy absorbed by the material and the incident energy on their external surface. This coefficient depends on the frequency of the sound, on the angle of incidence of the acoustic wave and on the disposition or assembly of the material.
11.1. Classification of absorbent materials Absorbent materials can be classified according to their absorption mechanism and the frequency characteristics of their absorption coefficient. The most important groups are (see Figure 15): 1) Porous materials: They transform acoustic energy into calorific energy as a consequence of friction of air particles against the body of the material. The magnitude of the absorption at each frequency depends on the speed of air vibration. Resonators: in these materials the pressure of the acoustic perturbation displaces a mass of air or solid which, through internal friction, transforms the acoustic energy into heat. As is known, maximum displacements will occur at the characteristic frequencies of the system and, subsequently, in those frequencies the absorption is at a maximum.
2)
Porous material
Resonator
Resonance frequency
fr
Frequency Frequency
Figure 15. Frequency characteristics of porous absorbent materials and resonators
11.2. Types of porous absorbent materials Porous absorbent materials are generally found in the form of blankets, carpets, mats and composites. Some typical composites are:
Textile fibres: cotton, wool, etc. Mineral fibres: basalt wool, asbestos, fibreglass, etc. Wood fibres: wooden wool, sawdust, etc. Vegetable fibres: jute, coconut, etc. Open-pore polymers derived from petroleum: polyurethane, PVC, etc. Metals: rustproof steel wool.
From these materials many forms of acoustic absorbent components are manufactured, with higher or lower density and stiffness depending on the specific
application. In this type of absorbent material the vibrating air particles are slowed by the friction of the fibres of the material, losing part of their acoustic energy. For each frequency, the absorption coefficient reaches its maximum value when the thickness of the material is such that it covers at least a maximum of acoustic speed. The first of these maximums is located a distance from the rigid wall equal to a quarter of the sound wavelength to be absorbed. Logically this means that, in order to get high absorption at low frequencies, the thickness and the space occupied by the porous material is important. Since the dissipation of acoustic energy is obtained mainly in the maximum speed zone, in order to save material, one can ignore the zone nearest to the wall where the speeds are lower. This is achieved by leaving an air chamber between the absorbent material and the wall. For random incidence, where the acoustic waves hit the absorbent material from any direction, leaving a space between the absorbent and the wall lower than or equal to a third of the thickness of the porous material, the coefficient of the resulting absorption is similar to that which would be obtained with 33% more porous padding material attached to the wall. The choice of fitting this air chamber or not would be made for economic reasons, taking into account not only the cost of the material but also its installation. 11.3. Resonators Resonators are acoustic elements with a mass of air contained in a cavity which is connected to the surrounding environment and, therefore, to the acoustic wave to be absorbed, through a small window. When an appropriate frequency wave hits the window of the resonator the interior air oscillates with great amplitude (resonance) and it behaves like an energy-dissipating element. 11.3.1. Helmholtz Resonator A Helmholtz resonator is a volume of air, V, contained between rigid walls, with a small opening of area S and length L (Figure 16). This cavity presents the peculiarity that at a certain frequency, depending on the volume of the resonator and the dimensions of the opening, the sound pressure inside the resonator is much greater then that in the inlet section. At this resonance frequency, the air near to the inlet section, S, oscillates with great amplitude and dissipates energy.
Acoustic wave
Figure 16. Basic geometry of a Helmholtz resonator
This phenomenon is known as resonance and is similar to that obtained with a mechanical system made up of mass and spring. In this case, the mass of the system can be assimilated to the mass of air in the neck of the resonator and the spring would have the constant of stiffness equal to the compressibility of the air contained in V volume. The resonance frequency of the system in Figure 16 can be calculated by the expression
f = c 2 S LV
(26)
Where c is the speed of sound in air (m/s), S is the neck section of the resonator (m2), V the volume of the resonator (m3) and L is the apparent length of the neck of the resonator (m). This length is given by
L = L f + 1.6r
(27)
Where Lf denotes the physical length of the neck or window and r is its radius. If the area of the neck is not circular r can be considered as the radius of the circle equal to the real neck area. 11.3.2. Membrane resonator A flexible membrane with a small air chamber behind behaves very much like a Helmholtz resonator. The resonance frequency of this type of resonator can be calculated by the expression:
f = c 2
mh
(28)
where f is the resonance frequency (Hz), c is the speed of sound in air (m/s), indicates the air density (kg/ m3), m is the surface density of the membrane (kg/ m2) and h is the distance between the membrane and the rigid wall. 11.3.3. Multiresonators Perforated metal sheets with a space of air behind can be considered as multiple Helmholtz resonators with a volume equal to the total volume divided by the number of perforations. This type of resonator is widely used in the design of vehicle mufflers. As established above, the frequency of a Helmholtz resonator is c S f = (29) 2 lV
f =
c 2
S h lS v n
(30)
Where n is the number of holes considered in the area Sv. If porosity is given by
Sn Sv and the equivalent length of the holes is Por = L = L f + 1.6r
(31)
(32)
the resonance frequency of a metal sheet perforated with holes of radius r and separated by a distance h from the rigid wall is
f =
c 2
Por ( L f + 1.6r )h
(33)
By combining many different diameters of holes we can amplify the frequency band of maximum absorption. 12. AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS 12.1. Evaluation of ambient urban noise 12.1.1. Considerations regarding the effect of noise on people The fact that ambient noise may produce negative effects on peoples health has encouraged investigation into the field and motivated the fight against noise pollution. In general, the effects of noise on health (understood not as the absence of illness, but in a much wider sense, as total physical, mental and social wellbeing) are generally classified into six main groups:
Effects on the auditory system Harmful effects due to stress Sleep disturbance Interference with oral communication Effects on mental and psychomotor activity Subjective nuisance
The results obtained by numerous investigators confirm that noise is a very important environmental problem with evident repercussions on the health and well-being of a very high percentage of the population. Figure 17 summarises currently recognised effects of noise on people.
SONOROUS STIMULI (Spectral-temporal energy) EAR MIDDLE BRAIN Auditory centre (Warning reflex) BRAIN Sensations / perceptions Memory / learning Knowledge / Emotions AUDITORY EFFECT (A) AND NON AUDITORY (NA) OF NOISE AND RESULTS OF THESE EFFECTS ON EMOTIONS AND WELL-BEING 1. (A) Temporal & permanent auditory loss and ear injuries 1. (A) Inherent sensations of nuisance received: sonority, duration, impulsivity, tonality, complexity (Harshness) 2. (A) Interferences in Behaviour; Audition of desired sounds; disturbance in resting/dreaming; distraction in carrying out tasks 1. (NA) Nuisance emotions; bile; frustration, due to the interference behaviour 2. (NA) Bile emotions, fair to the source, anxiety, due to worries about the noise effects on well-being, life quality, economic value of houses and residential areas. Abnormal temporal and persisting states of particular homeostatic functions in the body, caused by emotions due to the interference effects on noise behaviour and adverse effects perceive associated as a consequence of noise
AUTONOMIC NEURAL GLANDULAR SYSTEM Controlling homeostatic performance of brain. Cardio - vascular, vegetative and respiratory organs of the body
Figure 17. Diagram showing the relationship between physiological systems and non-auditory ones. The diagram also shows physiological and psychological effects due to the noise.
Solving this problem requires the urgent adoption of appropriate corrective measures. By corrective action we refer to traffic restrictions at night-time (for example, by limiting access to certain urban zones to residents) and greater control of the sound sources that cause the most disturbance such as vehicles and motorcycles.
12.1.2. Characterisation of the level of nuisance Most of the investigations on acoustic pollution are based on the measurement of the levels of ambient noise produced by different sound sources and especially by transport vehicles. It has been demonstrated that traffic is the most important and widespread source of noise in industrial countries. In order to express the existing relationship between exposure to noise and the subjective responses of people affected by this environmental factor, all the studies have used various noise indicators. However, in fact it has been shown that all these indicators are closely related to each other. One of these is the equivalent continuous sound level measured during a 24-hour period, (Leq (24hr)). It can be used, with certain limitations, to predict the general response of a community (subjective nuisance for the residents) in the face of the impact produced by a wide variety of different sound sources. The Leq (24h) evaluates the average value of the noise level to which a predetermined zone is exposed during a period of time. In general, the Leq measured in an interval of T time is calculated by means of the expression:
1 Leq (T ) = 10 log T
p 2 (t ) dt 2 p0
(34)
That is to say, its value is the average constant amplitude of noise with the same acoustic energy as that of the noise measured. Figure 18 illustrates the time variation of an arbitrary acoustic signal during an interval of time T, its energy and the value of Leq associated with this interval, that is, Leq (T). In general, urban noise measurements show a frequency range between 125 Hz and 2 kHz, which is typical of the noise generated by traffic. Above these frequencies the spectral level decays progressively. These bands of relative low frequency tend to be easily transmitted through building structures (walls, windows, foundations, etc.) making the impact on the population still greater than expected.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 18. Example of an acoustic time signal (a), its energy as a function of time (b) and the equivalent average level Leq (T) for T= 1 (c).
More recent investigations have shown that the characterisation of ambient noise in a given urban location with the Leq parameter alone could be incomplete. This is particularly true for those environments that experience big variations in noise level during the time interval studied. In these circumstances, we also need to describe the statistic and time variability of the noise level as a random variable. 12.2. Analysis of contribution of external noise sources in vehicles For the measurement of the overall noise level emitted by a running vehicle (passby test), directive 96/ 20 defines the test set-up shown in Figure 19. In the measurement of the noise level, the running vehicle approaches the test area (interval between the AA' and BB' lines) at a stabilised speed (the lowest between 50 km/ h and 3/4 of maximum power). When reaching the AA' line the accelerator is fully depressed and then released when the rear part of the vehicle has passed the BB' line. As the vehicle travels between lines AA' and BB' the vehicle noise is registered by means of the microphone located in P (see Figure 19).
Figure 19. Pass-by test lay-out for exterior noise measurement according to European Directive 96/20.
The pass-by test described does not give information about the structure or main components of the total noise emitted by a vehicle. In order to understand this structure, we should bear in mind that the noise produced by vehicles is composed of the contribution of the following sources:
Engine Intake system Exhaust system Rolling Aerodynamic
The contribution of each one of these sources to the overall noise level, changes in level and spectral content according to the vehicle speed and/or engine speed. The reduction of vehicle noise emissions achieved in the last 20 years are linked to the increasing knowledge of the contribution associated with each noise source present in a vehicle. This section describes a method for analysing the contribution that each acoustic source in a vehicle makes to the total noise. The results obtained in IDIADA for a group of vehicles that reflect the vanguard in acoustic development, show that rolling noise is acquiring a notable importance as source that contributes to the external measured noise both in the pass-by test and in normal driving conditions. In the case of the pass-by test described we can consider that the contributing acoustic noise sources are:
Engine Intake system Exhaust system Rolling
Depending on the type of vehicle and the problem we can consider others like gearbox, transmission system, radiation from the walls of the exhaust and intake mufflers, radiation of the catalytic converter, etc. Obtaining a vehicle that complies with the levels marked in the directive obviously happens by achieving partial reductions in the levels of noise radiated by some or all of the sources that contribute to the level of exterior noise of the vehicle. In order to get these partial reductions we need to know which sources radiate and their contribution to the global levels of emitted noise. To do this source decomposition studies are carried out. These studies allow us to quantify the contribution of each source to the global level of exterior noise and also to study it as a function of the position of the vehicle on the track, the vehicle side, and the vehicle speed and/or engine speed. The contribution could be expressed as a percentage of the total or as a contribution in dB(A). The source decomposition method consists of reducing as much as possible the different noise sources until a vehicle with minimum or residual noise has been obtained. The vehicle is equipped with additional intake and exhaust super-silencers and the engine is encapsulated as shown in the example in Figure 20.
Figure 20. Vehicle with minimum or residual noise by means of the use of intake and exhaust supersilencers and engine encapsulation.
Next the source under study is uncovered and the levels of noise measured during the pass-by test in both states are compared. The difference between the level of this last test and that of minimum or residual noise is the contribution of that
source. The contribution of each source Fi in dB(A) along the position of the vehicle on the track is given by:
Fi = 10 log 10 NFi / 10 10 NR / 10
where
(35)
Fi: contribution of the n-th source. NFi: level of noise with the n-th source unshielded. NR: level of minimum or residual noise.
The percentage contribution of an acoustic source to the level of global noise is calculated using the following equation:
Fi (%) = 100 10 NFi / 10 10 NT / 10

