ABBREVIATIONS

CB CVT CT PT HV LV LA

Circuit Breaker

Capacitor Voltage Transformer Current Transformer Potential Transformer High Voltage Low Voltage Lightning Arrestor

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

In Andhra Pradesh the principal components of electric power were designated as follows. 1.APGENCO( Andhra Pradesh generation corporation) station. 2.APTRANSCO(Andhra Pradesh transmission corporation) line 3.DISCOMS(Distribution companies) system Bhimadole transmission sub-station was located in west Godavari district, Bhimadole mandal. It has four 220KV feeders, five 132KV feeders and seven 33KV feeders. 220kv feeders are given to Nidadavolu-1,Nidadavolu-2,Vijjeswaram and Nunna.From Bhimadole sub-station 33kv feeders are given to -distribution -transmission -power

Nidadavolu, Peda tadepalli, Kamavarapu kota ,Kanumolu,Pedavegi.33kv feeders are given to Nallajerla, Narayanapuram, Agadala lanka, Eluru,

Pedavegi, Vegivada and Denduluru.

CHAPTER 2 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF WHOLE SYSTEM & EQUIPMENT

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF WHOLE SYSTEM & EQUIPMENT

The single line diagram of 220/132/33 KV sub-station is shown below. Let us see the whole equipment arrangement of sub-station . To the grid many incoming feeders i.e. generating power from the power plants are given to BHIMADOLU transmission sub-station through 220Kv bay. In order avoid fault feeding from feeder first at the starting lighting arrestors are placed at incoming feeders and outgoing feeders. LA (lightning

arrestor) is provided to avoid carry of high voltage during abnormal conditions and lightings so that equipment can be protected against the damage. After we place CVT/PT(capacitorvoltagetransformer/potential transformer).We prefer CVT in place of PT because it plays the role of the PT and also it helps in the telecommunication .This arrangement is for the 220KVbus. In the single line diagram to both ends of the transformer a sequence of double breaker isolator, circuit breaker and current transformer are used respectively on the HV and LV side of the transformer for protection. In the line diagram we can see that some of 132 KV line being transmitted along with wave trapper, next to the CVT/PT earth isolator is provided for the protection. After to the CVT, CTs (current transformer) are placed for the requirement of the metering and protection and next to the CT ,circuit breaker is provided to isolate the fault section from the healthy section with the combination of the relay closing.The 33kv lines are used for the local transmission and to other nearby surrounding villages and towns. Let us see the symbolic representation used in single diagram.
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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 220KV/132-33KV TRANSMISSION SUB-STATION

CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT INVOLVED IN TRANSMISSION SUB-STATION

EQUIPMENT INVOLVED IN TRANSMISSION SUB-STATION

1.Lightning arrestor 2.Isolators 3.Instrument transformers a.Current transformers b.Potential transformers 4.Circuit breaker(C.B) 5.Relays 1.LIGHTNING ARRESTORS: A lightning arrestor is a device used on electrical power

systems to protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal oxide varistors(MOVs) have been used for power system protection since the mid 1970s.The typical lightning arrestor also known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal.When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester , the current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth. Lightning arrestor or surge diverter provide protection against surges.A lightning arrestor is a protective device which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system .The basic circuit of the lightning arrestor or surge diverter is shown. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively
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grounded.The length of the spark gap is so set that normal line voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap but a dangerously high voltage will
breakdown the air insulation and form an arc.The property of the non-linear resistance is it increases as the voltage(or current) increases and viceversa.

ACTION:
i. Under normal conditions,the lightning arrestor is off the line i.e., it conducts no current to earth or the gap is non-conditioning. ii. On the occurrence of over voltage,the air insulation across the gap breaks down and an arc is formed,providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground.In this way,the excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being sent back over the line.

