393

Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design

Thermoplastic Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

7.1

The term thin-walled or thin-shelled pressure vessel describes a hollow cylinder in which the circumferential stress (frequently called hoop stress) in the wall is assumed to be constant throughout the thickness of the wall when the cylinder is subjected to an internal or external uid pressure. Thermoplastic materials have been used for the fabrication of many pressure vessel devices, such as toilet ush valves, spray paint containers, butane lighters, irrigation sprayers and valves, brake master cylinders, radiator end cores, garden hoses, tubing, end connections, pumps, and so forth. Figures 7-1 and 7-2 illustrate some of these pressure vessel applications.

Water spray gun

Figure 7-1 Thermoplastics pressure vessel applications (Courtesy: Du Pont)

Figure 7-2 Thermoplastic pressure vessel applications

394
7.2
2r x P r P t da

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design

Thin-Walled Cylinder Basic Principles

da

The circumferential stress (a) in a thin-walled cylinder subjected to an internal pressure (P) per unit area is found by applying an equation of equilibrium to the forces acting on the half cylinder shown in Figure 7-3. The length is uniform, wall thickness is (t), and inside radius is (r). P 2 r = 2 da But under the assumed conditions, da = a = t . Therefore, Barlows Equation is: = Pr t (7-1)

Figure 7-3 Thin-walled cylinder mathematical model

r
r

(7-2)

Spherical Closed End Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

P

To calculate the stress of a cylindrical pressure vessel with a spherical base, under uniform internal pressure, using Figure 7-4 as a model, the maximum stress equation should be applied: Max. = Pr 2t (7-3)

Figure 7-4 Spherical closed end thin-walled pressure vessel

Flat Closed End Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel To nd the maximum stress of a cylindrical pressure vessel with a circular at bottom base, under uniform internal pressure and using Figure 7-5 as a model, the following equations should be applied: Center deection: Maximum moment: Maximum stress: 3 P r4 2 = (1 ) 16 E t 3 M Max. = Max. = P r2 8 6 M 0.75 P r 2 = t2 t2 (7-4) (7-5) (7-6)

t P

r P

Figure 7-5 Flat closed end thin-walled pressure vessel

Example 7-1 The shank/riser toilet ush valve shown in Figure 7-6 needs to withstand a 2,000 psi burst pressure and 120 psi continuous internal pressure for 10 years. The burst pressure would be the controlling factor for the design, rather than the continuous pressure. The material selected for this application is acetal homopolymer with a tensile strength of 10,000 psi. Calculate the wall thickness of the shank/riser by using Barlows equation (Equation 7-2). Barlows Equation = Pr t or t = P r 2,000 r = = 0.20 r 10,000

The stress for the shank/riser wall thickness at 120 psi pressure over ten years is calculated by using the isochronous creep stress/time long-term pipe test

7 2 Thin- Walled Cylinder Basic Principles .

data shown in Figure 7-7. For 10 ycars the tensile stress is 1,750 psi. The wall thickness can be calculated as t, = (120 x r) 1 1,750 = 0.068 r. The burst pressure wall thickness t , = 0.20 r is the control bctor for dimensioning, because the wall: thickness for burst pressure requires 0.20 10.068 = 2.94 times the wall thickness calculated to retain the 110 psi internal pressure

over 10 ycars.

The shanklriser outside diameter at the base (left side) is the root diameter of the threads, and its wall thickness is t = 0.20 x 0.453 = 0.0906 in. Because the toy (right side) outside diameter is smaller, its wall thickness t = 0.20 x 0.375 = 0.075 in, without considering the reinforcement caused by the perpendicular wall of the toilet valve housing. These two shanklriser inside diameters form a tapered wall, which not only provides the most efficient design, but aIso helps during the part ejection from the long core of the mold. To improve the molding process efficiency,the long core requires the surface to be hardened to 60 R,, the surface to be coated with a low coefficient of friction mold release and polished in the longitudinal direction (a RMS). The core also requires an independent water cooling system. The shanklriser is to he gated at the flange width (thicker wall sectinn equal to 0.156 i n ) using an insulated runnerless mold with three cavities.

Figure?-6 Acetal homopolymer shank/riser toilet flush valve

Internal pressure at 73" f.