Where
(36)
Fi: contribution of the n-th source. NFi: level of noise with the n-th source unshielded. NT: level of total noise.
Figure 21 shows the result obtained for the contribution of the exhaust system of the vehicle in Figure 20 to the total noise of the vehicle (2nd gear).
80
75 LEVEL dB(A)
70
EXHAUST RESIDUAL NOISE
65
60 -15
-10
-5
0 POSITION(m )
10
15
Figure. 21. Contribution of the exhaust system to the global noise (2nd gear, left side).
If this process is repeated for each source of interest, the contribution of each one of these sources to the overall noise level is obtained. Figures 22, 23, 24 and 25 show the noise contributions of the exhaust system, the intake system, the engine and the tyre rolling in 2nd and 3rd gear, all as a function of the position of the vehicle shown in Figure 20. Values are expressed as a percentage of the total level in dB (A).
100.0
CONTRIBUCION (%)
80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

EXHAUST ENGINE INTAKE BACKGROUND + ROLLING
POSICION (m)
Figure 22. Contribution of acoustic sources to the global noise level as a percentage of the total noise measured (2nd gear).
100.0
CONTRIBUCION (%)
80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

EXHAUST ENGINE INTAKE BACKGROUND + ROLLING
POSICION (m)
Figure 23. Contribution of acoustic sources to the global noise level as a percentage of the total noise measured (3rd gear).
80
EXHAUST
LEVELdB(A)
70
ENGINE INTAKE
60
BACKGROUND + ROLLING SERIE
50 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
POSITION (m)
Figure 24. Contribution of acoustic sources to the global noise level in dB(A) (2nd gear)
80
EXHAUST
NIVEL dB(A)
70
ENGINE INTAKE
60
BACKGROUND + ROLLING SERIE
50 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
POSICION (m)
Figure 25. Contribution of acoustic sources to the global noise level in dB(A) (3rd gear)
We can see that the most important noise contributions come from the engine and the tyres both in 2nd and in 3rd gear. This result is general for current passenger cars, which is illustrated by the comparative graphs (Figures 26 and 27) obtained in IDIADA between 6 vehicles, 4 diesel (vehicles A, B, D, E) and 2 petrol (vehicles C and F) of the same category and currently on the market. Figures 26 and 27 show the measured contribution of the different noise sources of the above
vehicles for the position in which the maximum noise level is obtained during the pass-by test.
100.0 80.0
56.9 76.3
90.0
CONTRIBUTION %
46.9
49.0
60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0
55.6
70.0
E X H A S UT
43.4
41.6
40.4
E N G IN E IN T A KE
28.2
30.0
32.5
14.4
14.5
20.7
10.7
4.5
4.2
4.0
1.5
0.0 A
0.0
1.5
3.0
10.0
8.2
VEHICLE
Figure 26. Comparison of noise sources for diesel vehicles (A, B, D, E) and petrol (C y F); (2nd gear).
100,0 90,0 80,0 70,0 60,0 50,0 40,0 30,0 20,0 10,0 0,0
CONTRIBUTION %
70,9
64,2
53,6
62,7
65,1
73,0
12.0
20.0
B A C KG R O UN D + R O LLIN G
EXHAUST
34,4
33,3
30,7
33,4
ENGINE INTAKE
20,4
10,8 12,8
7,9
5,2
3,7
8,7
BACKGROUND + ROLLING
1,5
1,4
0,0
0,0
1,5
1,5
VEHICLE
Figure 27. Comparison of noise sources for diesel vehicles (A, B, D, E) and petrol (C y F); (3rd gear).
3,4
Figures 26 and 27 demonstrate the small contribution that intake and exhaust systems have on the global noise emitted by current vehicles and that the greatest contribution is from the engine and tires. This, together with the fact that at higher speeds (between 70 and 100 km/h) the predominant noise comes from rolling, has motivated the ECE to study a proposal for controlling the noise levels produced by the tires. 12.3. Interior noise of vehicles Figure 28 shows the main sources of noise and vibration in a vehicle. The main components exciting vehicle structure are the engine, the gearbox, the clutch, the exhaust system and the forces on the suspension induced by the road.
Sources
Engine
Gear box and clutch
Road excitation Tyre resonances Suspension
Exhaust system
Engine supports
Transmission supports
Suspension
Body support
Vibration transmission elements
VEHICLE CABIN
Sound waves (Air excitation)
Figure 28. Definition of the main excitation sources in a vehicle. The vibration transmission elements represent the mechanical link between the sources and the passenger compartment of the vehicle (structural excitation). The acoustic waves generated by these sources also excite the passenger compartment inducing part of the interior noise (airborne excitation).
It is important to observe that all the excitation paths indicated in Figure 28 respond to the structure indicated in Figure 29, where each block represents a part of the structure or the air of the passenger compartment with its influence on the transmissibility of vibrations or noise. Figure 30 is an enlargement of Figure 29 in which the system labelled passenger compartment in Figure 28 has been broken down into its structural and air components. This breakdown is fundamental in understanding the structural and acoustic aspects that define the noise and vibration perceptions inside the passenger compartment.
Noise
Source
Mechanical joint
Mountings
Structure cavity response
Passenger compartment Vibration
Figure 29. Basic structure of a vibration transmission path from the source to the passenger compartment where it becomes noise.
Effect on passengers
Source
Mechanical joint
Structural transmission path
Structure cavity response
Air cavity response
Acoustic perception
Vibrational perception
Figure 30. The global response of the vehicle passenger compartment breaks down into its structural response (movement of the skin of the passenger compartment-structural resonance) and into the response of the air contained in the cavity (acoustic resonance)
The perception of noise and vibration by the passengers depends on the characteristics of each one of the blocks in Figure 30. Technically, any response associated with the blocks shown can be modified in order to obtain a reduction of the noise and vibration level in the passenger compartment. However, the difficulty and cost in implementing modifications in any of these blocks can be very different. In general, the efficiency of any action to reduce vibration or the noise level is greater when it acts closer to the source of the problem. This is one of the reasons why it is so important to choose correctly the supports of the elements that act as vibration sources. Once the vibrational energy is transmitted to the structural components with a large surface area (panels, firewall, vehicle floor, etc.), the problem of controlling the noise and vibrations that affect the passengers become more complicated. This is because, in this case, the whole skin of the passenger compartment becomes a global source that radiates noise into the interior. In these cases, the correct definition of the vibration modes of the structure and the air of the passenger compartment is necessary. This information will allow us to define at what frequencies the skin of the cavity is more susceptible to vibration and the mode of vibration. In the same way, the acoustic modes of the air contained in the passenger compartment
indicate the frequencies at which it tends to enlarge the acoustic pressure and the interior zones where it happens. Figures 31 and 32 show, respectively, a structural mode and an acoustic mode of the air contained in the passenger compartment of a vehicle.
Figure 31. Deformation in a structural mode (experimental) of a body at 44.31 Hz. These results were obtained by processing the structural response of the body measured at 800 triaxial points.
Because the structure and the air of the cavity interact, it is important to investigate the possible frequency and spatial coincidence of the structural and acoustic modes. This situation of coincidence is undesirable since it implies that, at the frequencies where this happens, the structure is especially weak and the interior air is very reactive (resonate). This situation will bear high levels of interior noise normally called booming. Booming appears at those values of engine r.p.m. that excite structural or acoustic modes or both simultaneously.
The control of booming is done through the identification of which mode(s) cause it and the possible structural or acoustic modifications for reducing their effect. Booming problems happen at low frequencies (< 200 Hz). The solution is dependent on reducing the excitation force transmitted by the engine mountings (or the causal element), modifying the chassis or body structure (modification of the vibration modes), modifying the fixing points between the chassis and the active element or modifying the resonances of the air of the passenger compartment.
Figure 32. Distribution of the pressure in an acoustic mode (experimental) of the body shown in Figure 31 at 71.5 Hz. These results were obtained by processing the acoustic response of the air of the passenger compartment measured at 200 points.
At higher frequencies (> 1 kHz), vehicle noise problems can be solved using absorption and isolation techniques like the one described previously. In these cases, once the noise source has been located, it can be isolated or encapsulated with an acoustic barrier that in addition to mass also contributes acoustic absorption through the use of porous materials. The correct positioning of these barriers can be achieved with the use of intensimetry techniques that help to define the zones of the source surface that radiate noise most efficiently. The isointensity maps obtained can be applied directly as geometric definitions of the zones to be covered for encapsulating. Figures 33 and 34 show the iso-intensity map obtained in a vertical plane within the acoustic field produced by the engine, the crankcase and the gearbox of a truck in neutral at 2700 r.p.m.. The level of the
contour plot indicates that the crankcase is contributing notably to the noise radiation in the measured plane.
Figure 33. Vertical Grid of iso-intensity