Two things must be taken care of in the design of a lightning arrestor.Firstly,when the surge is over,the arc in gap should cease.If the arc does not go out,the current would continue to flow through the resistor and both resistor and gap may be destroyed.Secondly,IR drop(where I is the surge current) across the arrestor when carrying surge current should not exceed the breakdown strength of the insulation of the equipment to be protected. There are different types of lightning arrestors which are in general use.They differ only in point constructional view but there principle is same for all i.e. providing low resistance for the surges to the ground. Types of light arrestors 1. Rod gap arrestor 2. Horn gap arrestors 3. Multi gap resistors 4. Expulsion type lightning arrestor 5. Valve type lightning arrestor

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2.ISOLATORS:
Isolators is a switch used to disconnect the system under no-load i.e. when there is no supply. In sub-station, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch. In other words,isolator switches are operated only when the lines in which they are connected carry no current. There are two types isolating switches so far they are 1. Single Break isolator switch 2. Double Break isolator Switch Single Break isolator switch: These are not in use and they are replaced by Double breaker isolator switch. The single breaker isolator switch symbolic diagram is shown below

Fig:

Single-break isolating switch

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Double Break isolator: In this structure the isolating rod is fixed in the middle and when the switch is isolated the rod twists and the connections between both the ends are isolated. The double breaker isolator arrangement is as shown below

Fig: Double-break isolating switch

3.INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:For measurement of heavy currents and high voltages ,the method of extension of ranges of low range meters by providing suitable shunts is not suitable.In such conditions,specially constructed accurate ratio transformers called instrument transformers are suitable.These can be used,irrespective of the voltage and current rating of the a.c circuits.These transformers not only extend the range of the low range instruments but also isolate them from high current and high voltage a.c circuits.This makes their handling very safe. These are generally classified as: i. Current transformers ii. Potential transformers

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Current Transformers(C.T): A current transformer is essentially a step-up transformer which steps down the current to known ratio. The large alternating current which cannot be sensed or passed through the ammeters and the current coils of wattmeter,energy meters can be easily measured by use of current transformer along with normal low range instruments. A current transformer is nothing but a step-up transformer i.e. on the primary side it has less number of turns of heavy cross-sectional area to heavy currents with low voltage,whereas on the secondary side it has more number of turns with less cross-sectional area carrying less currents.But also depending on the cores they are also divided as: 1. 2-core 2. 3-core 3. 5-core As per the requirement we use different of CTs depending on the protection requirement and also for the meeting. Classification of CT based on the voltage& number of cores Voltage Number cores of Use of cores 1-for metering 11KV 2-cores
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1-for O/L protection

1-for metering 33KV 2-cores 1-for O/L protection 1-for metering 132Kv 3-cores 1-for distance protection 1-for O/L protection 1-for metering 132KV(Transformer) 3-cores 1-for differential protection 1-for O/L protection 1-for metering 220KV(Transformer) 5-cores 1-for differential relay 1-for Bus bar protection main relay 1-for Bus checkrelay bar protection

1-for O/L protection Here is the important note when use different types of cores and any one of the core not in use what it should done either it should be shortcircuited/open circuited or anything else.

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Potential Transformer(PT): It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the voltage to a known ratio.The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire connected across the line.The secondary winding consists of few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is a known fraction of the line voltage. The basic principle of these transformers is same as current transformers.The high alternating voltages are reduced in a fixed proportion for the help of measurement purpose with the help of potential transformers.The construction of these transformers is similar to the normal transformer. These are extremely accurate ratio step down transformers.the windings are low power rating windings.Primary winding consist of large number of turns while secondary has less number of turns and usually rated for 110V,irrespective of the primary voltage rating.The primary is connected across the high voltage line while secondary is connected to the low range voltmeter coil.one end of the secondary is always grounded for safety purpose.The connections are shown in above circuit.

