A Report ON INDUSTRIAL TRAINING (1st JULY, 2011- 28th JULY, 2011) AT INDIAN TELEPHONE INDUSTRIES LTD,BANGALORE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of the degree OF Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING BY PRASHANT KUMAR (2008EEC 11)

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SHRI MATA VAISHNO DEVI UNIVERSITY KATRA-182320, J&K (INDIA)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface Acknowledgement Company profile Products and specifications of ITI ltd HRD INFORMATION SYSTEM ERP GSM TDMA CDMA PREPARATION OF PCB NETWORKING CONCEPTS AMD AND INTEL PROCESSORS SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY

PREFACE
With the ongoing IT revolution where innovations are taking place at the blink of an eye, it is impossible to keep the pace with the emerging trends. In organization where Making Things Right in the first instance is the driving motto, perfection and accuracy are inevitable. Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During this period, the students get the real, firsthand experience for working in theactual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies is put to test here. Apart from this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely helps them in building their career. I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which enhanced my sphere of knowledge to a great extent and all the credit goes to organization.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Training in an organization like ITI which is fuelled by the individuals with so much zest & energy, teaming up to form a formidable force, was in itself a true learning experience which is going to help me immensely in my career. There is no substitute to Teamwork.A formal statement of acknowledgment is hardly sufficient to express my gratitude towards the personalities who have helped me to undertake and complete my training. I here by convey my thanks to all those whom have rendered their valuable help, support and guidance during my training period. Firstly, I would thank MR.RONY in this esteemed company & for providing me all the facilities.

CHAPTER 1 COMPANY PROFILE

ITI Limited

Company Profile Website : http://www.itiltd-india.com/ Address E-Mail ID Profile : ITI limited , ITI Bhawan, Dooravaninagar, Bangalore-560 016 : cmd@itiltd.co.in : "Indias first Public Sector Unit (PSU) - ITI Ltd was established in 1948. Ever since, as a pioneering venture in the field of telecommunications, it has contributed to 50% of the present national telecom network. With state-ofthe-art manufacturing facilities spread across six locations and a countrywide network of marketing/service outlets, the company offers a complete range of telecom products and total solutions covering the whole spectrum of Switching, Transmission, Access and Subscriber Premises equipment. ITI joined the league of world class vendors of Global System for Mobile (GSM) technology with the inauguration of mobile equipment manufacturing facilities at its Mankapur and Bangalore Plants in 2005-06. This ushered in a new era of indigenous mobile equipment production in the country. These two facilities supply more than nine million lines per annum to both domestic as well as export markets. The company is consolidating its diversification into Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to hone its competitive edge in the convergence market by deploying its rich telecom expertise and vast infrastructure. Network Management Systems, Encryption and Networking Solutions for Internet Connectivity are some of the major initiatives taken by the company. Secure communications is the company's forte with a proven record of engineering strategic communication networks for India's Defence forces. Extensive in-house R&D work is devoted towards specialized areas of Encryption, NMS, IT and Access products to provide complete customized solutions to various

customers. " Products of ITI Ltd, Bangalore E10B Exchanges CSN-MM Exchanges CSN-MM Exchanges C-DOT Exchanges B.T.S GSM

Products and Specification of ITI Ltd:

E10B Exchanges - It is the Electronic Digital (10 digit) basic exchange which works at a temperature of 18-22 degree Celsius. CSN-MM Exchanges - It is numeric satellite control media exchange along which works at a temperature of 18-22 degree Celsius. CSN-MM Exchanges - IT is a multimedia exchange to meet the demand of Internet and ISDN facilities. C-DOT Exchanges - Control department of TELEMATICS Exchange was designed by Mr. Shyam Petroda of Gujrat (The scientific advisory in the ministry of Mrs. Indira Gandhi) to suit the Indian climatic condition. The exchange works satisfactorily up to 35 degree Celsius. B.T.S - Base Transceiver Station is manufactured in ITI Ltd Bangalore. G.S.M - It stands for Global System for Mobile Communication.

The above products are telecom products. Besides these, ITI also produces non-telecom products like NCM (Note Counting Machine), Fire Alarm etc.

