Original Paper

Landslides DOI 10.1007/s10346-011-0263-y Received: 18 January 2011 Accepted: 29 March 2011 Springer-Verlag 2011

Christopher L. Meehan I Binod Tiwari I Thomas L. Brandon I J. Michael Duncan

Triaxial shear testing of polished slickensided surfaces

been made in the past to measure residual shear strength using multiple reversal direct shear tests (e.g., Skempton 1964) or triaxial tests (e.g., Chandler 1966; Bishop et al. 1971). The former has been frequently used in the past and is still in use (USACE 1986), whereas the latter has mainly been a focus of research as opposed to production testing. The use of the triaxial apparatus to measure residual shear strengths has a signicant appeal since it is common in most production geotechnical testing laboratories. Bishop and Henkel (1962) were the rst to suggest that triaxial compression tests conducted on precut specimens could be used to measure the drained residual shear strength of a clayey soil. Later, Chandler (1966) measured the residual shear strength of Keuper Marl using the same methods proposed by Bishop and Henkel (1962). Triaxial test data for precut test specimens presented by Bishop et al. (1971) for Brown London Clay shows that residual friction angles measured in the triaxial device can be up to 30% higher than residual friction angles measured in the Imperial College-type ring shear device. Lupini et al. (1981) also reported that triaxial compression tests can sometimes give residual shear strength values that are signicantly higher than those measured in the ring shear device. Bishop et al. (1971) precut their triaxial specimens with a wire saw and reassembled the two halves for testing. No special emphasis was placed on orienting the clay particles along the failure plane. At the onset of this research program, it was believed that previously employed techniques for precutting test specimens without polishing, as well as the additional effects caused by end platen restraint at higher strains in the triaxial test, may explain the higher residual strengths that have historically been measured in triaxial test apparatuses. Previous work by the authors using a series of direct shear tests has indicated that it is possible, for some soils, to articially create polished slickensided surfaces in the laboratory (Meehan et al. 2010). Measurement of the drained residual strength along these interfaces in the direct shear device can yield results that are in excellent agreement with Bromhead ring shear tests (Meehan et al. 2010). The logical extension of this work is the measurement of shear strengths along polished slickensided surfaces in the triaxial device. This approach to testing is extremely desirable as it would provide a means for testing specimens containing preformed slickensided failure surfaces under undrained or cyclic loading conditions, allowing for measurement of dynamic strengths that can be used in seismic analyses of slopes that contain slickensided surfaces (Meehan 2006; Meehan et al. 2008). The research program discussed in this paper focuses on measuring the drained residual shear strength of two clay soils using the triaxial apparatus; this work is an extension of the direct shear test approach utilized in Meehan et al. (2010). This paper presents the results from a series of consolidated-drained triaxial compression tests that were performed on precut and polished cylindrical clay specimens to measure the drained residual strength. Two soils were tested during this research program: Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud. Specimens were tested using a Landslides

Abstract A series of consolidated-drained triaxial tests were performed on precut and polished clay specimens to measure their drained residual strength. Two soils were tested during this research program: Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud. Specimens were tested using a specially modied triaxial compression device which was developed to minimize the effects of end-platen restraint on the measured strengths. Special attention was paid to the inuence of changing specimen area and membrane effects during the test. Triaxial test results were compared with baseline measurements of drained residual shear strength that were made for each of the clay soils using Bromhead ring shear tests and polished-specimen direct shear tests. Residual strength values measured in the triaxial device were higher than the drained residual strengths measured in the Bromhead ring shear apparatus and the direct shear device, indicating that this test approach is more challenging than the use of direct shear tests conducted on polished slickensided surfaces. Comparison of single stage and multistage triaxial test data indicates that multistage triaxial testing may work well for specimens that fail along a well-dened plane, provided that careful attention is given to the effects of end platen restraint, membrane restraint, and changes in specimen area during shear. Keywords Triaxial tests . Clays . Overconsolidated soils . Residual strength . Shear strength . Laboratory tests . Compression tests Introduction Slickensides are surfaces of weakness formed in stiff clays as a result of large shear displacementson the order of 100 to 500 mmconcentrated on a discrete surface of sliding (Skempton 1964, 1985; Duncan and Wright 2005). As the clay soil is sheared, platy clay particles become aligned parallel to the direction of shearing, resulting in the formation of a smooth surface that has a shear strength that is much lower than the strength of the adjacent clay through which the slickensided surface forms. The minimum shear resistance that can be mobilized along a smooth, slickensided surface is the residual shear strength (Skempton 1964). Evaluation of the residual shear strength is critical for slope stabilization of preexisting landslides in clayey soils. The magnitude of residual shear strength for a clay depends on the proportion of clay particles that are present in the soil matrix, the mineralogical composition of the clay particles, and the chemical state of the pore uid (e.g., Kenney 1977; Lupini et al. 1981; Tiwari and Marui 2005). The drained residual shear strength of a soil specimen can best be accurately measured using a torsional ring shear device (e.g., Bishop et al. 1971; Bromhead 1979). The primary advantage of the torsional ring shear device over direct shear or triaxial test devices is that it can apply unlimited shear displacement without changing the contact area along the shear plane or reversing the direction of shear. However, due to the relatively high cost and the single-purpose nature of the ring shear apparatus, these devices are not a common xture in production geotechnical testing laboratories. Efforts have