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4.CIRCUIT BREAKER(C.B): During the operation of power system,it is often desirable and necessary to switch on or off the various circuits(e.g., transmission lines, distributers, generating plants etc.) under both normal and abnormal conditions. In earlier days,this function used to be performed by a switch and a fuse placed in series with the circuit. However , such a means of control presents two disadvantages. Firstly ,when a fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and restore supply to the customers. Secondly a fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault currents that result from faults on modem high-voltage and large capacity circuits. Due to these disadvantages, the use of switches and fuses is limited to low-voltage and small capacity circuits where frequent operations are not expected e.g., for switching and protection of distribution transformers, lightning circuits, branch circuits of distribution lines etc.The arrangement of switches along with fuses cannot serve the desired function of switchgear in such high capacity circuits.This necessitates to employ a more dependable means of control which is obtained by the use of circuit breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or automatically under all conditions viz., no-load,full-load and short-circuit conditions. This characteristic of the circuit breaker has made it very useful equipment for switching and protection of various parts of the power system. In this chapter,we shall deal with the various types of circuit breakers and their increasing applications as control devices. A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can

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a) Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions. b) Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions. c) Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions. Thus a circuit breaker incorporates manual(or remote control) as well as automatic control for switching functions.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatic ally until and unless the system becomes faulty. Ofcourse the contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit. When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause
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damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to distinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value. There are many types of circuit breakers depending up on arc quenching medium as shown below. Accordingly circuit breakers may be classified into: 1. Oil circuit breakers which employ some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) for arc extinction. 2. Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc. 3. Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers in which Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc extinction. 4. Vacuum circuit breakers in which vacuum used for arc extinction. Each type of circuit breaker has its own advantages has its own advantages and disadvantages. Considering the factors like arc quenching ,cost, maintenance all the circuit breakers are replaced with SF6 circuit breaker for its better performance.

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RELAYS: A relay is an electrically operated switch. A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of C.BMany relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

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TYPES OF RELAYS: 1. BUCHHOLZ RELAY: The conservator of the transformer is connected to main tank by means of pipe which has a meterconnected to it called buchholz relay.In the electrical power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a conservator. The Buchholz Relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment. Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and forces the oil level down. A float switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float may also serve to detect slow oil leaks. If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the apparatus before the fault causes additional damage. Buchholz relays have a test port to allow the accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates some internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only indicate low oil level or a leak.
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2.IMPEDANCE RELAYS

Impedance relays are used whenever overcurrent relays do not provide adequate protection. They function even if the short circuit current is relatively low. The speed of operation is independent of current magnitude. Impedance relays monitor the impedance between the relay location and the fault. If the impedance falls within the relay setting, the relay will operate. The basic construction for impedance relays on which the principle of operation is easily explained is the balanced beam.
3.OVER CURRENT RELAY:

The function of a relay is to detect abnormal conditions in the system and to initiate through appropriate circuit breakers the disconnection of faulty circuits so that interference with the general supply is minimised. Relays are of many types. Some depend on the operation of an armature by some form of electromagnet. A very large number of relays operate on the induction principle. When a relay operates it closes contacts in the trip circuit which is normally connected across 110 V D.C. supply from a battery. The passage of current in the coil of the trip circuit actuates the plunger, which causes operation of the circuit breaker, disconnecting the faulty system. In the laboratory, a 3-phase contactor simulates the operation of the circuit breaker. The closure of the relay contacts short-circuits the 'no-volt ' coil of the contactor, which, in turn, disconnects the faulty system.The protective relaying which responds to a rise in current flowing through the protected
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element over a pre-determined value is called 'overcurrent protection' andthe relays used for this purpose are known as overcurrent relays. Earth fault protection can be provided with normal overcurrent relays, if the minimum earth fault current is sufficient in magnitude. The design of a comprehensive protection scheme in a power system requires the detailed study of time-current characteristics of the various relays used in the scheme. Thus it is necessary to obtain the time current characteristics of these relays. The overcurrent relay works on the induction principle. The moving system consists of an aluminium disc fixed on a vertical shaft and rotating on two jewelled bearings between the poles of an electromagnet and a damping magnet. The winding of the electromagnet is provided with seven taps (generally0, which are brought on the front panel, and the required tap is selected by a push-in -type plug. The pick-up current setting can thus be varied by the use of such plug multiplier setting. The pick-up current values of earth fault relays are normally quite low. The operating time of all overcurrent relays tends to become asymptotic to a definite minimum value with increase in the value of current. This is an inherent property of the electromagnetic relays due to saturation of the magnetic circuit. By varying the point of saturation, different characteristics can be obtained and these are 1. Definite time 2. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) 3. Very Inverse
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The torque of these relays is proportional to f1f2 Sinalpha, where f1 and f2 are the two fluxes and alpha is the angle between them. Where both the fluxes are produced by the same quantity (single quantity relays) as in the case of current or voltage operated, the torque T is proportional to I2, or T = K I2, for coil current below saturation. If the core is made to saturate at very early stages such that with increase of I, K decreases so that the time of operation remains the same over the working range. The time -current characteristic obtained is known as definite time characteristic.If the core is made to saturate at a later stage, the characteristic obtained is known as IDMT. The time-current characteristic is inverse over some range and then after saturation assumes the definite time form. In order to ensure selectivity, it is essential that the time of operation of the relays should be dependent on the severity of the fault in such a way that more severe the fault, the less is the time to operate, this being called the inverse-time characteristic. This will also ensure that a relay shall not operate under normal overload conditions of short duration.It is essential also that there shall be a definite minimum time of operation, which can be adjusted to suit the requirements of the particular installation. At low values of operating current the shape of the curve is determined by the effect of the restraining force of the control spring, while at high values the effect of saturation predominates. Different time settings can be obtained by moving a knurle clamping screw along a calibrated scale graduated from 0.1 to 1.0 in steps of 0.05. This arrangement is called Time Multiplier Setting and will vary the travel of the disc required to close the contacts. This will shift the time-current characteristic of the relay parallel to itself.
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CHAPTER 4 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

24

COMMUNICATION NETWORK
The station has carrier link connected stations. The diagram shows the detail of the carrier line to power line.

Line Matching Unit: Isolate the communication equipment from and serves to match the characteristics impedance of power line (400-600ohms) to that of the coaxial cables connected to communication equipment (125ohm). Coupling capacitor Used to block power frequency and bypass carrier frequencies. Coupling capacitors used in PLCC system have capacity 2000pf to 10000pf in lines 220KV and above CVT's are used as coupling capacitors.

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Wave trap:

Wave trap between transmission and power station prevents carrier power dissipation in station equipment and cross talk with other PLCC circuits. Wave trap must confirm the carrier signals within the line (carry their frequency current safely during the normal operation as well as during short circuit fault conditions). Line trap also is known as wave trap. What it does is tapping the high frequency communication signals sent on the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/ tele-protection panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU). This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals are primarily tele-protection signals and in-addition, voice and data communication signals Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU).

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The physical view of wave trapper is as shown it is a pure inductive wound coil with mesh, the signals gets trapped and diverted to communication control room through CVT and later it is passed to the LMU (line matching unit) and then it is passed to PLCC (power line carrier communication) PANEL,signals are modulated and demodulated as per our requirement in the exchange room by the pre designed circuits. Through this we use of about 300 -2400 HZ for audio frequency signals, the remaining frequency is used for the data transmission between sub-stations. Once the equipment is installed for our local communication it is worth useful and we can save a lot of money for communication rather than depending upon other communication networks which leads to expensive. This type of communication through transmission lines is named as PLCC i.e. POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION.

Capacitor Voltage Transformer(CVT): Capacitor Voltage transformers (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step-down extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device to the supply frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one set of secondary terminals for
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connection to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor,C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series. This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first capacitor and a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small voltage drop across the second capacitor, C2 of the secondary terminals.

Fig: Capacitor Voltage Transformer(CVT)

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CHAPTER 5 STATION CONTROL ROOM

29

STATION CONTROL ROOM

Auxiliary DC supply to the control panels and for the emergency lighting are from one set 110kv lead acid battery having 100AH capacity. MAIN CONTROL ROOM:

All primary protections like distance protection for lines, differential protection for transformers, bus bars etc are to be duplicated perfectly with relays working in different principles. Each one of the duplicated scheme should have its own DC source to make protection absolutely fail safe. There are two sets of 220v batteries, 110v batteries and two sets 48v batteries in the main control room in 220kv & 110kv yard equipments and control and relay panels 110vDC is used.
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CHAPTER 6 TRANSFORMERS PROTECTION

31

Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling. If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np.