Project Title and Objective Mission

The mission of industry is to be the leader of the domestic market and be an important player in the global market for voice data and image communication by providing total solution to the customers. The other is to build core competences to enter in new business areas.

HRD (Human Resource Development)

The human resource and development center is headed by Mr. S.S.Bisht (Manager HRED) Different types of training programs are provided by it Summer training Winter training

Parts of HRD
H.R.D. Office Library Computer lab Programming Room Auditorium

Objectives of H.R.D
The HRD has following objectives Create business and strategic thinking. Build managerial and technical competencies.

Promote a culture of achievement and excellence. Improve quality of work life in organization. Encourage empowerment of team and individual. Improve organizational learning. Optimize resource utilization and create atmosphere of cost consciousness. Create financial edge to finance in purchase of the customers

CHAPTER 2 INFORMATION SYSTEM

ERP (Enterprise Resources Planning)

E.R.P system are software package soothing several module such as human resource, finance and production, marketing, advertising etc, providing cross organization integration of data through embedded business process. These software packages can be customized to accommodate the specific need of an organization. It takes care of all activities in organization including planning, manufacturing, sales and marketing and many more. E.R.P could gain very much attention in a very short span of time and many software applications sprang up to business managers to implement ERP. Typically, an ERP, the expansive set of activities supported by multi module application software helps the businessman manage important part of this business.

ERP and Some Facts Manufacturing

Manufacturing modules cover all the resources involving production of all the products by company which includes Engineering

Bills of material Scheduling Capacity Workflow management Quality control Cost manufacturing Manufacturing process Manufacturing project Manufacturing flow

ERP and Some Facts-SCM

SCM stands for supply chain management and it includes Order to cash Inventory Order entry Purchasing Product configuration Supply chain planning Supplier scheduling Inspection of goods Claim processing

Common calculation purchase order tender sales invoice product

FACTO RY

Ssssssssssssss quotation
SUPPLI ER

material purchase invoice

sales order payment

CUSTO MER

Finance General ledger Cash management Accounts payable Accounts receivable Fixed asset

Project Management
Costing Billing Time & expense Performance units Activity management

Human Resources

Human resources Payroll Training Time & expense Roistering

Customer Relationship Management

Sales and marketing Commission Services Customer contact and call center support

ERP are incorrectly called back office system indicating that customer and the general public is not directly involved. This is contrasted with the front office system like CRM system that deal directly with customer or e-business system such as e-governance or e-telecom and e-finance.

Supplier Resource Management System

To implement ERP system, companies often seek the help of ERP vendor or of third party consulting three areas of professional services: consulting, customization, and support. Client companies may also employ independent program management, business analysis, and change management UAT (user acceptance testing) specialist to insure their business. ERP is the future core for all industry related software are concerned. CRM, B2B, SCM are the peripheral of ERP. B2B, B2C
CRM SCM

CHAPTER 3

ERP

OVERVIEW OF GSM

Introduction
GSM stands for global system for mobile communication. It was first developed in EUROPE but is now used everywhere in the world. Analog cellular system is known as 1 st generation digital system. Digital system are 2nd generation system. The digital transmission over air interface has a number of analog transmissions. Some of them are Better speech quality Speech privacy and security High spectral efficiency Data services and ISDN capability Better resistance to interface

Limitation of Fixed Line Telephone

Main limitations of fixed line telephony are No mobility Prone to failure Delay in new connection Security hazard Very less value added services

Different Versions of GSM

GSM-900(standard): This is a standard for digital voice transmission in the 900MHZ band. This is so called primary band two sub-bands of 25MHz. GSM-1800: Because of growing number of subscriber a further set of frequency 75MHZ in the 1800 band were allocated for digital mobile services in Europe. This was three times the bandwidth allocated for GSM-900. GSM-900 component can be used in GSM1800. Only the mobile station and the radio base transceiver themselves need a different specification. GSM-900: It is the standard for the 1900MHZ band. The bandwidth of this is 60MHZ. It uses the same component as GSM900 or GSM1800. EGSM: EGSM stands for enhanced data rate for GSM evolution. It has all the provision of above GSM services but it has additional features of increased data rate for GPRS (general packet radio services) and many others.