Original Paper
Table 1 Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud index properties and mineralogy

Clay Rancho Solano Clay San Francisco Bay Mud (SFBM)

a

USCS classification Fat clay (CH) Elastic silt (MH)

LL 61 85

PI 36 47

Clay fractiona 53 47

Specific gravity 2.65 2.70

Activity 0.68 1

Major minerals Quartz, Smectite, Feldspar, Kaolinite Quartz, Smectite, Feldspar, Kaolinite, Pyrite

Clay fraction determined as the percentage of grains smaller than 0.002 mm

specially modied triaxial compression device which was developed to minimize the effects of end-platen restraint on the measured strengths. The triaxial test results are compared with measurements of drained residual shear strength made using a Bromhead ring shear apparatus and a direct shear apparatus (Meehan et al. 2007, 2010). The goal of this research was to revisit some of the historical conclusions that had been drawn by early researchers that examined the use of the triaxial device for measurement of residual strengths. What makes this research different (and a new and signicant contribution) is the use of specially developed triaxial testing techniques (free-platens, specimen polishing techniques, etc.), which can be used in conjunction with fully automated triaxial test equipment. Also of interest are the results from multistage triaxial tests. Properties of test soils The ring shear and triaxial tests described in this paper were performed on two natural ne-grained soils. The rst soil was obtained from the Rancho Solano residential development in Faireld, California. The second soil was San Francisco Bay Mud, which was obtained from Hamilton Air Force Base in California. The soils were batch mixed at water contents ranging from 1.0 to 1.2 times their liquid limits to ensure uniformity. The thick clay slurries were then pushed through a #40 sieve to remove larger soil particles that could interfere with the preparation of the preformed slickensided failure plane. Index tests on the processed soil were conducted in accordance with the appropriate ASTM procedures, and yielded the soil properties given in Table 1. Grain size curves for these soils are given in Fig. 1. Preparation of triaxial test specimens The thick clay slurries were consolidated in a 125 mm diameter batch consolidometer to reduce the water content for creation of test specimens with sufcient strength to trim. The test specimens were consolidated incrementally to a nal vertical effective stress of 350 kPa to obtain a cylindrical clay specimen of 125 mm diameter and 100 mm height. Four 35 mm diameter, 75 mm tall cylindrical triaxial specimens were trimmed from each batch consolidometer specimen. In order to prevent signicant disturbance to a triaxial test specimen during slickenside preparation, it was necessary to construct a mold that could be used to hold the specimen as it was being wire-cut and polished to form slickensides. Figure 2 shows an aluminum mold that was fabricated for this purpose. The orientation of the failure plane in the slickenside preparation mold is 55 from the horizontal. This angle was selected using the formula 45 f0r =2, following the approach used by Chandler (1966). The residual friction angle that was used in this equation Landslides