OVERALL
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 17 108-111 105-108 102-105 99-102 96-99 93-96 90-93 87-90
Figure 34. Intensimetry obtained in the plane shown in Figure 33 with a truck in neutral at 2.700 r.p.m. The values shown correspond to dB (ref. 10-12 W/m2)
CHAPTER II
EFFECTS OF ROAD SURFACE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE ON INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VEHICLE NOISE
EFFECTS OF ROAD SURFACE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE ON INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VEHICLE NOISE
1. INTRODUCTION Tyre noise is an important component of the total noise produced by a vehicle. This noise component has a strong contribution to the overall quality associated with interior and exterior vehicle noise. It is also recognised that road acoustic impedance is of paramount importance in understanding and quantifying the noise produced by the interaction between the tyres and the road surface. In this paper the authors present a novel non-destructive method for the measurement of the frequency dependence of the acoustic impedance of road surfaces. The effect of this impedance on the total radiated tyre noise is assessed and its implications on interior and exterior vehicle noise quality are explored. It is also shown that by a suitable selection of building materials, road surfaces can be acoustically tuned to improve their effectiveness. The high level of noise that exists in our cities is a major concern for the citizens and institutions responsible for maintaining this noise below the legal levels. The application of road surfaces with absorbent acoustic characteristics is a method widely used to obtain a reduction in the level of vehicle rolling noise. These surfaces can absorb an important part of the noise generated by the vehicles and especially the contribution caused by tyre noise. Additionally, these surfaces affect not only the exterior noise generated by the vehicles, but also the interior noise perceived by the passengers while driving. This double effect of low-noise road surfaces is very helpful in improving both the acoustic quality of the environmental noise perceived by pedestrians and by the acoustic comfort felt by vehicle passengers. Making a correct assessment of the acoustic impact of low-noise road surfaces requires the quantification of not only the overall noise level reduction, but also their effect on the sound quality perceived. This aspect is frequently forgotten, which makes the global quantification of the acoustic impact of low-noise road surfaces incomplete. In this work, we show that low-noise road surfaces bring an improvement to the acoustic comfort perceived by pedestrians and by vehicle passengers. This improvement of the perceived acoustic quality is not only reflected by a reduction of the overall noise level but also by a desirable variation of psycho-acoustic parameters that quantify subjective perceptions associated with the level and the smoothness of the sound, such as the loudness and the sharpness. The combined consideration of the variation in noise level, dB(A), and the changes in the relevant psycho-acoustic parameters allows a more accurate quantification of the global impact on the acoustic comfort associated to the use of low-noise road surfaces.
2. INSTRUMENTATION In this section we describe the instrumentation used for the measurements described in this paper. This instrumentation is necessary if we want to characterise not only the objective but also the subjective aspects of urban noise, and if an accurate description of the acoustic properties of the road surface is required.
Precision Sound Level Meter Brel & Kjaer Type 2236 A-006 Artificial head (Head Acoustics) Acoustic impedance tube adapted for the in situ non-destructive measurement of the absorption coefficient of road surfaces.
3. MEASUREMENTS OF INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VEHICLE NOISE One of the objectives of this work was to quantify the order of magnitude of the effect that absorbent road surfaces can produce on urban noise and on the interior noise of vehicles. The measurements carried out to assess this effect are described below: 3.1. Exterior noise measurement with sound level meter Measurements of equivalent levels (duration of 10 minutes) were carried out using an integrator sound level meter. The measurements were made on two streets in the city of Barcelona before and after the application of a new low-noise road surface. For these measurements, the ISO-R1996 standard was considered. In all the measurements the level meter was located 1.2 m from the ground and a distance greater than 3.5 m. from any wall. 3.2. Exterior noise measurement with Binaural Acoustic Head An acoustic head was also used to produce binaural recordings of the urban noise as measured at the same point where the sound level meter was used. The duration of these recordings was 15 minutes each. In these measurements, the ISO-R1996 standard recommendations were also taken into account. 3.3. Interior noise measurement with Acoustic Head In addition to the exterior noise measurements, the binaural system was also used to measure the interior noise perceived by a passenger seated on the front seat of a Ford Focus Wagon 2.0i (reference vehicle). The measurement was made with the vehicle passing along the two studied streets before and after the application of the new low-noise surface. During the measurements, the vehicle was driven in third gear and at a constant speed of 50 km/h.
3.4. Acoustic characterisation of road surfaces In order to make an assessment of the acoustic properties of the road surfaces in the streets, the acoustic absorption coefficient of the roads was measured before an after the application of the new asphalt. The measurements were carried out with the acoustic impedance tube mentioned in section 2. This tool allows us to make in situ non-destructive measurements of the absorption coefficient of any surface. 4. DATA ANALYSIS 4.1. Psychoacoustic parameters versus traditional metrics Sound contains information that is not registered by conventional measuring methods. A sound can transmit pleasant or unpleasant information and convey information on the functionality and quality of the source. Noise is a sound whose quality is perceived as unpleasant or annoying. Therefore, noise is an undesirable and annoying sound. The human ear is a complex receiver whose process is largely unknown. This processing of the electro-acoustic signals in the human ear is very quick and intelligent and differs considerably from the conventional analysis techniques used in acoustics. The sound level in dB(A) is obtained by measuring the sound pressure and evaluating the modified frequency spectrum with the A weighting curve, which is practically the opposite of the frequency sensitivity curve of the ear. The frequency sensitivity of the human ear to sound pressure depends on the level of the sound pressure, and the A weighting curve is valid for noise levels below 65 dB. However, in practice this weighting curve is used for pressure levels above 65 dB as well. As a general rule, the sound pressure levels in dB(A) only permit the evaluation of sounds that have particularly negative effects. For example, a long exposure to a weighted sound level of 85 dB(A) affects negatively the hearing ability of people. However, sound levels below 85 dB(A) may harm the hearing system and have indirect psychological effects if the sound is judged as annoying. On the other hand, the analysis of sound in 1/ 3 octave does not give us complete information regarding the sound quality. Concerning the fundamental differences between human hearing and the conventional measuring techniques we can point out the following important aspects: 1) The external ear is a directional filter that weights the sound level in a range from +15dB to -30dB, depending on the frequency and direction of incidence. However, a conventional microphone shows a flat frequency response for incident waves from any direction (diffused-field microphone). 2) The human hearing system has two channels that permit binaural processing, spatial hearing, frequency selection and suppression of binaural noise.
3) The impression produced by a sound is not only given by the sound level, but also by the psycho-acoustic parameters of sonority and sharpness, which will be described later on. 4) The human hearing system has a high resolution in frequency and time combined with a large dynamic range. Consequently, the ear is able to differentiate simultaneously the small and quick frequency, and time variations of an acoustic signal. Another important aspect that justifies the use of an artificial head for understanding noise annoyance is the directionality of the head-upper body unit and the external ear. The head and the external ear is a directional filter. Diffraction and reflection of the incident sound waves in the ear and the head cause this filtering action as well as resonance in the ear canal. As an example of the complexity of this wave interaction, Figure 1 shows the calculated diffraction pattern produced by a spherical body with a diameter of 0.18m on an incident plane wave at 1kHz and 2kHz respectively. These pictures show that the presence of a head introduces an important complexity of the diffracted and reflected acoustic field which will have a noticeable effect on the perceived noise. This result shows one of the reasons why artificial heads are useful when we want to quantify the noise characteristics as perceived by people.
Figure 1: Example of the calculated diffraction pattern suffered by an incident plane wave (yellow arrow) when it impinges on a rigid spherical body with a diameter of 0.18 m. The unit of the horizontal and vertical axes are meters. Left: 1000 Hz; Right: 2000 Hz. Contour lines: Continuous line, 2dB; dashed line, 1dB; dash dot line, 0dB and dotted line, -1dB.