Objectives of GSM
Good speech quality Low terminal and service cost Support for international roaming Ability to support handheld terminals Support for range of new services and facilities Spectral efficiency ISDN compatibility

Services Provided by GSM

Data services: Circuit switched data up to 9600bps (9.6kbps)

G3 Facsimile of third generation SMS (short message services)

Supplementary services Call forwarding, when subscriber unavailable Call barring for O/G or I/C calls Caller identification Supplementary services:Call waiting Multiparty conversation

Range of One Channel

In case of GSM band frequency 890 to 915MHZ - uplink frequency 935 to 960MHZ - downlink frequency Each uplink band and downlink band is of 25MHZ duration. Now 25MHZ is divided in 125 parts. Each part is called channel. 1 channel = 1ARFCN = 25MHZ/125 = 200KHZ So 1channel = 200KHZ Hence each channel became 200KHZ. Each person is allocated for 1channel. Hence in one band of frequency 125 persons can talk at a time.

TDMA (time division multiple access)

After FDMA it was later found that division of frequency itself was not sufficient to meet the capacity of requirement. So frequency channels are again divided into time domain called time slots. This means that multiple users will use the same channel frequency but not at the same instance.

Each user will be given a time of fixed time period. Hence more users can use the same channel of FDMA by time division multiplexing. This method is called TDMA. Capacity can be extended by introducing TDMA in following way: After FDMA each channel is of 200KHZ. Now 200KHZ is again divided into same slots. 125 channels = 125*8=1000 time slots. But out of 125, 124 channels are used for speech transmission. One channel in each frame is left over to provide gap to next frame. This one channel is used as a guard to avoid overlapping between frames. Hence from 125 channels including TDMA number of time slot used for traffic =124*8=992. Hence 992 persons can talk from one frame. In this way it increases the capacity of the traffic.

CDMA (code division multiple access)

This is used in WLL also in GSM. FDMA and TDMA both are used at a time. In this method complete frequency band is divided in 64-code channels. Each code channel can be used by different users. The entire users will communicate at the same time and transmit and receive related to its code. A spread technology is used in which radio signals associated with a call is spread across a single board frequency spectrum (1.25). The CDMA frequency access method allows the services provider to reuse the same frequency in adjacent cells. This is because a code is assigned to each frequency in the spectrum to decipher the signal, therefore signals in the same frequency but with different code appear as noise to the other end. Reuse of same frequency allows CDMA to have more capacity compared to have more capacity compared to TDMA and FDMA. CDMA system has the ability to communicate with more than one cell at a time during call. This is known as handoff and provides uninterrupted call while mobile station move between cells. GSM Network
HLR

i MS

BTS

BSC

MSC

VLR EIR AuC SMS

OMC

CHAPTER 6 PREPARATION OF PCB

Base material
PCB unit is meant for producing printed circuit boards of various dimensions. The most common dimension of which PCB are generally made of: 240*400sqmm 280*400sqmm 300*400sqmm 300*500sqmm 300*600sqmm The raw material used for manufacturing of the PCB is Copper Clad Epoxy Laminate. The dimensions are 920*1220sqmm 1220*1220sqmm Their thickness generally comes in the multiple of 0.8mm. Copper Clad of thickness 17.5 or 35.0 or70 microns is laminated on the both sides of glass epoxy.

Cutting
It is carried out by saw cutting machine. Cutting is done by two types of blade.

Baking
After cutting the base material to required size, in order to make the surface coating of Cu even to remove the volatile impurities, vapors and moistures and moreover make the sheet plane, the raw sheet of glass epoxy with Cu clad laminate is baked in oven at 3 different temperatures depending upon the thickness of raw material. The process requirement time and temperature are given below

Curing of PCB base material at 140c for 12hrs Straightening of wrapped material at 140c for 12hrs

Drilling
After backing the next step is drilling. The stacks of 3 raw material sheets are made along with entry sheet and back up sheet. The stack is centered and pinned here. The lot of three stacks is thus held together by pinning.

Debarring
After drilling holes, burns left over the sheet and on the edges are removed by debarring. Debarring removes unwanted material and makes hole perfect. Also the board surface gets smoothened.

Electroless Plating
It is purely a channel process which is done to make the epoxy area between the two Cu clad plates conducting. A 2micron Cu layer is formed over the holes as a result of electro less plating. In this process the surface of Cu also gets evened. As no electrode is used for plating, so it is called as electro less plating.