(20) was selected as an approximately representative residual friction angle for both Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud. Similar secant residual friction angles were observed for specimens tested in the same range of conning pressures in the Bromhead ring shear device: for Rancho Solano Clay, 17.9 and 17.1 at normal stresses of 52 and 100 kPa, respectively, and for San Francisco Bay Mud, 20.0 and 18.5 at normal stresses of 52 and 100 kPa, respectively (Meehan et al. 2010). Selection of a preformed plane angle of 55 should not signicantly affect the drained shear strengths that are measured in the triaxial device since triaxial test results are not sensitive to small variations in the orientation of the preformed failure plane (Chandler 1966). A slickensided failure plane was created in each triaxial specimen by placing a trimmed intact specimen into the polishing mold as shown in Fig. 2a. The test specimen was precut along the shear plane using a piano wire leaving the two halves as shown in Fig. 2b. Each specimen half was polished by shearing it along the surface of a 0.3 m long wet frosted glass plate to align the clay particles along the precut shear plane in the direction of shear, as shown in Fig. 2c. Six passes along the frosted glass plate were performed for each half of the test specimen, corresponding to a total shear displacement of 1.8 m. This displacement was judged

Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud

Fig. 2 Forming slickensided surfaces in triaxial test specimens; a placing the specimen in the mold, b two halves of each specimen after wire cutting, c polishing the wire-cut plane on frosted glass to form slickensides, and d the slickensided failure plane

to be sufcient to achieve the clay particle orientation that is associated with residual strength. Figure 2d shows the nal appearance of the slickensided failure plane after wet polishing. After polishing, the two halves of the triaxial specimen were reassembled, the specimen was trimmed at each end so that its height was approximately 75 mm, and the specimen was placed in the triaxial cell for testing. Triaxial testing with free platens A number of researchers have noted the signicant effect that end-platen restraint can have on shear strengths measured in the triaxial device (Bishop and Henkel 1962; Barden and McDermott 1965; Chandler 1966; Skempton and Petley 1967). Bishop and Henkel (1962) discuss specications for a free top platen to conduct triaxial compression tests for specimens that fail via a single plane shearing mechanism. Skempton and Petley (1967) and Chandler (1966) used this type of platen for their research. Barden and McDermott (1965) also describe a free-end approach for triaxial testing, which consisted of a greased membrane that allowed radial expansion at the specimen ends, as well as a small amount of lateral movement of the specimen during shear. To minimize the effect of lateral platen restraint as a specimen was sheared along a single shear plane, a both endsfree platen approach was developed for use in this study. Using this approach, specially constructed base and top platens were used to allow unrestrained lateral movement of a test specimen as it is sheared. Ball bearings placed in a thin layer of vacuum grease are used to allow free lateral movement of each of the platens; 70 3.2 mm diameter steel ball bearings were used on both the upper and lower platen. Figure 3 shows a schematic of the both-ends free triaxial test device that was used for testing. Figure 4 shows a triaxial specimen setup for testing in this device. The approach shown in Figs. 3 and 4 is similar in concept to that employed by Bishop and Henkel (1962). Critical design

elements include the use of ball bearings instead of rollers (since the ball bearings allow for unrestrained movement in any horizontal direction), and the addition of a free base. Having both the top and the bottom of the specimen able to freely move in any lateral direction helps keep the triaxial specimen centered beneath the loading piston, and helps to prevent the development of additional undesirable force couples due to eccentric loading.

Fig. 3 Schematic of both-ends free triaxial test device. a Specimen assembly before shearing, and b free movement of top and bottom platens allows unrestrained shear on a well-defined shear plane

Landslides

Original Paper
Fig. 4 Triaxial setup allowing free platen movement at the top and bottom of the test specimen; a steel ball bearings held in place with a thin layer of vacuum grease, b the connection of the load piston with the top platen, c the connection of the specimen base with the base of the triaxial cell, and d a triaxial specimen ready for free-platen testing

Triaxial compression test procedure Consolidated-drained triaxial compression tests were performed using displacement-controlled loading in an automated triaxial system manufactured by the GeoComp Corporation. The tests were conducted in general accordance with the triaxial test methods outlined in Bishop and Henkel (1962) and Head (1986). To begin each test, an assembled cylindrical test specimen was placed on the lower platen, and two test membranes were rolled upwards around the cylinder. Considerable care was required to prevent the top and bottom halves of the specimen from shifting position relative to each other while the specimen was setup in the cell. Each triaxial test was begun by back-pressure saturating the test specimen until a minimum B value of 0.95 had been attained. The test specimen was then consolidated to the desired effective stress for shearing. Upon completion of consolidation, the triaxial test specimens were sheared using displacement-controlled loading. The strain rate that was used for testing was determined from the measured consolidation data following the approach described by Head (1986), which is shown in Eq. 1. The time to reach 100% primary
Table 2 Calculated strain rates for triaxial tests on Rancho Solano Clay specimens

consolidation (t100) was calculated for each nal consolidation step using Casagrandes Log of Time method. Strain rate "f L tf 1