It is important to point out that the effects of reflection and diffraction of the incident sound waves depend on the direction. The amplifying effect produced by the geometric characteristics of the external ear, the head and the upper-body cannot be generated if the acoustic measurement is carried out with a conventional
microphone or a sound pressure level meter. The additional fact that human hearing is based on the analysis of the information in two channels (ears) enables us to recognise time structures in noise, detect the direction of incidence and apply frequency selectivity and binaural noise suppression. These capabilities would not be possible if the human hearing system worked like a conventional singlechannel system. Taking into account the above considerations, in this work we have considered the following acoustic parameters to assess the effect produced by low noise asphalts on the acoustic comfort perceived by pedestrians and vehicle passengers: Equivalent continuous sound level: Leq This parameter is defined as
1 Leq (T ) = 10 log T
p 2 (t ) p0
dt
(1)
We observe that the definition of Leq (dB(A)) indicates that this parameter is a time average of the acoustic energy at the measurement point. Thus, one of the main limitations of this parameter is the fact that it is quite insensitive to transients and short events that can dictate the urban noise annoyance. Loudness It is defined as the sound pressure level of a pure tone of 1 kHz that gives the listener the same sensation of sound level as the sound studied. Its unit is the phon. The calculation of the sonority takes into account the distribution of the critical bands in the human ear. Therefore, the masking effects and the tonal components of the noise are considered in the calculation of this parameter. Sonority not only depends on the level of sound pressure but also on the spectral composition of the noise analysed. This parameter is one of the most important in quantifying the subjective perception of the noise. Sharpness Sounds with a high spectral content at high frequency are established as sharp. Its unit is the acum. Depending on the spectral structure, sounds with the same sonority may present values of very different sharpness. In general, the sounds with greater sharpness are judged as more unpleasant and annoying that those with a small value for this parameter. Articulation index It is defined as the percentage of words that will be heard perfectly during a conversation in the sonorous ambience studied. It is wished this value to be high in any acoustic environment. Its unit is %. The parameters of Loudness, Sharpness and Articulation Index are part of the group of the psycho-acoustic parameters accepted by the international community. The information provided by these parameters allows us to assess the aspects of the quality of the analysed noise that cannot be quantified by measuring the
instantaneous or averaged sound pressure like, for example, the parameter Leq. Thus, the combination of the information provided by the previous parameters allows the quantification of physical aspects directly related to the noise reduction (Leq) and the subjective effects associated with the noise perception (Loudness, Sharpness and Articulation Index). 4.2. Results of exterior vehicle noise with sound level meter According to what has been defined in the section 3 above, twenty measurements of 10 minutes each were made in two streets of Barcelona (Calle Balmes and Paseo Bonanova) before and after the application of the low-noise surface. In order to have comparable data, the measurements were carried out at the same time of the day and on equivalent week days. The results of Leq in dB(A) for these measurements are presented in Table I. Balmes Street Leq = 73.2 dB(A) Leq = 69.9 dB(A) 3.3 dB(A) Paseo Bonanova Leq = 72.7 dB(A) Leq = 69.6 dB(A) 3.1 dB(A)
Old asphalt New Low-Noise asphalt Noise reduction
Table I Results of the measurements with the sound level meter
4.3 Results of exterior vehicle noise with artificial head The principal advantage offered by the measurements carried out with the acoustic head is that they can be post-processed. The main limitation associated with the measurement made with a sound level meter is that it only allows the average sound level to be recorded during a given time period. Thus, if the averaging period is not long enough, then specific isolated acoustic events can have an important effect on the estimated average value. As the objective is to quantify the effect produced by the application of a low-noise asphalt and to compare the values of the measurements before and after the application of the low-noise rolling layer, time history sections with the same type and number of vehicles were selected in order to synthesize time histories with a duration of 60 seconds containing the same number and type of noise contributions from passing vehicles. This normalisation of the measurement was carried out in order to have time histories that could be compared. This normalisation allows us explore comparatively the psycho-acoustic aspects that cannot be analysed with the measurements made with the sound level meter. Table II presents the global values of Leq and Loudness calculated from the synthesized time histories. As an example, Figure 3 shows the spectrum of the exterior noise (environmental noise) in Paseo Bonanova obtained before and after the application of the low-noise asphalt.
Figure 2. Preparation of the set-up for the measurements with the artificial head (Paseo Bonanova - Barcelona)
Balmes street Exterior noise with AH Leq (dB(A)) Existent asphalt 76,1 Low-noise asphalt 72,3 Reduction= 3,8dBA
Loudness(aver.)[sone] 40,45 33,25 7,2soneGF
P. Bonanova Exterior noise with AH Leq (dB(A)) Existent asphalt 77,4 Low-noise asphalt 71,4 Reduction= 6dBA
Loudness(aver.)[sone] 36,1 27,8 8,3soneGF
Table II. Global results of Leq and Loudness of the normalised measurement of exterior noise with the binaural acoustic head (AH). We observe that the effect of the porous asphalt on the noise in Paseo Bonanova is mainly a quite uniform reduction of the overall level of the frequency band above 500 Hz
77,4 dB(A) Old road surface
71,4 dB(A) Low-noise surface
Figure 3. The spectrum of the exterior vehicle noise (environmental noise) in Paseo Bonanova (Barcelona). The plots show the difference in noise level before and after the implementation of the low noise road surface.
4.4. Results of Interior vehicle Noise with artificial Head The measurement of the interior noise of the reference vehicle (Ford Focus Wagon 2.0i) was carried out under controlled driving conditions (3rd gear, 50 km/h.) using the artificial head (see Figure 4). In this driving condition, the engine noise inside the vehicle was relatively low. In this case the measured data was processed in a way that the presented results correspond to time histories in which the vehicle was completely stabilised and the recordings were free from any exterior noise source. The results of the psycho-acoustical parameters of Sharpness, Loudness and Articulation Index are presented because they are relevant parameters in relation with the sound quality inside the vehicle. Figure 5 shows the change in the noise spectrum of the interior noise of the car when it was driven along Paseo Bonanova before and after the resurfacing of the road. Table III shows the values of de Leq, Loudness, Sharpness and Articulation Index associated with the interior noise of the reference vehicle for the two streets studied before and after the implementation of the porous asphalt. This result proves that porous asphalt has a very important impact on the level and quality of the noise inside the vehicle. The attenuation of the high frequency components reduces the value of the loudness and the sharpness of the interior noise, making it more comfortable. This also improves the value of the Articulation Index which is closely related to comfort perception.
Figure 4. Position of the binaural acoustic head in the reference vehicle for the measurement of interior noise (passenger position).
64,9 dB(A) Old road surface
61,9 dB(A) Low noise surface
Figure 5. Interior noise spectrum of the reference car driven (3rd gear, 50 km/h) on Paseo Bonanova in Barcelona.
Balmes street Interior noise with AH Leq (dB(A)) Loudness(aver.)(sone) Existent asphalt 64,1 15,9 Low-noise asphalt 14,7 63,3 Reduction= 0,8dBA 1,2soneGF P. Bonanova Interior noise with AH Leq (dB(A)) Loudness(aver.)(sone) Existent asphalt 64,9 16,3 Low-noise asphalt 61,9 13,5 Reduction= 3dBA 2,8soneGF
Sharpness(aver.)(acum) A.I.(aver.)(%) 0,813 90,2 0,809 91,3 0,004acum 1,10%
Sharpness(aver.)(acum) A.I.(aver.)(%) 0,89 90,1 0,717 93,2 0,173acum 3,10%
Table III. Result of the measurements of interior noise in the reference vehicle (Ford Focus Wagon 2.0i) with a binaural acoustic head
4.5 absorption coefficient of road surfaces The equipment used to measure the absorption coefficient of the road surfaces is an impedance tube based on the two-microphone technique and adapted by Applus+ IDIADA to characterise acoustically the rolling surface. The twomicrophone method uses the measurement of the acoustic pressure at two points on the duct to distinguish the incident and the reflected component of the sound field produced by a sample of material. This allows the measurement of the absorption coefficient on the surface located at the end of the duct. Figure 6 depicts the results of the measurement of the absorption coefficient carried out with the acoustic impedance tube in Paseo Bonanova before and after the implementation of the porous surface. We observe that the new porous asphalt exhibits a dramatic change in the absorption coefficient which explains the big influence that this type of road surface has on both the interior and the exterior vehicle noise.
Acoustic absorption coefficient - P. Bonanova