Pumicing
Gem stones are crushed to powered form which is dissolved in a container and sprayed over Cu sheet to make it little rough for better lamination and for removing any hand marks, .grease or dust which may have accumulated during the process.

Lamination
The polymer film to be laminated is first mounted on to a roller and after the blank board is inserted from below, the film gets laminated on to the blank Cu sheet.

Exposure
The sheet prepared so far is now placed under the circuit layer (diazo, photo tool) and microwave rays pass becomes hard and the rest remains soft.

Development

In this process the unexposed sensitive photo resist is removed and so we finally get the tracks printed on the Cu sheet. In this process the sheet is passed through 1% Na2CO3 solution which removes the soft, unpolymerized layer. The inspection is carried out under 10X magnifying glass.

Electroplating
After development, card is fed to electroplating apparatus. Sn-Pb plating is done on the Cu plate. Here current is passed on the plate. On open tracks, Cu plating of about 25micron is done.

Stripping
In this process, the electroplated sheet is passed through the solution of NaOH which removes the hard layer or the polymerized layer.

Etching
After stripping the polymerized layer, the Cu becomes visible. This Cu layer is then removed by etching. It is done using ammoniac Cu solution.

Solder Stripping
In this process, solder Sn-Pb layer is stripped off leaving circuit pattern that is Cu over epoxy layer. HNO3 is used for this purpose.

PISM (photo image solder masking)

In this process, ink is put over the developed board like dying. Board is inserted from bottom and ink is poured from top and with the help top of leveler, it is leveled properly. Then it is cured at a temperature of 80c for 30 minutes to make ink adhere properly to the board. After curing, a photo tool is placed over the sheet and UV rays are passed through it. The points where holes are to be formed remains soft as light cannot pass through it. After exposure, passing through Na2CO3 solution due to which we get an impression of holes on the board. Then again it is baked at temperature 120 for 4hrs.

HAL (hot air leveling)

The board or the sheet till now produced consists of complete ink and copper are to be soldered which is done using a solder. Therefore a layer of solder is developed over these holes by dipping the PCB in a bath of molten solder.

Screen Masking/Printing
A polyster cloth of size 100*100sqmm is used. The ink is coated on this screen to be called as skin mesh. The screen printing is done by special type of chemical fersol-29. The screen

developing and cleaning is done using water, which is made to fall on the screen to remove excess ink.

Routing
Here, unwanted portion of the plate is removed and only desired circuit is left behind.

Testing
This is done to detect any anomaly. Error detected is shown by printer and it can be rectified if within limits, otherwise discarded. Visual inspection is done to check any discrepancy, crack or any connection fault. Bare board testing is done for very sophisticated result.

Quality Control
In the end inspection of the PCB is done. Plate is visually inspected to meet the desired specification.

CHAPTER 5 NETWORKING CONCEPTS

Networking Basics:In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Area networking:-

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are: LAN - Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

What is Networking?
Networking is the practice of linking computing devices together with hardware and software that supports data communications across these devices.

Network Design:Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes. A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In socalled bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.

Network Protocols:-

In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance network communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Wired vs Wireless Networking:Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks. Below we compare wired and wireless networking in three key areas:

Reliability

Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are extremely reliable, mainly because manufacturers have been continually improving Ethernet technology over several decades. Loose cables likely remain the single most common and annoying source of failure in a wired network. When installing a wired LAN or moving any of the components later, be sure to carefully check the cable connections.

Total cost

Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are very inexpensive. Some connection sharing software packages, like ICS, are free; some cost a nominal fee. Broadband routers cost more, but these are

optional components of a wired LAN, and their higher cost is offset by the benefit of easier installation and built-in security features.

Security

For any wired LAN connected to the Internet, firewalls are the primary security consideration. Wired Ethernet hubs and switches do not support firewalls. However, firewall software products like ZoneAlarm can be installed on the computers themselves. Broadband routers offer equivalent firewall capability built into the device, configurable through its own software.

Introduction to Network Types

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:

SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network LAN - Local Area Network WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network PAN - Personal Area Network DAN - Desk Area Network MAN - Metropolitan Area Network CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution.

LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network(MAN) is a computer networks usually spanning a campus or a city, which typically connect a few local area networks using high speed backbone technologies. A MAN often provides efficient connections to a wide area network (WAN). There are three important features which discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs:

1. The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km range. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a group of buildings. 2. A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users or by a network service provider who sells the service to the users. 3. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

AMD AND INTEL PROCESSORS

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (NYSE: AMD) or AMD is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. Its main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and embedded systems applications.

AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture and also one of the largest suppliers of graphics processing units. It also owns 8.6% of Spansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory. In 2009, AMD ranked 9th among semiconductor manufacturers in terms of revenue.

AMD's LEED-certified Lone Star campus in Austin, TexasAdvanced Micro Devices was founded on May 1, 1969, by a group of former executives from Fairchild Semiconductor, including Jerry Sanders III, Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team, Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger. The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards RISC with their own AMD 29K processor, and also attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as EPROM memory. It had some success in the mid-1980s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multistandard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. The AMD 29K survived as an embedded processor and AMD spinoff Spansion continues to make industry leading flash memory. AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory, placing them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.

AMD announced the acquisition of ATI Technologies on July 24, 2006. AMD paid $4.3 billion in cash and 58 million shares of its stock for a total of US$5.4 billion. The transaction completed on October 25, 2006.[4]

It was reported in December 2006 that AMD, along with its main rival in the graphics industry Nvidia, received subpoenas from the Justice Department regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card industry, including the act of fixing prices.[5]

In October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The new venture is called GlobalFoundries Inc.. This partnership will allow AMD to focus solely on chip design.[6]

In August 2011, AMD announced that former Lenovo executive Rory Read would be joining the company as CEO.[7]

Processor market history

Early AMD 8080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC / C8080A), 1977 AMD D8086.See also: List of AMD microprocessors IBM PC and the x86 architectureMain articles: Am286, Am386, Am486, and Am5x86 In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement, but Intel canceled the agreement in 1986 and refused to convey technical details of the i386 part. AMD challenged Intel's decision to cancel the agreement and won in arbitration, but Intel disputed this decision. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with AMD. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's microcode. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code.

In 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. It took less than a year for the company to sell a million units. Later, the Am486 was used by a number of large original

equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, and proved popular. Another Am486-based product, the Am5x86, continued AMD's success as a low-price alternative. However, as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, the process of reverse engineering Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD.

K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and SempronMain articles: AMD K5, AMD K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5 which was launched in 1996.[8] The "K" was a reference to Kryptonite, which from comic book lore, was the only substance (radioactive pieces of his home planet) which could harm Superman, a clear reference to Intel, which dominated in the market at the time, as "Superman".[9] The numeral "5" refers to the fifth processor generation, which Intel introduced as Pentium because the US Trademark and Patent Office ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.

In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although the K6 was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-2/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth generation processor).

The K7 was AMD's seventh generation x86 processor, making its debut on June 23, 1999, under the brand name Athlon. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intels' due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower cost and limited version of the Athlon (64KB instead of 256KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA(socket A) or soldered directly on to the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower cost Athlon XP replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era and since migrated upward to all new sockets up to AM3.

On October 9, 2001 the Athlon XP was released, followed by the Athlon XP with 512KB L2 Cache on February 10, 2003.[10]

Athlon 64, Opteron and PhenomMain articles: Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom (processor)

The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (officially called AMD64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor. [11] Shortly thereafter it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64. [12]

AMD released the first dual core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU, on April 21, 2005.[13] The first desktop-based dual core processor familythe Athlon 64 X2came a month later.[14] In early May 2007, AMD had abandoned the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors while upcoming updates involved some of the improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. AMD has also started to release dual-core Sempron processors in early 2008 exclusively in China, branded as Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache, thus the firm completes its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.

The latest AMD microprocessor architecture, known as K10, became the successor to the K8 microarchitecture. The first processors released on this architecture were introduced on September 10, 2007 consisting of nine quad-core Third Generation Opteron processors. This was followed by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core, [15] and quad-core versions with all cores on a single die. A new platform codename "Spider" was released utilising the new Phenom processor as well as an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. This was built at 65nm, and hence uncompetitive with Intel who already progressed to the smaller and more power efficient 45nm node.