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Fig:Single phase pole mounted transformer

Fig: Three-phase step-down transformer

Transformer Protection Principles:

Transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power system. Due to the long lead time for repair of and replacement of transformers, a major goal of transformer protection is limiting the damage to a faulted transformer. Some protection functions, such as over excitation protection and temperature-based protection may aid this goal by identifying operating conditions that may cause transformer failure. The comprehensive transformer protection provided by multiple function protective relays is appropriate for critical transformers of all applications.

Transformer Failures:

Failures in transformers can be classified into winding failures due to short circuits (turn-turn faults, phase-phase faults, phase-ground, open winding) core faults (core insulation failure, shorted laminations)
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 terminal failures (open leads, loose connections, short circuits) on-load tap changer failures (mechanical, electrical, short circuit, overheating) external faults

CONDITIONS

PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY

Internal
Winding Phase-Phase, Phase-Ground faults Differential (87T), overcurrent (51, 51N) Restricted ground fault protection (87RGF

Winding inter-turn faults

Differential (87T), Buchholz relay,

Core insulation failure, shorted laminations

Differential (87T), Buchholz relay, sudden pressure relay

Tank faults

Differential (87T), Buchholz relay and tank-ground protection

External

Overvoltage
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Overvoltage (59) Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)

External system short circuits

Time overcurrent (51, 51G), Instantaneous overcurrent (50

20 & 15 MVA- 33 / 11 KV, 2 Winding Power Transformer Protection Scheme

Main (A) Protection:

1. Differential Protection.
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection.

Backup Protection:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side Inter Trip (through pilot cable). Buchholz Trip.

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DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION IN TRANSFORMERS:

The differential protection used for transformers is based on the principle of current circulation. This type of protection is mostly used for transformers as this responds not only to inter turn fault but also provides protection against phase-to-phase faults. Following are the complicated features in transformers and there remedial measures: 1.In a power transformer, the currents in primary and secondary are to be compared. As these two currents are usually different, therefore the use of identical transformers will give differential current and operate the relay even under no load conditions. The difference in magnitude of currents in primary and secondary of power transformers is compensated by different turns ratios of C.T.s. If T is the turns ratio of power transformer, then the turns ration of C.T.s on lv side is made T times the turns ration of the C.T.s on hv side. When this condition is fulfilled the secondaries of the two C.T.s will carry same current under normal conditions. And thus no current will flow through the relay and it remains inoperative. 2.There is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of a 3-phase power transformer. Even if C.T.s of proper transformation ratios are used, a differential current will flow through the
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relay under normal condition and cause relay operation. The correction for phase difference is effected by appropriate connections of C.T.s. the C.T.s on one side of the power transformer are connected in such a way that the resultant current fed into the pilot wires are displaced in phase from the individual phase currents in the same direction as, and by an angle equal to, the phase shift between the power transformers primary and secondary currents. The table below shows the type of connections to be employed for C.T.s in order to compensate for the phase difference in the primary and secondary currents of power transformer
SL.NO POWER TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS PRIMARY CURRENT TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS PRIMARY

SECONDARY

SECONDARY

1 2 3 4

Star with neutral earthed Delta Star Delta

Delta Delta Star neutral earthed Star neutral earthed with

Delta Star Delta Star with

Star Star Delta Delta

1.Another factor, which has to be considered, is the inrush of magnetizing current. When the transformer is switched to supply the magnetizing current may assume very high values momentarily and may cause operation of the relay