0,90
0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 f(Hz) 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Figure 6. The measured absorption coefficient of the road surface in Paseo Bonanova before (blue line) and after (red line) the implementation of a low-noise road surface. The data has been obtained using the impedance tube shown in section 2.
5. TUNING OF ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF ROAD SURFACES The main characteristics determining noisiness of road surfaces are geometrical features, acoustical and mechanical properties of the pavement. Previous research has shown that two independent tyre noise generation processes can be identified; one in the low frequency range below 1kHz which is roughness induced; the other in the high frequency range is identified as air-pumping. It has been shown that the noise level increases with increasing texture depth. However, at a
certain point this increase ceases due to the tyre being unable to form a seal down to the base of the aggregate, hence reducing air-pumping. In addition to the reduced levels of noise being produced by road surfaces with optimised textures some surfaces, notably porous asphalts actually attenuate noise levels by an absorptive mechanism. In order to achieve the greatest possible noise reduction, the sound absorption of the road must be optimal which means that the sound absorption of the road must be as high as possible in the frequency range which is most significant for road noise. 5.1 Influence of construction parameters on the acoustic absorption of road surfaces The absorption coefficient of road surfaces can be expressed as a function of physical parameters that interact to define the capability of the material to dissipate acoustic energy [1] [2]. These parameters are the porosity, , the air flow resistivity, Rs , the tortuosity, K , and the thickness of the road layers, d . In general, the absorption coefficient of a porous material can be expressed as
Z o co Z + o co
=1
(2)
where Z is the surface impedance and o co is the specific impedance of air ( o is the air density and co is the speed of sound). The value of Z can be calculated by
Z = W coth( jkd )
(3)
where k is the wave-number of the medium, d is the thickness and j = 1 . The value of k and W in equation (3) can be expressed respectively as
k=
2f co
K 1 j
1 fu f 1 1 1 1 j f f
(4)
W=
o co
1 jf u f 1 1 1 1 1 jf / f
(5)
In equations (4) and (5), is the ratio of the specific heats of air and the terms f u and f represent the characteristic frequencies associated to viscous and thermal effects. These are given by
fu =
1 Rs 2 o K
1 Rs 2 o N pr
(6)
f =
(7)
where N pr is the Prandtl number of air. The model described above allows the prediction of the acoustic absorption of a road surface from the knowledge of the porosity, the resistivity, the tortuosity and the thickness of the layer. Woodside et al [3] have investigated the relationship between these parameters and the size and shape of the type of aggregates used to build road surfaces. If these relationships are used to express the acoustic parameters , Rs and K as a function of the aggregate size [4], s , and shape (flake versus cubic geometry), equations (2) to (7) can be used to explore the combination of aggregate size and shape that will exhibit a higher absorption coefficient at a desired frequency. Figure 7 shows the calculated effect that the aggregate size and geometry can have on the absorption coefficient at 1 kHz and 2 kHz respectively. To help the interpretation of the curves, the two surfaces depict the same information but from different view points.
0.5 Absorption coefficient 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 0.5 0.01 Shape factor 0 0.005 Aggregate size (m)
2 kHz 1 kHz
0.025 0.02 0.015
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
2 kHz
Absorption coefficient
1 kHz
0 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 Aggregate size (m) 0.005 1 Shape factor 0.5
Figure 7: The calculated absorption coefficient of a porous road surface with a thickness of 0.04m. The two surfaces in each figure represent the absorption coefficient for 1 kHz and 2 kHz respectively. The two figures depict the same surfaces but from different view points. Shape factor: Flake = 0; Cubic = 1.
The result shown in Figure 7 suggests that for a given frequency it is possible to select the geometric characteristics of the aggregate (size and shape) so that a maximum absorption coefficient can be achieved. This suggests that tuning the absorption characteristics of road surfaces can be a feasible strategy to reduce traffic noise depending on the speed and the characteristics of the traffic flow. Figure 8 shows the contour plots of the two surfaces depicted in Figure 7. From the result shown in this figure it is clear that for certain combinations of aggregate size and shape factor the absorption coefficient of the road surface can reach very high values.
Absorption coefficient for f = 1 kHz 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 Shape factor 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 Aggregate Size (m) 0.018 0.02 0.022 0.1 0.2 0.3
Absorption coefficient for f = 2000 Hz 1 0.9 0.45 0.8 0.7 Shape factor 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 Aggregate size (m) 0.018 0.02 0.022 0.2 0.3 0.4
Figure 8: The contour plots corresponding to the surfaces depicted in figure 7
6. CONCLUSIONS In this paper the authors have presented an advanced way of assessing the effect of porous asphalts on the exterior and the interior vehicle noise. This approach is based not only on the measurement of the time average sound pressure level but also on binaural measurements with an artificial head and an impedance tube that allows the in situ non-destructive assessment of the absorption coefficient presented by a road surface. This integral assessment methodology provides all the information needed to quantify the impact of low-noise road surfaces on the acoustic comfort of pedestrians and vehicle passengers. Futhermore, the information obtained from the combined use of these measurement tools allows a more precise definition of the type of acoustic characteristics expected from a road surface to maximise the acoustic comfort. This investigation of the effect of porous asphalts on the acoustic comfort can also be used in combination with a mathematical model of the acoustic absorption of road surfaces. The availability of a model to predict the acoustic absorption allows the definition of the geometric characteristics of the road surface components to achieve the desired absorption coefficient in the frequency band of interest. REFERENCES (1) Meier, A. , A poro-elastic road surface for traffic noise reduction, Internoise 85, 1985, pp.287 290. (2) Hamet, J.F., Berengier, M., Acoustical characteristics of porous pavements: A new phenomenological model, Internoise 93, 1993, pp 641 646.
(3) Woodside, A. R., Hetherington, J.O. and Anderson, G.A., The optimisation of porous asphalt road surfaces to maximise sound absorption, Internoise 99, 1999. (4) British Standards Institution BS 812 Section 105.1:1989 Testing Aggregates Methods for determination of particle shape. British Standards Institution, London
CHAPTER III
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE VIBRATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE VIBRATION