10.000

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Time, [hours)

Figure 7-7 Fsochronous acetal homopolymer pipe burst data (Courtesy:Du Pont)

396
7.3
P x 2r1

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design

Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels

da

da r1 r2

For the pressure vessels with a relatively large wall thickness, the mathematical model shown in Figure 7-8 should be applied. If the variation in the stress from the inner surface to the outer surface is relatively large, the value of the stress found from Barlows Equation 7-2 is not a satisfactory measure of the signicant circumferential stress in thick-walled pressure vessels. Barlows Equation applies only to thin-walled cylinders; this fact will be evident from a consideration of the equilibrium of the forces acting on the thinwalled cylinder shown in Figure 7-8. In addition, a satisfactory solution for the thick-walled cylinder problem requires the determination not only of the circumferential stress at any point in the cylinder, but of both of the principal stresses whose vectors lie in the plane of the paper, namely, the circumferential or tangential stress t and the radial stress r as shown in Figure 7-9.

Figure 7-8 Thick-walled cylinder mathematical model

+d

d
r

7.3.1

Lames Equation for Thick-Walled Cylinders

P2

Lames equation is used to calculate the maximum tangential and radial stresses of thick-walled cylinders subjected to internal and external pressures.
P1

r1 r2

Figure 7-9 represents a relatively long open-ended thick-walled cylinder subjected to internal and external uid pressures P1 and P2, respectively. We will use Figure 7-9 to nd the circumferential stress t and the radial stress r at a point at any distance from the central axis of the. From the conditions of symmetry, it is known that there is no shearing stress on the planes on which t and r act and therefore they are principal stresses. Finding both t and r requires that sections be passed through the body so that the portion of the body isolated by the sections will be acted on by forces that involve the two stresses. Such a portion is obtained by rst passing two concentric sections through the body and thus isolating a thick-walled cylinder; this element with the forces acting on it is shown in Figure 7-10. A diametral plane is then passed through the element, isolating one half the element that may be expressed by the two stresses (one at each side of the half cylinder), as shown in Figure 7-11. By applying one of the equations of equilibrium to the forces in Figure 7-11 we nd that the algebraic sum of the vertical components of the forces is equal to zero and the following equation is obtained: t d = 2 r d 2 d r 2 d d r The term 2 d dr is negligibly small. The tensile stress becomes: (7-7)

Figure 7-9 Radial and tangential stresses caused by in/out pressures

d P2 P1
r

da

( r + d r ) da

Figure 7-10
( ) 2( + d ) r

r + d

t = r (d r /d)

(7-8)

2 d P1 P2 d

If the stresses r and t in Figure 7-11 are assumed to be positive, that is, if both stresses are assumed to be tensile stresses, the previous equation is: t = r + (d r /d) (7-9)

Figure 7-11

A rational assumption concerning the strains in a thick-walled cylinder is that longitudinal strains of the bers are equal. This means that transverse (parallel) sections that are plane before the uid pressures P1 and P2 are applied remain plane and parallel after the pressures are applied. This will be true at least for a

7.3 Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels cylinder with open ends, and it will also be nearly true for a closed cylinder at sections well removed from the ends of the cylinder. The relation between the longitudinal strain l of any longitudinal ber and the stresses acting on the ber in an open ended thick-walled cylinder is: 1 = ( r / E ) ( t / E ) (7-10)

397

and according to the above assumption, l is constant. In addition, Poissons ratio and the modulus of elasticity E are constants of the material, resulting in: t r = Constant = 2 The constant is denoted by 2 for convenience. The previous two equations give two relations between r and t. From these two equations we obtain: 2 = 2 r (d r /d) (7-11)

But the right hand side of this equation, when multiplied by , becomes the derivative, with respect to , of (2 r), and therefore the equation may be written: d( 2 r )/d = 2 The integration of this equation gives: 2 r = 2 + where is a constant of integration. Therefore: r = ( / 2 ) and from the equation t r = Constant = 2 t = ( / 2 ) + (7-15) (7-14) (7-13) (7-12)

The values of the constants and are found by substituting the values r and that were obtained from the physical conditions or assumptions stated. For example, assuming the cylinder to be subjected to both internal and external pressures P1 and P2, respectively, we observe that r = P1 where = r1 and t = P2 where = r2 and from the Equation 7-14, r = ( / 2 ) we obtain: P1 = + ( / r12 ) and P2 = + ( / r22 ) from which and are: = P1 r12 P2 r22 r22 r12
r12 r22 (P1 P2 ) r22 r12

