Goldberg-Coxeter construction for - or -valent plane graphs

Mathieu Dutour
ENS/CNRS, Paris and Hebrew University, Jerusalem

Michel Deza
ENS/CNRS, Paris and ISM, Tokyo

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Goldberg-Coxeter for the Cube

1,0

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Goldberg-Coxeter for the Cube

1,1

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Goldberg-Coxeter for the Cube

2,0

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Goldberg-Coxeter for the Cube

2,1

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History
Mathematics:

construction of planar graphs

M. Goldberg, A class of multisymmetric polyhedra, Tohoku Math. Journal, 43 (1937) 104108. Objective was to maximize the interior volume of the polytope, i.e. to nd -dimensional analogs of regular polygons. search of equidistributed systems of points on the sphere for application to Numerical Analysis.

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History
Biology:

explanation of structure of icosahedral viruses

D.Caspar and A.Klug, Physical Principles in the Construction of Regular Viruses, Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 27 (1962) 1-24.

    

symmetry

capsid of virion
gemini virus hepathite B HK97, rabbit papilloma virus rotavirus herpes virus, varicella adenovirus HIV-1

, laevo , laevo

, laevo

 

 

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History
Architecture:

construction of geodesic domes Patent by Buckminster Fuller

EPCOT in Disneyland.

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History
Mathematics:

H.S.M. Coxeter, Virus macromolecules and geodesic domes, in A spectrum of mathematics; ed. by J.C.Butcher, Oxford University Press/Auckland University Press: Oxford, U.K./Auckland NewZealand, (1971) 98107.

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History
Chemistry:

Buckminsterfullerene (football, Truncated Icosahedron)

Kroto, Kurl, Smalley (Nobel prize 1996) synthetized in 1985 a new molecule, whose graph is . Osawa constructed theoretically in 1984.

 

  

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I. ZigZags and central circuits

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Central circuits
A 4valent plane graph G

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Central circuits
Take an edge of G

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Central circuits
Continue it straight ahead ...

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Central circuits
... until the end

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Central circuits
A selfintersecting central circuit

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Central circuits
A partition of edges of G

CC=4 2, 6, 8

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Zig Zags
A plane graph G

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Zig Zags
Take two edges

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Zig Zags
Continue it leftright alternatively ....

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Zig Zags
... until we come back

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Zig Zags
A selfintersecting zigzag

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Zig Zags
A double covering of 18 edges: 10+10+16

zvector

z=10 , 16

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Notations
ZC-circuit stands for zigzag or central circuit in - or -valent plane graphs.

The length of a ZC-circuit is the number of its edges.

The ZC-vector of a - or -valent plane graph where is the number of vector ZC-circuits of length .



is the

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II. Goldberg-Coxeter construction

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The construction
Take a - or -valent plane graph formed of triangles or squares.

. The graph

is

Break the triangles or squares into pieces:

l=2 l=2 k=5 3valent case k=5 4valent case

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Gluing the pieces

Glue the pieces together in a coherent way. We obtain another triangulation or quadrangulation of the plane.

Case -valent

Case -valent

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Gluing the pieces

Glue the pieces together in a coherent way. We obtain another triangulation or quadrangulation of the plane.

: -valent

: -valent

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Gluing the pieces

Glue the pieces together in a coherent way. We obtain another triangulation or quadrangulation of the plane.

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Gluing the pieces

Glue the pieces together in a coherent way. We obtain another triangulation or quadrangulation of the plane.

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Final steps
Go to the dual and obtain a - or -valent plane graph, and called which is denoted Goldberg-Coxeter construction.

The construction works for any - or -valent map on oriented surface.

Operation

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Example of

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Example of

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Example of

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Example of

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Example of

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Example of

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Example of

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Properties
One associates (Eisenstein integer) or (Gaussian integer) to the pair in - or -valent case.



If one writes has: If has

instead of

vertices, then

vertices if vertices if

has is -valent, is -valent.

If

has a plane of symmetry, we reduce to

, then one

and all


has all rotational symmetries of or . symmetries if

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The case

Case -valent

Case -valent

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The case

Case -valent

Case -valent

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The case

Case -valent is called leapfrog (=Truncation of the dual)

Case -valent is called medial Bonjour

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Goldberg Theorem
is the class of -valent plane graphs having only and -gonal faces.