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even though they are transient. This can be avoided by using relays with time delay characteristics. Fig 8 shows the differential protection for transformer. In this the power transformer is delta- star connected. On delta side the C.T.s are connected in star and on the star side the C.T.s are connected in delta as in fig. Under normal working conditions the circulating currents caused by the primary and secondary load current in the relay circuit will balance; but under fault conditions the balance will no longer be there and the relay will be energized to trip the circuit breakers on the primary and secondary side In order to understand the phase difference in the two sides consider fig 8. The primary is connected in delta and the set of current transformers CT1 is connected in star, while the secondary is connected in star and the set of current transformers CT2 is connected in delta. Fig illustrates the vector diagram in reference to primary and secondary sides of current transformer. In fig 9.a IRP, IYP and IBP are the phase currents in the primary side, while IR is the line current on the same side in line R as shown in fig 9.a, the corresponding secondary current of current transformers CT1 on the primary side is in phase with IR and is represented as IRS in fig 9.b. the current in the secondary side of the power transformer is represented as IR, IY and IB in fig 9.c, the phase current in the secondary winding of the current transformers CT2 is represented as IR, IY and IB in fig 9.d. the current in pilot wire of CT2 is represented as IRS. Now when we consider fig 9.b and 9.d its clear that the currents in the pilot wires are in phase.

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Sensitive Ground Fault Protection to limit Transformer Damage:

Differential and overcurrent protection do not provide adequate protection for wye-connected windings with grounded neutrals. Faults close to the neutral produces lesser fault current as shown by the current distribution curve. The restricted ground fault function can be used to provide differential protection for such ground faults, down to faults at 5% of the transformer winding. Restricted ground fault protection can be a low impedance differential function or a high impedance differential function. The low impedance function has the advantage to being able to precisely set the sensitivity to meet the application requirement. This sensitive protection limits the damage to the transformer to allow quicker repair. The restricted ground fault element uses adaptive restraint based on symmetrical components to provide security during external phase faults with significant CT error. This permits the function to maximize sensitivity without any time delay.
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CHAPTER 7
D.C SYSTEM IN THE SUB STATIONS

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The DC System in the substations comprises of the following 1.DC Charging system consisting of AC/DC Chargers 2.Battery Unit 3.DC Distribution Systems Ac/dc charging system consists of Float charger Boost charger Now a days mostly lead acid cells are used. The battery cells are of two types Primary cells Secondary cells In the primary cells the material used must be replaced after the cell delivers the current. where as the secondary cells can be recharged with dc current after the cells deliver current and the same material can be used.

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: 1.The entire wiring of circuitry for indications, alarms, metering and control should be permanent wiring. 2. There is no place for temporary wiring in electrical circuitry at the sub-station 3.The leads should be identified by ferrules near terminals.

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4. Every lead should end at a terminals point and no junction by twisting is allowed. if two wires are to be terminated at same terminal they may be connected at two different terminals they may be connected at two different terminals and a loop provided in between the terminals. 5.The wiring should be by copper leads 2.5sq.mm started for CT secondaries P.T secondarys, control indication and alarm circuitry. 6. The terminals strips should be stud type with nuts and not screw intype. 7. Wherever two batteries are available, the primary protection and back-up protection should be from different batteries. 8.Where there is only one battery at a power substation, the primary and back-up protections should be given D.C supply through two individual circuits with independent fuses run from D.C bus. 9. Independent DC cables should be run to every equipment in the yard and looping of DC supply either in the yard or in the control room from one equipment to the other is to be avoided. 10.The DC yard lightning for emergency lighting should be through independent cables and not mixed up with protection and other circuitry. 11. The wiring inside the panels should be clean and neatly fastened avoiding loose wires

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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

43

CONCLUSION:
In our power system network protection plays a major role and it does have equipment which is expensive,they have maintained so that we can avoid damage of the equipment and we can have continuous supply. In a transmission only transformers only cannot fulfill the requirements.There are many other types of equipment in the sub-station for the protection and for continuous uninterrupted supply.The equipment in the sub-station requires maintenance i.e. continuous checking of equipment is required to continuous working in the protection and un-interrupted supply.

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REFERENCES

1. www.aptransco.com 2.
www.wikipedia.org

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