Where: f L tf t100 Axial strain at failure Initial height of triaxial test specimen Time to failure, which is assumed to be equal to 8.5t100 Time for 100% primary consolidation

The challenge in implementing Eq. 1 for triaxial tests conducted on specimens that contain preformed slickensided surfaces is selecting the expected axial strain at failure prior to the test. Triaxial tests on specimens that contain preformed slickensided failure surfaces are expected to reach failure at smaller strains than tests conducted on intact triaxial specimens. This selection process is further complicated by the fact that earlier

Effective confining pressure (kPa) 35 70 84 105

Measured t100 (min) 180 470 529 670

Assumed f (%) 1 1 1 1

Calculated strain rate (%/min) 0.0007 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002

Observed f (%) 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.5

Strain rate used for testing (%/min) 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001

Landslides

Table 3 Calculated strain rates for triaxial tests on San Francisco Bay Mud specimens

Effective confining pressure (kPa) 35 70 105

Measured t100 (min) 313 650 1,120

Assumed f (%) 1 1 1

Calculated strain rate (%/min) 0.0004 0.0002 0.0001

Observed f (%) 1.8 1.8 2.1

Strain rate used for testing (%/min) 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001

researchers (Bishop and Henkel 1962; Chandler 1966; Blight 1967) have all used different methods for determining the failure strain and strain rates for single plane shearing CD triaxial tests. Based on data from various researchers, Head (1986) recommended that a failure strain of 15% be used for brittle clays. Chandlers test results showed approximately 2% axial strain at failure for preformed shearing plane tests conducted on Keuper Marl specimens. Data used to determine the maximum allowable strain rate (to ensure drained behavior) for triaxial tests conducted on Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud specimens are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. A failure strain of 1.0% was initially assumed, which was less than the lowest failure strain presented by Chandler (1966). Based on the calculated maximum strain rates, a conservative strain rate of 0.0001%/min was selected for all tests. After testing, the observed strains at failure were all in the neighborhood of 1%, which means that the conservative strain rate that was used was slow enough to ensure adequate pore pressure dissipation during shear. The tests that were conducted can therefore be considered drained. Selection of a consistent strain rate for each of the tests was also benecial for negating any differences in the measured strength values that might occur due to shear rate effects. Once the residual strength had been reached, it was expected that application of additional axial strain would cause the test specimens to deform by shearing along the preformed slickensided plane. It should be noted that the term strain does not have a practical meaning for triaxial specimens that deform along a welldened failure plane, since the shear occurs along a discontinuity, similar to what is observed in a direct shear test. The term displacement is probably more appropriate for specimens that deform by this mechanism.

Four consolidated-drained triaxial compression tests were performed on polished Rancho Solano Clay specimens, and three were performed on polished San Francisco Bay Mud specimens. Rancho Solano Clay specimens were tested at effective conning pressures of 35, 70, 84, and 105 kPa. San Francisco Bay Mud specimens were tested at effective conning pressures of 35, 70, and 105 kPa. For each triaxial compression test, test specimens were sheared until the deviator stress vs. strain curve showed that a constant minimum shear stress had been reached. Analysis of triaxial compression test data In order to determine accurate residual strength results from the triaxial tests, it is essential to correctly account for the effect of area change and membrane restraint. For the case of specimens that fail along a single shear plane, this procedure is more involved than normal triaxial corrections. For this type of failure mechanism, strains develop throughout the entire specimen until the residual shear strength along the failure plane is fully mobilized (Head 1986); during this phase of the test, the specimen deforms by barreling, as shown in Fig. 5. This barreling mechanism causes the area along the shear plane to increase, leading to an increase in membrane connement around the specimen due to the lateral constraint applied by the membrane. Once the strength along the shear plane has been reached, the specimen begins to shear along the preformed plane. As this occurs, the area along the shear plane decreases, as the two halves of the specimen are displaced past one another (Fig. 5). This causes the membrane connement to increase at an even more dramatic rate, as the membrane is then restraining two relatively rigid objects that are being pushed past one another.