(7-16)

(7-17)

398

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design The substitution of these values of and in Equations 7-14 and 7-15:
t = r = P1 r12 P2 r22 + (r12 r22 / 2 ) (P1 P2 ) r22 r12 P2 r22 P1 r12 + (r12 r22 / 2 ) (P1 P2 ) r22 r12

(7-18) (7-19)

It is evident from Equation 7-18 that the maximum value of t occurs at the inner surface where has its minimum value r1. The maximum value of r will always be the larger of the two pressures P1 and P2.

7.3.2

Maximum Stresses with Internal and External Pressures

By setting = r1 in Equations 7-18 and 7-19, the maximum stresses (at the inner surface) are: Maximum tensile stress (Lames Equation) Maximum radial stress t = P1 (r12 + r22 ) 2 P2 r22 r22 r12 (7-20)

r = P1 if P1 > P2

7.3.3
P2 = 0
= P1

Maximum Stresses for Internal Pressure Only

Max.

The maximum radial stress value r is equal to P1; these maximum stresses are shown in Figure 7-12. If the internal pressure is P1 and the external pressure is zero (P2 = 0), the maximum stress equations are reduced to: t = r = P1 r12 r22 + 1 2 2 2 r2 r1 P1 r12 r22 1 2 2 2 r2 r1 (7-21)

Figure 7-12 Maximum stress, internal pressure, mathematical model

(7-22)

These equations show that the maximum values of t occur at the inner surface, when = r1. The new equation is: Maximum tensile stress t = P1 (r12 + r22 ) r22 r12 (7-23)

Table 7-1 provides more equations for calculating different pressure vessel types of loading.

7.3 Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels

Table 7-1 Cylindrical Pressure Vessel Equations

399

Vessels geometry Thin-walled cylinder

P2
2 1

Type of loading Uniform internal or external pressure

Cylindrical pressure vessel equations P1 R2 2T P1 R2 T R2 ( 2 1 ) E

y T

1 =

2 =

R2 =

P1 R2

Y T P2 = 2 R2 Y R2 1 + 4 E T

P1 = 2 1

R2 R1 R2 + R1

P2

Thin-walled cylinder with spherical bottom base

T

Uniform internal pressure

Maximum stress at middle of spherical base Max. = P1 R1 2T

P1 R1

Thin-walled cylinder with circular at bottom base

T

Uniform internal pressure

Maximum stress at middle of circular at base

4 3 P1 R1 2 = (1 ) 16 E T 3 2 P1 R1 8 2 6 M 0.75 P1 R1 = 2 2 T T

P1 R1

M Max. = Max. =

Thick-walled cylinder
P2 P1
2 1 3

Uniform internal pressure P2 = 0

1 = 0

Max. 2 = P1

2 2 R2 + R1 2 2 R2 R1

Max. 3 = P1

2 R2

2 R2 2 R1

R1 = P1

2 2 R1 R2 + R1 + 2 2 E R2 R1

R2 = P1

2 R2 2 R1 2 E R2 R1 2

R2 P2

R1

Uniform external pressure P1 = 0

1 = 0

Max. 2 = P2

2 2 R2 2 2 R2 R1

Max. 3 =

Max. 2 2

R1 = P2

2 R1 2 R1 2 E R2 R1 2

R2 = P2

2 2 R2 R2 + R1 2 2 E R2 R1

R2 = External radius, R1 = Internal radius, T = Thickness, = Poisson ratio, = Deection, P2 = External pressure, P1 = Internal pressure, E = Flexural modulus, = Stress, Y = Yield stress, M = Moment of force

400
7.4

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design

Designing Cylinders for Cost Reduction

The typical design of spherical closed end pressure vessels uses smooth, thickwalled cylinders where the hoop stress is double the axial stress. The use of thinner walls and circumferential ribs to reinforce the vessel in the hoop direction improves the process efciency, lowers part weight, cycle time, and manufacturing costs. A design comparison is shown in Figures 7-13 and 7-14. Figure 7-13 shows a typical pressure vessel design with 0.250 in wall thickness. The recommended ribbed design is shown in Figures 7-14 and 7-15. The wall thickness was reduced to 0.125 in and ribs were added to provide the same strength of the thick-walled cylinder, in both directions, hoop and axial.
Figure 7-13 Thick wall cylinder (Courtesy: Du Pont)