1. INTRODUCTION Vibration refers to a mechanical oscillation in relation to a reference position. Not only is a phenomenon of nuisance, it can also cause machines or structures to break. 2. VIBRATION WAVES A mechanical wave can be defined as a phenomenon in which a physical magnitude (pressure, stress, deformation, energy, etc.) propagates in a medium, without transporting matter. There are basically two types of vibration waves: longitudinal waves and transversal waves. 2.1. Longitudinal waves Longitudinal waves are those in which the particles are displaced in the same direction as the wave. They are the only ones that occur in gases. They also occur in solids but from an acoustic point of view they are not interesting since they do not produce sound radiation (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Longitudinal wave.
2.2. Transversal waves Transversal waves are those in which the particles move perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. These waves do not occur in fluids since they cannot transmit tangential forces. In solids they permit the transmission of movement to the surrounding fluid (air) and therefore constitute a source of noise (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Transverse wave.
3. TYPES OF VIBRATIONS Vibrational movement can be repeated in regular intervals, as in the case of a pendulum or the vibrations in coming from the engine of a vehicle (periodic vibration). Alternatively they can exhibit a complete lack of periodicity as in the case of the vibrations produced in the vehicle by irregularities of the road surface (random vibration). Figure 3-(a) shows a periodic vibration signal and Figure 3-(b) shows random vibration signal. An important parameter to define when talking about periodic vibrations is the period. It is defined as a period of a periodic vibration (T) the duration of the interval in which the signal is repeated. Its inverse is known as frequency (f) and is the number of times per second that the vibration is repeated. The period is measured in seconds and frequency in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Hence
f =
1 T
(1)
Sometimes frequency is expressed in radians per second (). Thus
= 2f
(2)
The simplest periodic vibration is the harmonic vibration in which the position of the vibrating point describes a cosine curve (or sine curve) (Figure 4-(a)) and is expressed as
Level
(a)
Time (t)
Level
(b)
Time (t) Figure 3. a) Periodic vibration. b) Random vibration.
x(t ) = X 0 cos(2f (t t 0 ))
Where
(3)
x(t) is the position of the vibrating point, X0 is the amplitude or maximum displacement in relation to the position of equilibrium, f is the frequency of movement, t is time, t0 is the phase angle, which depends on the position of the point at the initial instant.
Defining 0=2ft0, we can write
x(t ) = X 0 cos(2ft 0 )
(4)
Considering (2) we can write
x(t ) = X 0 cos(t 0 )
(5)
A useful way of describing a harmonic vibration is through a vector or a complex turning number (complex representation) whose real part (projection on X-axis) is the true position of the vibrating point (Figure 4-(b)). Therefore the vibrating point will be the real part of
x = X 0e jt
(6)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Harmonic vibration a) Time representation b) Representation through turning vector.
4.- FOURIERS THEOREM All vibration measurements can be analysed from the point of view of how the signal evolves in time or how the signal decomposes in a given frequency range. In the time domain, the most frequently used parameter to characterise a vibration is its rms (root mean square) value. This value gives an average of the energy of the signal and is defined as
x rms =
1 T 2 x (t )dt T 0
(7)
Where, in this case, T is the interval of integration.
If we want to find out the distribution of vibration in a given interval of frequencies, we will need to use the Fouriers Theorem which establishes that any periodic vibration can be broken down into a sum of harmonic vibrations.
x(t ) = X i cos(it i )
i =1
(8)
where
x(t) is the position of the vibrating point, Xi is the amplitude or maximum displacement in relation to the equilibrium position of the n-th component, is the frequency of the vibration in radians per second, t is time, i is the phase angle which depends on the position of the point at the initial instant
This result will allow any periodic vibration to be treated as the sum of harmonic vibrations (sine or cosine) and the theory of harmonic vibrations presented below will allow any periodic vibration to be studied. 5. CONCEPT OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM The number of degrees of freedom of a structure or vibrating system is the number of parameters we must know in order to fully define its position when it vibrates. The system in Figure 5-(a) has one degree of freedom given that it is enough to know the position of a single point, x, in order to define its position. The system in Figure 5-(b) has two degrees of freedom and therefore it is necessary to know the position of two points, x1 and x2, to fully determine its position. Finally the system in Figure 5-(c) has infinite degrees of freedom therefore it is necessary to know the position of all points to fully determine its position. The vibrating systems found in practice, show, on many occasions, infinite degrees of freedom. However, from an engineering point of view, they are made discreet to simplify the calculation. This process involves the assumption of a finite number of degrees of freedom, which are chosen with the objective of describing the possible movements of a structure in the functional range of a system.
(a)
(b)
x1 x2
(c)
Figure 5. Vibrating systems: a) Single degree of freedom, b) 2 degrees of freedom, c) infinite degrees of freedom.
6. ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS A simple vibrating system can be modelled as a mass which can only move in one direction and is joined to a single fixed point through a spring and a damper (Figure 6-(a)). This type of idealisation is very useful in engineering since it can be applied to elements such as silent-blocks, suspension systems, tyres, etc. The fundamental limitation of this model is that it does not take into account other possible movements that the structure can make when vibrating. The fundamental elements of single degree of freedom systems are the spring and the damper. By spring we mean a mechanical device that when deformed reacts producing a force proportional to the deformation in the opposite direction. The relationship between the force and the deformation is called stiffness (k). By damper we understand a mechanical device that when deformed reacts producing a force proportional to the velocity with which it is deformed and in the opposite direction to the said velocity. The relationship between force and velocity is called damping (c). All vibrating systems can vibrate in a free or natural way, without external forces applied, or in a forced way, under the effects of external forces.
6.1. Undamped free system An undamped free system is shown in Figure 6-(a). It is made up of a mass joined to a fixed point via a spring. If the mass moves, thereby deforming the spring, and then is released, the system will vibrate according to a harmonic movement defined by the equation (Figure 6-(b))
x(t ) = X 0 cos( 0 t 0 )
(9)
(a)
1 0.5
x(t) x(t)
0 -0.5 -1 0
(b)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Time (t)
Figure 6. Single Degree of freedom system without damping. a) Diagram of system. b) Time evolution of movement.
where
x(t) is the position of the vibrating point, X0 is the amplitude or maximum displacement in relation to the position of equilibrium, 0 is the frequency in radians per second, t is time, 0 is a phase angle that depends on the position of the point in the initial instant.
The frequency with which the mass moves is called resonance or natural frequency and is given by the formula
Where
k m k is the stiffness constant of the spring,
0 =
(10)
m is the vibrating mass. 6.1.1. Example: natural frequency in an anechoic chamber A floating anechoic chamber is mounted on 162 springs whose constant stiffness is k = 4.36 x 105 N/m, and its mass is about 146 tonnes. Applying formula (10) and (2) the resonance frequency in Hertz will be
f =
1 2
k 1 = m 2
162 4.36 10 5 = 3.5 Hz 146000
(11)
Figure 7. Floating anechoic chamber.
A similar, but rather different case to that of the anechoic chamber is that of a vehicle on its suspension system (Figure 8). Here, as will be shown later, the presence of dampers will stop the vehicle from oscillating uncontrollably. 6.2. Damped free system This is the system shown in Figure 9-(a). It is made up of a mass joined to a fixed point through a spring and a damper. If the mass moves, deforming the spring and the damper, and after that the system is released, the system will vibrate according to a movement defined by the equation (Figure 9-(b))
Figure 8. Detail of a vehicles rear suspension system.
x(t ) = X 0 e 0 cos(t 0 )
where
(12)
x is the position of the vibrating point, X0 is the amplitude or maximum displacement in relation to the position of equilibrium, is the reduced damping of the system defined later, 0 is the frequency of vibration for a system with equal mass m and stiffness k, but without damping, in radians per second. is the frequency in radians per second, t is time, 0 is a phase angle that depends on the position of the vibrating point at the initial instant.
Reduced damping is given by
=
where
c 2 km
(13)
c is the damping constant, k is the spring stiffness constant, m is the vibrating mass.
The frequency is given by the formula