Fig. 5 Specimen deformation by barreling and single plane shearing (modified from Head 1986)

Fig. 6 Single plane shearing membrane corrections; data from tests on Lucite specimens

Landslides

Original Paper
Area correction The transition from a barreling to a single plane shearing mode of failure can occur at relatively low strain levels. The point at which this transition occurs is dependent on the ratio of intact specimen strength to the strength along the predened failure plane (e.g., a more heavily overconsolidated specimen will begin shearing along the plane at smaller deviatoric strains). As this transition point can be very subtle, it is nearly impossible to identify the specic strain at which this transition happens from visual observation. In order to identify the amount of shearing that has occurred along the failure plane during a test, Bishop and Henkel (1962), Chandler (1966), and Head (1986) suggest that the total nal displacement along the shear plane be measured after the test has been completed. This displacement can then be used to back-calculate the corresponding strain at which the transition from barreling to single plane shearing occurred. During this study, it was observed that this approach is much more difcult to apply than rst expected due to fact that the leading edges of each specimen half are deformed from the stresses applied by the membrane. In this study, the point of inection in the deviator stress axial strain curve was used as an indicator of the initiation of single plane shearing. This inection point coincided with a considerable reduction in the volumetric strain, a phenomenon noted by Head (1986) to be a reasonable indicator of the commencement of single-plane shearing. Separate area and membrane corrections were applied in this study, corresponding to the current deformation mechanism that was occurring during the triaxial test. Prior to the commencement of single plane shearing, the barreling correction given in Eq. 2 was used. After the initiation of single plane shearing, Eq. 3 was used, as proposed by Head (1986). The following equation was used to correct the specimen area while the specimen was deforming by the barreling mechanism: A Ac 1 "v 1 "a 2

Fig. 8 Typical deviator stress-axial strain and volumetric strain-axial strain plots for triaxial tests on polished San Francisco Bay Mud specimens

Where: A Ac v a Corrected area while the specimen is deforming by barreling Area of the specimen after consolidation, prior to application of deviator stress Volumetric strain Axial strain

The following equation was used to correct the specimen area after the point of failure, while the specimen was deforming by the single plane shearing mechanism: 2 :b sin b: cos b 3 As A p Where: As A s L Corrected area after the point of failure (while single plane shearing is occurring) Specimen area right before single plane shearing begins, corrected for effect of barreling the L cos1 "s D tan  Strain at which single plane shearing initiated Height of the specimen right before the single plane shearing begins

Fig. 7 Typical deviator stress-axial strain and volumetric strain-axial strain plots for triaxial tests on polished Rancho Solano Clay specimens

Fig. 9 Mohrs circles for single-stage triaxial tests on polished Rancho Solano Clay specimens

Landslides

Fig. 10 Mohrs circles for single-stage triaxial tests on polished San Francisco Bay Mud specimens

Diameter of the specimen right before single plane shearing begins Angle of inclination of the shearing plane from the vertical axis.

Membrane correction Prior to the commencement of single plane shear, use of a membrane correction corresponding to a barreling shear mechanism is appropriate. The correction recommended by Bishop and Henkel (1962), based on the extension modulus of the triaxial membranes, was used in this study. The correction in deviator stress was calculated using Eq. 4: r p D M "a 1 "a 4 M "a 1 "a Ao D 4

Where: Ao r D a M Initial cross-sectional area of the membrane Correction in deviator stress Initial diameter of the specimen Axial strain Compression modulus of the rubber membrane, per unit width (assumed approximately equal to the measured extension modulus)