Fillet radius and draft angles on the ribs reduce stress concentration and simplify part ejection from the mold. The stresses caused by the spherical closed end cylinder wall were checked using standard pressure vessel equations. The stress level was negligible for both designs. The estimated cost savings of the ribbed design is 30%. Because of the reduction in the molding cycle from 85 s for the 0.250 in, thick-walled design to 45 s for the recommended 0.125 in walls and circumferential ribbed design.

7.5
Figure 7-14 Recommended design (Courtesy: Du Pont)
0.250

Thermoplastic Pressure Vessels Design Guidelines

0.062 R. 0.125

Draft angle 0.375

When good design, proper resin selection, mold design, quality injection molding, and testing are employed, thermoplastic pressure vessels will provide satisfactory and safe service performance to the end users. Because thermoplastics have nonlinear stress-strain relationships over a large range of strains, the usual analytical techniques applied to pressure vessels may not be accurate enough to predict failures. The design parameters for a thermoplastic pressure vessel should be very conservative and the injection molding process should be set up to comply with the A-1 Quality Control requirements.

Figure 7-15 Recommended design, ribbed cross section detail

7.5.1

Preliminary Pressure Vessel Design

A cylinder is considered thin-walled when the ratio between the wall thickness to inside radius is 0.50 or less; in this case, Barlows Equation (Eq. 7-2) should be used. Lames Equation (Eq. 7-20) should be used for thick-walled cylinders having a ratio greater than 0.50. Other sound engineering techniques are available to the designer (e.g., nite element analysis, more sophisticated equations, etc.) to determine the wall thicknesses and dimensions of the loadbearing members. When designing a pressure vessel cylinder with a snap-t end cap, the internal pressure will deform the wall of the vessel more than its cap. This reduces snap-t tightness and causes leakage. It is recommended to redesign the exterior snapt cap and add an O ring to eliminate the leakage. Figure 7-16 shows a poor product design, operational problems, and design recommendations. When designing a pressurized cylinder with a bolted end cap and a top-seated O ring, a very high load is required to compress the O ring axially, consequently deformation and creep of the seal anges occur. This effect worsens when the distance between the O ring and the bolts is increased. To compensate for this

7.5 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessels Design Guidelines effect, redesign the end cap and the cylinder wall to move the O ring to seal by compressing radially. Additional benets are gained by reducing creep. Stiffening the ange with ribs or a metal ring under the bolts can help. Figure 7-17 shows a poor design, operational problems, and design recommendations. When designing a pressurized cylinder with self-tapping screw end caps and a top axial seated O ring, the end cap requires snap-t ngers with the O ring moved to seal radially. With the low internal pressure required for this valve application, the use of snap-ts can make the assembly faster and more economical. Figure 7-18 shows a poor design while Figure 7-19 shows the design recommendations. Carefully study the thermoplastic material properties for the cylinder. Specify the sensitive areas of the pressure vessel, such as type, size, number, and location of the gate, sharp corners, weld lines, and ribs. The design pressure of the cylinder should be lower than 150 psi, or 15% of the maximum required bursting pressure. Creep stress of the resin must be used based on best available data.
Self-tap screw Valve cross section view

401

Valve assembly top view Axial "O" ring

Pressure expands wall (leakage)

Pressure & "O" ring eliminates leakage "O" ring

Figure 7-18 Poor valve design, O ring with self-tapping screw end cap (Courtesy: Du Pont)

Internal pressure

Internal pressure

Internal pressure

Poor design

Operational problems

Design recommendations
Valve assembly top view Valve end cap with six lock springs Best seal, radial "O" ring in compression

Figure 7-16 Pressure vessel with snap-t end cap design (Courtesy: Du Pont)

Axial "O" ring

Axial bolts compression forces apart joining walls

Radial "O" ring

Radial "O" ring

Valve base with six lock pockets Poor design Operational problems Design recommendation Valve cross section view