= 1 2
where
k m
(14)
k is the stiffness constant of the spring, m is the vibrating mass, is the reduced damping of the system defined earlier in (13).
k m c (a)
0.5
x(t)
(b)
-0.5
-1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Time (t)
Figure 9. Damped single degree of freedom system. a) Diagram of the system. b) Time evolution of movement for different damping values.
The time history of a free damped system for different damping values is shown in Figure 9b. This system has the following differences compared to the system mentioned above:
The movement progressively dies out and it does this more quickly when the damping is greater The natural frequency of an undamped system is given by
0 =
Whereas that of a damped system is
k m
(15)
= 1 2
k m
(16)
Therefore, damping lowers the natural frequency.

We can see that systems found in practice have an internal damping that, from the point of view of vibration control, is highly desirable. 6.3. Forced system The structures used vibrate because they are forced to do so by some type of excitation (engine forces, forces transmitted to the vehicle by its suspension system, etc.) The study of forced systems is, therefore, very important for understanding the behaviour of a mechanical system when it is excited by a force at a given frequency. The system in Figure 9-(a) is submitted to a harmonic excitation of the following type
f (t ) = F0 cos(t )
where f(t) is the force at each instant, F0 is the amplitude or maximum force, is the frequency of the force in radians per second, t is time.
(17)
It will have a displacement whose value will be (Figure 10-(b))
x(t ) = X 0 cos(t 0 )
where
(18)
X0 =
F0 k 1 0
2
+ 4 2 0
(19)
2 0 tg 0 = 2 1 0
(20)
k m c F0 cos(t) (a)
Relacin entre desplazamiento y fuerza (m/N) (m/N)
Displacement-force relationship
0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0 0 1 2 Frecuencia reducida Reduced frequency 3 4
(b)
0,1
0,25
0,5
0,7
Figure 10. Forced system. a) Diagram of system. b) Displacement-force relationship against frequency.
where
X0 is the maximum displacement (amplitude of displacement). F0 is the maximum force (amplitude of force). k is the stiffness constant of the spring. is the frequency of the excitation force. 0 is the natural frequency defined below. is the reduced damping defined below.
The natural frequency mentioned above is exactly the frequency at which the system vibrates freely, and is defined in the expression (10)
0 =
k m
(21)
where:
k is the stiffness constant of the spring m is the mass of the system
The reduced damping is defined in the expression (13)
=
where c
c 2 km
(22)
is the damping, k is the stiffness of the spring, m is the system mass.
The graph of equation (19) is shown in Figure 10-(b) for different values of the damping coefficient . Equation (19) and equation (20) show two very important concepts. The first is that an increase of damping, , produces a reduction of the displacement X for a given force. The second is that when the excitation frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the system 0, the denominator of equation (19) is very small and its value depends on the damping, which means that the displacement X will be great. Therefore from the point of view of vibration control it is important that the natural and excitation frequencies do not coincide. 6.3.1.- Example. Calculation of the vibration of a single-cylinder engine This section studies the case of a single-cylinder engine (Figure 11) as an example of a forced system. The engine mass is M and its reciprocating mass (piston + gudgeon pin + connecting rod) is m. If the engine rotates at a speed of radians/second, the engine will be excited by a force of inertia equal to
r m 2 r F = mr 2 cos(t ) + cos(2t ) = mr 2 cos(t ) cos(2t ) l l
(23)
where
m is the reciprocating mass (piston + gudgeon pin + connecting rod) is the rotating speed or frequency in radians per second r is the eccentricity of the crankshaft, l is the length of the connecting rod.
There is a periodic excitation that is the sum of the two harmonic excitations. One, known as primary excitation m 2 cos(t ) , has a frequency equal to the rotation
m 2 r cos(2t ) , has a l frequency which is twice that of the rotating frequency of the engine.
frequency of the engine, and the secondary excitation
Figure 11. Single-cylinder engine.
The displacement in the engine will be:
X =
m 2 cos(t ) k 1 0
2
+ 4 2 0
2
+
2
r m 2 cos(2t ) l k 1 0
2
+ 4 2 0
=
2
(24)
m k 1 0
2
+ 4 2 0
r cos(t ) + l cos(2t )
Where
m is the reciprocating mass (piston + gudgeon pin + connecting rod), is the rotating speed or frequency in radians per second, r is the eccentricity of the crankshaft, l is the length of the connecting rod. 0 is the natural frequency of the system whose value is
0 =
Where
k m
(25)
m is the reciprocating mass (piston + gudgeon pin + connecting rod), k is the stiffness of the engine springs
7. CONCEPT OF RESONANCE IN A VIBRATING SYSTEM From equation (19) shown in the graph of Figure 10-(b) we can observe: a) When the excitation frequency of the system coincides with the natural frequency (/0=1) the displacement is maximum. b) The value of this maximum displacement will increase when the damping decreases. If the damping is zero this displacement becomes infinite. In reality, although it will be small, there will always be some damping. When the excitation frequency coincides with the natural frequency, it is said that the system is in resonance. For this reason the 0 frequency is also called resonance frequency. Resonance, which is a structural weakness with respect to excitation, is responsible for many noise and vibration problems as well as fatigueinduced failure. Systems try to be designed in a way that the natural frequencies are moved away from the excitation frequencies. When this is not possible (for example, because the excitation frequency is variable, as is the case with vehicles) damping must be used. This is what is being done when viscous or damping materials are stuck to bodies (deadening materials). 8.- Several degrees of freedom systems The systems seen above, as established in part 5, are single degree of freedom systems. From now, we will look at systems with several degrees of freedom. These systems can have a finite number (2, 3, , 20, , 200, , 2000, etc.) or an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom (however large they are) are called discrete systems, whereas systems with infinite degrees of freedom are called continuos systems. As can be seen in the chapter on modal analysis, continuous systems normally approximate through discrete systems. 8.1. Principal modes It has been observed that when a single degree of freedom system vibrates it does so following a cosine or sinusoidal relationship (harmonic vibration). This means that all single degree of freedom systems can only vibrate freely in one way and with a determined frequency. A system with two degrees of freedom, when vibrating freely, can do so in two different ways. These natural vibrating modes are called mode shapes. Furthermore, when the system vibrates in each of these mode shapes it will do so
with a given frequency, which is different for each mode shape, and called the natural frequency corresponding to this mode shape. The set composed by a mode shape and its corresponding natural frequency is called eigenmode A system has as many eigenmodes or ways of freely vibrating as it has degrees of freedom. The system in Figure 12 is a system with two degrees of freedom, since two coordinates are needed to fully define its position.
Figure 12. System with two degrees of freedom.
This system has, therefore, two eigenmodes, each of which has its own natural frequency and mode shape Mode 1: Mode 2: X11 = 1 X21 = 1
k m 3k X22=-1 2 = m
X12=1 1 =
(26) (27)
This shows that in eigenmode 1 when the left-side mass displaces 1 cm to the right so does the right-side mass, that is to say that both masses move in phase simultaneously and the middle spring does not work. In eigenmode 2 when the left-side mass displaces 1 cm to the right, the right-side mass displaces 1 cm to the left, that is both masses move in antiphase. In general mode shapes are more complicated, but they always exist and each one has its own frequency. The knowledge of modes and their structure is the object of the modal analysis technique.
8.2. Example. Bidimensional model of a vehicle suspension Another example of a two degree of freedom system is the bidimensional model of vehicle suspension shown in Figure 13. This model allows us to calculate the pitch and bounce frequencies given by the following expressions:
1 =
+
2
( )2 + 2
4 r2
(28)
2 =
+
2
( )2 + 2
4 r2
(29)
Figure 13. Bidimensional model of vehicle suspension.
Being
= = =
k f + kr M kK r c k f b
(30) (31) (32) (33)
M 2 k f b + kr c 2 Iy r= Iy M
Wherekf is the stiffness of the front suspension, kr is the stiffness of the rear suspension, M is the vehicle mass, b is the horizontal distance between the front axle and the centre of gravity, c is the horizontal distance between the rear axle and the centre of gravity, Iy is the pitch inertia moment.
9. WAYS OF DESCRIBING A VIBRATION: DISPLACEMENT, SPEED AND ACCELERATION The vibration of a point can be described by means of three parameters: acceleration, speed and displacement. The most frequently used parameter is acceleration, since the vibration transducers most commonly used are accelerometers. However, it is possible to obtain the speed or displacement, both in the time and the frequency domain from acceleration. In the time domain speed is obtained by the integration of the acceleration:
v = adt
and the displacement by the integration of the speed
(34)
x = vdt
In the frequency domain speed is calculated by the expression
v = a j
(35)
(36)
and displacement by the expression
x = v j = a 2
where
(37)
j = 1 , is the frequency in radians per second.
From these expressions it is important to point out:
The speed amplitude is times the displacement amplitude. The acceleration amplitude is 2 times displacement amplitude. The speed is 90 out of phase in relation to the displacement. The acceleration is in antiphase in relation to the displacement.
As a consequence of the above it can be deduced that the high frequency vibration displacements are very small.
10. THE ISOLATION OF VIBRATIONS A vibrating system with one degree of freedom excited by a sine force is expressed by:
f (t ) = F0 cos(t 0 )
(38)
The relationship between the force applied to the mass and the force that the system transmits through the spring and the damper is called the transmission factor of a vibrating system. The transmission factor is given by the expression
F =
where
FT = F0
1 + 4 2 2
(1 )
2 2
+ 4
2
(39)
2
FT is the amplitude of the transmitted force, F0 is the amplitude of the excitation force. is the reduced damping as defined in the expression (13), is the relationship between the excitation frequency and the undamped natural frequency
=
where
(40)
is the excitation frequency, 0 is the undamped natural frequency as defined in expression (10).
The relationship between the force transmitted and its deformation is called the dynamic stiffness of an isolating element (mounting).
kD = FT X
(41)
This dynamic stiffness should not be mistaken with the static stiffness we have studied up till now. The relationship between both parameters is given by the expression
kD = k 2 + 2c2
(42)
This concept enables us to measure the force transmitted through a mounting. Dynamic stiffness is a value supplied by the manufacturer and deformation can be calculated in the following way:
The accelerations on both sides of the mounting are measured.
Both signals are integrated twice in order to obtain the displacement as explained in the previous point. Both signals are subtracted to obtain the deformation of the mounting.
11. THE ACOUSTIC RADIATION OF VIBRATING SURFACES 11.1. Monopole sources The simplest source for generating acoustic waves is the monopole source. A monopole source is a small sphere (its dimensions are small compared to the wavelength) whose radius varies sinusoidally in time. This sphere produces sinusoidal, spherical waves which travel through the medium which is infinite and homogenous (Figure 14). The acoustic pressure of such waves will be
p(r,t)
Figure 14. Monopole source.
p (r, t ) =
A j (t kr ) e r
(43)
Where
r is the distance from the point to the centre of the sphere, T is time, A is a constant, is the frequency k is the number of waves given by
k=
(44)
11.2. Complex acoustic source A complex acoustic source can break down into monopole sources and it is possible to calculate the pressure at any point (Figure 15) by
pT = p i =
i =1 i =1 n n
Ai j (t kri ) e ri
(45)
ri
Figure 15. A source broken down into monopole sources.
12. VIBRATION CONTROL STRATEGIES Obviously, all vehicle structures are subjected to vibration. These vibrations are transmitted to the air, producing noise and discomfort for the passengers and can cause failure. These vibrations are generated by many different excitation sources, such as the engine, the transmission (gearbox and final drive gearing), the vehicle contact with the road, and even the surrounding air (aerodynamic vibrations). Each of these sources has its characteristic frequencies.
The structure, i.e., the vehicle and its components, has frequencies called natural frequencies that, even under small excitations, show high levels of vibration. Therefore, a control strategy is to decouple the excitation frequencies from the natural frequencies. When this is not possible other strategies can be used such as structural internal damping. As a summary, the presence of vibration in a vehicle may be due to a high level of excitation or to the presence of resonances. When the cause of vibration is a high level of excitation, the excitation should be reduced, or, if this is not possible, the transmission path should be interrupted. For example, if it is found that the vehicle vibration is due to excessive engine vibration, the engine balance should be improved, and if this is not possible (for technical or feasibility reasons), the silentblocks should be improved. When the cause of the vibration is structural resonance, first we should try to isolate it as much as possible from any excitation frequencies or, if this is not possible or is insufficient, we should try to increase the structural damping.