0.07 mm thick, for a combined latex thickness of 0.14 mm. Membranes were tested using an Instron tension testing machine, and the value of Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (E) and extension modulus of the membrane were 1.39 MPa and 0.2 N/mm, respectively. Once a specimen begins to shear along a preformed failure plane, it becomes necessary to use a different membrane correction than what was used when the specimen was deforming by a barreling shear mechanism; a single plane shear membrane correction is more appropriate at this point. The appropriate membrane correction for single plane shearing has been examined by Chandler (1966), Blight (1967), La Rochelle (1967), Symons (1967), Symons and Cross (1968), and Balkir and Marsh (1974). The general approach employed by these researchers was to perform tests on dummy samples of Plasticine, Lucite, or Perspex having preformed shearing planes that were well-lubricated or tted with ball bearings. In general, the results obtained by these researchers were not consistent, although all have observed that the resistance provided by the membrane is proportional to triaxial cell pressure. To evaluate the membrane correction that should be used for these tests, a cylindrical Lucite specimen having a diameter of 35 mm and height of 85 mm was fabricated and cut at an angle of 55 from the horizontal. The precut plane was lubricated with vacuum grease applied to a thin plastic sheet. The pieces were then reassembled, placed in a triaxial compression device, and sheared at a strain rate of 1%/min. The resulting membrane corrections for different cell pressures obtained from this experiment (for free platens on both ends) are presented in Fig. 6. An empirical equation was developed for the data shown in Fig. 6 and the membrane correction (m) was calculated using Eq. 5. m "a 0:8 0:0048 3 0 Where, m 3' a Membrane correction in kPa Effective cell pressure in kPa Axial strain 5

Two latex membranes were used to conne the triaxial specimens during each test. Each membrane was approximately

Fig. 11 Residual strength failure envelopes measured in single-stage CD triaxial tests, Bromhead ring shear tests, and polished-specimen direct shear tests on Rancho Solano Clay specimens

Landslides

Original Paper

Fig. 12 Residual strength failure envelopes measured in single-stage CD triaxial tests, Bromhead ring shear tests, and polished-specimen direct shear tests on San Francisco Bay Mud specimens

Triaxial compression test results Typical deviator stress and volumetric strain measurements for triaxial tests conducted on Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud specimens are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. The data presented are for tests conducted at an effective conning pressure of 70 kPa. Mohrs circles and the corresponding Mohr Coulomb failure envelopes for the CD triaxial tests on polished Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud specimens are given in Figs. 9 and 10. Linear regression analysis resulted in the drained residual shear strength parameters shown below: Rancho Solano Clay San Francisco Bay Mud c0 0 kPa; c0 18:6 kPa and fr 0 24:5 and fr 0 21:3 :

Figures 11 and 12 show the residual strength envelopes that were measured in the triaxial tests that were conducted, and the average results from Bromhead ring shear tests and polishedspecimen direct shear tests conducted on Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud specimens (Meehan et al. 2007, 2010). As can be seen, the residual strength failure envelopes measured using triaxial tests on wire cut and polished specimens are higher than the residual strength failure envelopes obtained from the drained ring shear tests. For the tests on Rancho Solano Clay specimens, this is a particularly unexpected result, because tests on polished direct shear specimens gave drained residual shear strengths that were in excellent agreement with those measured in ring shear tests (Meehan et al. 2010). The lack of agreement between triaxial test data and ring shear test data for San Francisco Bay Mud specimens is consistent with what was observed in direct shear tests on polished SFBM test specimens (Meehan et al. 2010). The greater discrepancy between triaxial test results and ring shear test results for San Francisco Bay Mud (illustrated by the large difference in measured cohesion) may have been caused by the SFBM specimen polishing process. For this soil, it was much more difcult to obtain a shiny polished surface. The reason for this difference in behavior is not clear; it is thought that perhaps the polishing process was affected by the high organic content of the San Francisco Bay Mud. For comparison purposes, the shear rate for the ring shear tests was 0.018 mm/min, and the shear rate for the direct shear tests was 0.003 mm/min. For triaxial tests conducted at an axial strain rate of 0.0001%/min, for an approximately 75 mm tall specimen with a failure plane oriented at 55 from the horizontal, the resulting shear Landslides

displacement rate along the failure plane would be approximately 0.00009 mm/min. From these numbers, it can be clearly seen that test specimens with an increasingly longer drainage path length (ring shear, direct shear, and then triaxial, in that order) require slower and slower shear rates to ensure adequate pore pressure dissipation during drained testing. As noted previously, the largest strengths were measured for the triaxial tests, which were conducted at the slowest rate. As faster shear tests are generally associated with higher shear strengths (the strain-rate effect), the different strengths that were measured in the different test devices cannot be attributed to rate-of-loading effects alone. In general, despite the lack of agreement between the triaxial data and the ring shear and direct shear data, the use of free-platens was found to be extremely benecial for triaxial specimens that fail along a well-dened plane. Comparison of the test results presented here with the results from tests conducted using traditional xed platens on the same soils shows that platen restraint had an extremely signicant effect on the measured strengths. Also, the precutting and polishing procedure signicantly lowered the measured residual strength values from those that were measured in intact specimen testing, for tests conducted using both xed and free platens. These triaxial testing techniques may prove benecial for other triaxial test research projects and experimental studies.