Figure 7-17 Pressure vessel with bolted end cap design

Figure 7-19 Valve with six snap-t end caps, design recommendations

402
7.6

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design

Testing Prototype Thermoplastic Pressure Vessels

Build a cylinder prototype tool and mold several prototype samples. For each pressure vessel to be tested, use the same thermal and moisture environment of the product in its end use operation. All cycling and burst tests will be conducted in this environment. The designer must decide whether a cycling pressure test is needed. If the pressure vessel end use involves frequent pressurization and depressurization, a cycling fatigue test is recommended. The cylinder pressure should be tested starting from atmospheric to design pressure and back to atmospheric 100,000 times or less, if a lower service life is acceptable. If a cycling test was done on the prototype pressure vessel, a burst test must be done with the same specimen used in the cycling test. Otherwise, use any good sample conditioned to resemble the operating environment for the burst test. Burst pressure and the mode of failure should be carefully recorded.

7.6.1

Redesign and Retesting the Pressure Vessels

If needed, modify the pressure vessel design according to the outcome of the previous tests. Conduct a burst test with one of the modied pressure vessels to conrm the improvements made by the redesign modications. Build a production tool and mold commercial quality cylinders. Retest the pressure vessel periodically to conrm if the quality of the injection molding process meets the quality control requirements established for the production pressure vessels.

7.7

Pressure Vessel Regulations

Pressure vessels are regulated by industry codes to establish design safety guidelines for dimensioning and testing vessels of various materials and end use applications. One of the most prominent groups that regulate pressure vessel design is the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes have become an American National Standard (accepted by the American National Standards Institute) and are mandatory by law in several states. Injection molded thermoplastic pressure vessels do not always fall under the jurisdiction of the ASME code because of the small size of the pressure vessels and the type of end use applications. However, the National Sanitation Foundation is very active in regulating the design, testing, and manufacture of injection molded thermoplastic pressure vessels.

7.7 Pressure Vessel Regulations

403

7.7.1

ASME Pressure Vessel Code

This regulation is applicable for materials of flexural modulus as low as 1.0 106 psi. Some thermoplastic materials meet this criterion. Creep of thermoplastic materials is not considered by the code, but must be taken into account in designing thermoplastic pressure vessels. Tensile Strength The materials considered by this code are the materials that have tensile strengths from 12,000 psi to 25,000 psi. Design Pressure Sets the maximum design pressure lower than 150 psi, or 15% of the bursting pressure. Design Temperature Temperature is set at 150 F and the code requires the burst pressure test to be done at this temperature. Operating Pressure Should be less than, or equal to the design pressure. Bursting Pressure Bursting pressure is the hydrostatic pressure at which a prototype pressure vessel bursts. Loadings Several types of pressure loadings are considered; the most important being internal and external pressure. The other types are mechanical impact loads, reactions of supporting lugs, rings, and so forth. Stress Caused by Combined Loads Stresses are analyzed using the membrane stresses produced by bending and shearing loadings. The maximum membrane stress during normal operation of the pressure vessel must not exceed 15% of the maximum membrane stress at the bursting pressure. Proof of Design Adequacy A prototype pressure vessel must be subjected to 100,000 pressure cycles, ranging from atmospheric to the design pressure. After this test, the same pressure vessel should burst at a pressure no less than six times the specied maximum design pressure. The test uid should have a minimum temperature of 150 F. Pressure Relief Devices It is require that all pressure vessels be provided with protection against over pressures.

404

7 Thermoplastic Pressure Vessel Design Three types of pressure relief devices are acceptable: Direct spring loaded safety relief valves Pilot operated valves Rupture disks Set Pressures A single pressure relief device will be set at the design pressure. Set Pressure Tolerances For safety and safety relief valves: 2 psi when the operating pressure is lower than 70 psi 3 psi when the operating pressure is higher than 70 psi Rupture discs 5 psi for all pressures Permissible Over Pressures Single relief devices should withstand 110% of the design pressure. Testing Requirements Apply cyclic pressure and adhere to burst test conditions: Test uids should be water or other liquids Temperature of test uid should be 150 F Cycle pressure from atmospheric to design pressure and back, 100,000 times Following the cyclic test, the pressure vessel should burst. The minimum burst pressures to be six times the design pressure.