In January 2009 AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using the 45 nm process. Along with this came a new platform codename "Dragon" which utilised a new Phenom II processor, an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, as well as a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. This came in a dualcore, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die with cores disabled for the triplecore and dual-core versions. This resolved issues that the original Phenom had including low clock speed, a small L3 cache and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. This was price and performance competitive with Intel's mid to high range Core 2 Quads. The processor also enhanced the Phenom's memory controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backwards compatibility with AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom,

and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform. In 2010 a new Phenom II hexa-core (6 core) processor codenamed "Thuban" was released. This is a totally new die based on the hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron processor. It also includes AMD's "turbo core" technology which allows the processor to automatically switch from 6 cores to 3 faster cores when more pure speed is needed. This is part of AMD's Enthusiast platform codenamed Leo" utilising a new Phenom II processor, a new chipset from the AMD 800 chipset series and an ATI "Cypress" GPU from the Evergreen (GPU family) GPU series.

The Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts will be released in 2010.[dated info] The Magny Cours part will come in 8 to 12 cores and the Lisbon part will come in 4 and 6 core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (Multi-Chip Module) with two hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron parts. This will use a new G34 socket for dual and quad socket processors and thus will be marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses C32 socket certified for dual socket use or single socket use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process.

SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY

Surface mount technology (SMT) is a method for constructing electronic circuits in which the components (surface-mounted components/SMCs) are mounted directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). An electronic device so made is called a surface mount device (SMD). In the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board. An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the component Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board has flat, usually tin-lead, silver, or gold plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads. Solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen printing process. After screen printing, the boards then proceed to the pickand-place machines, where they are placed on a conveyor belt. The components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays. Numerical control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB. The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised. The

boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on the circuit board. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place, and if the solder pad geometries are correctly designed, surface tension automatically aligns the components on their pads. There are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps; this is called infrared reflow. Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering. Currently, at the end of 2008, convection soldering is the most popular reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen gas. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board out so that short components don't fall into the shadows of tall components. Component location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow or convection soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heat-sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large scale automation, by focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment. If the circuit board is double sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If glue is used then the parts must be soldered later using a wave soldering process. After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder balls that could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with fluorocarbon solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g. limonene (derived from orange peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water soluble fluxes are removed with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to quickly remove residual water. However, most electronic assemblies are made using a "No-Clean" process where the flux residues are designed to be left on the circuit board [Benign]. This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the whole process, and reduces waste. Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator corrects any errors. They are then sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional testing) to verify that they operate correctly. Main advantages The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole technique are: Smaller components. Smallest is currently 0.2 x 0.1 mm (0.01 in x 0.005 in: 01005). Much higher number of components and many more connections per component. Fewer holes need to be drilled through abrasive boards. Simpler automated assembly. Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically (the surface tension of the molten solder pulls the component into alignment with the solder pads). Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board.

Lower resistance and inductance at the connection (leading to better performance for high frequency parts). Better mechanical performance under shake and vibration conditions. SMT parts generally cost less than through-hole parts. Fewer unwanted RF signal effects in SMT parts when compared to leaded parts, yielding better predictability of component characteristics. Faster assembly. Some placement machines are capable of placing more than 136,000 components per hour.

MAIN DISADVANTAGES The manufacturing processes for SMT are much more sophisticated than through-hole boards, raising the initial cost and time of setting up for production. Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair is more difficult (more so without a steady hand and the right tools) given the very small sizes and lead spacings of many SMDs. SMDs can't be used directly with breadboards (a quick snap-and-play prototyping tool), requiring either a custom PCB for every prototype or the mounting of the SMD upon a pinleaded carrier. For prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-expensive breakout may be used. Additionally, stripboard style protoboards can be used, some of which include pads for standard sized SMD comportments. SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting compounds going through thermal cycling. Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much smaller as advancements are made toward ultra-fine pitch technology. The reliability of solder joints become more of a concern as less and less solder material is allowed for each joint. Voiding is the phenomenon that is commonly associated with solder joints especially when reflowing a solder paste in the SMT application. The presence of these voids can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead to joint failure.[2][3]