Fig. 13 Comparison of deviator stresses measured in single stage and multistage triaxial tests on Rancho Solano Clay specimens

Multistage CD triaxial testing During the course of this research, it was found that it was rather difcult and time-consuming to set up each specimen, to prepare consistently similar specimens for the individual tests, and to maintain similar conditions for tests conducted at different effective conning pressures. In addition, the slow strain rates used required lengthy testing times. Therefore, to reduce testing time and to simplify the testing process for future consolidateddrained triaxial tests of this type, the utility of multistage triaxial tests was explored. For each multistage test, a single clay triaxial specimen was consolidated using an effective cell pressure of 105 kPa, and unloaded to an effective cell pressure of 35 kPa. The specimen was then sheared until a constant minimum residual strength value had been measured. Rancho Solano Clay specimens were then reconsolidated and sheared at higher effective cell pressures of 70, 84, and 105 kPa; and San Francisco Bay Mud specimens were reconsolidated and sheared at higher effective cell pressures of 70 and 105 kPa. The deviator stress measurements that were made in single stage and multistage triaxial tests conducted on Rancho Solano Clay specimens are shown in Fig. 13. As shown in Fig. 13, there was close agreement between the residual strengths measured in single stage and multistage triaxial tests for Rancho Solano Clay. Similar agreement was observed for triaxial tests conducted on San Francisco Bay Mud specimens; for brevity, this data has been omitted. This test data supports the use of multistage testing for consolidated-drained triaxial tests, provided that careful attention is given to the effects of end platen restraint, membrane restraint, and change in specimen area during shear. It is believed that a well-dened failure plane was benecial for achieving the agreement that is shown above. Summary and conclusions Consolidated-drained triaxial tests were performed to measure the drained residual strength of two natural ne grained soils, Rancho Solano Clay and San Francisco Bay Mud. To prepare the triaxial specimens for residual strength testing, specimens were precut at an angle of 55 from the horizontal and polished against a frosted glass plate for a cumulative displacement of approximately 1.8 m. Custom end platens were used for the triaxial testing, allowing for unrestrained horizontal movement of both ends of the test specimen. Care was taken to obtain the properties of the membrane, and to apply the appropriate membrane correction factors and area correction factors for specimens that fail along a well-dened plane. The resulting drained residual shear strengths measured for the precut and polished specimens were found to be higher than the drained residual strengths measured for these soils in the Bromhead ring shear device, and were also higher than those measured in tests on polished direct shear specimens (Meehan et al. 2010). This difference occurred despite thorough attempts to address triaxial testing details such as the effect of end platen restraint and selection of the appropriate membrane correction for specimens that fail along a well-dened shear plane. These ndings are different than those presented in Meehan et al. (2010) for direct shear tests conducted on polished slickensided surfaces. It is consequently clear that triaxial testing of polished slickensided surfaces is signicantly more challenging than the use of

direct shear tests for this purpose. However, triaxial tests are needed for cyclic (seismic) testing, so future research in this area is warranted. In any case, it is hoped that the techniques presented in this paper can be of use to other researchers that are conducting work in this area, eventually leading to a methodology that can be used for the seismic testing of slickensided surfaces. Although the triaxial tests presented herein did not agree closely with the Bromhead ring shear data, there was excellent agreement between the residual strengths measured in single and multistage triaxial tests. This data supports the use of multistage testing for triaxial specimens that fail along a well dened plane. If a multistage triaxial test approach is going to be used, careful attention needs to be given to the effects of lateral end platen restraint, membrane restraint, and changes in specimen area during shear. A both-ends free platen approach is recommended for minimizing the effect of end platen restraint, particularly for specimens that fail along a well-dened failure plane. Acknowledgments Funding for this research was provided by the National Science Foundation under Award nos. CMS-0321789 and CMS-0324499.

References
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