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Organised by IDIADA Automotive Technology SA, Spain

India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 1

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ACOUSTICS

India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 3

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ACOUSTICS

India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 4

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

India Habitat Centre, New Delhi 5

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Vestibular canal Cochlear canal Eardrum canal

Vestibular canal Cochlear canal Basilar membrane Hair cells

Forced vibration at the eardrum Cochlear section

Nervous fibres Eardrum canal

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Temporal bone Hammer

Amplifying lever system in the eardrum cavity

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

p2 p = 20 log 2 p ref p ref

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Acoustic Power (Intensity vector)

Unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

2 p2 2 SPL2 = 10 log 22 p 2 = p ref 10 10 p ref

And the total sound pressure level will be

dB1 dB2 = 10 log10 10 + 10 10

This result could be extended to n sources, i.e.

dB2 dB1 p2 = 10 log10 10 10 10 2 p ref

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

-60 10 100 1000 Hz 10000 100000

Figure 6. Weighing frequency scales A, B, C and D.

Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Incident sound Ei Transmitted sound Et

Absorbed sound by calorific dissipation

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

T DnT = D + 10 log 0.5

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Figure 10. Variability of transmissibility R with M and f (equation 15).

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness

Mode (m,n) = (1,1)

Figure 11. Modal shape of a simply supported panel for (m,n)=(1,1).

= acoustic wavelength, B = bending wavelength of panel.

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Fundamentals of Noise, Vibration and Harshness