The class of -valent plane graphs having only - and -gonal faces is called Octahedrites.

Class

Groups ,


Construction

Tetrahedron

   

, , ,

Cube

 

   

 

Prism

   

 

   


!

Dodecahedron Octahedron

Octahedrites

 

   

"

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The special case

Any ZC-circuit of corresponds to ZC-circuits of with length multiplied by .

If the ZC-vector of is of

is

, then the ZC-vector

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The special case

Any ZC-circuit of corresponds to ZC-circuits of with length multiplied by .

If the ZC-vector of is of

is

, then the ZC-vector

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The special case

Any ZC-circuit of corresponds to ZC-circuits of with length multiplied by .

If the ZC-vector of is of

is

, then the ZC-vector

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III. The -product

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Example: Case


We always assume

is bijective and periodic with period

operations:


The mapping

,


  

  

if if


            

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The

-product
and

Denition 0 (The -product) If and are two elements of a group, ; we dene by and . Set if and if then set

By convention, set and , , one gets the expression For

A similar notion is introduced by Norton (1987) in Generalized Moonshine for the Monster group.

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Properties

If

and

commute,

Euclidean algorithm formula if if

If

and

do not commute, then

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IV. ZC-circuits in

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Position mapping, -valent case

A zigzag in GC5,2 (G 0)

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Position mapping, -valent case

Put an Orientation on it

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Position mapping, -valent case

Encoding: A directed edge e A position p=3 a pair ( e, 3)

e
6 1 2 3 4 5

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Position mapping, -valent case

Go to the

Dual !

e
6 1 2 3 k=5 4 5

l=2

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Position mapping, -valent case

f1
1 2 3 4 5 Image of ( e, 3) is ( f 1 , 5)

e
6 1 2 3
k=5

7
l=2

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Position mapping, -valent case

f2
2 3 4 5 7 6

Image of ( e, 6) is ( f 2 , 1)

e
6 1 2 3
k=5

7
l=2

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Iteration



Position mapping is denoted

or

      

mapping as

. So, one denes Iterated position .




is the set of directed edges of permutation of .

is a



 

For every ZC-circuit with pair the smallest , such that

denote

one has: For any ZC-circuit of = -valent case = -valent case is the vector The [ZC]-vector of where is the number of ZC-circuits with order .

    

    

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The mappings
and

and
   

are the following permutation of



 

with and being the rst and second choice. Example of Cube

Dual Cube

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The mappings

and

24 Directed Edges

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The mappings

and

Successive images of e by L

L(e) e

L(L(e))

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The mappings
R(e)

and

Successive images of e by R

R(R(e))

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Moving group and Key Theorem

is the moving group In Cube: a subgroup of .

For , denote the vector with multiplicities being the half of the number of cycles of length in the permutation acting on the set . In Cube:

 

Key Theorem One has for all - or -valent plane graphs and all

of



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Solution of the Cube case

and do not commute .

 

of

   

normal subgroup of index

is of order .

divisible by

Elements of have order . Elements of have order .

Cube has [ZC]= otherwise

if

and [ZC]= ,

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Possible [ZC]-vectors

Denote

the set of all pairs .

Denote the smallest subset of , which and is stable by the two contains the pair operations

and


Theorem: The set of possible [ZC]-vectors of is equal to the set of all vectors , with .

with
 

Computable in nite time for a given

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Examples

Dodecahedron elements different from or Possible [ZC] are

of order . Order of are , or . or .


"

  

Klein Map = elements different from or Possible [ZC] are

 

of order . Order of are , , or . .

Truncated Icosidodecahedron has size

"

 

 

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V.

action

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action?

is the set of pairs

and

. One has

The matrices

and

generate

We want to dene , such that

(i)

is a group action of

on

(ii) If satises


, then the mapping

 

This is in fact not possible!

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action

is generated by matrices

and and

all relations between relations

are generated by the

and

We write

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Group action of

By computation

on

preserve the element If : then for all pairs

and


have the same [ZC]-vector. This dene a nite index subgroup of

in

action (continued)

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Conjectured generators
Graph Generators of


   

Dodecahedron Cube Octahedron

, , ,




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VI. Remarks

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transitive
.

is the set of all directed edges of

: all rotations in automorphism group . its action on is free. action of and on commute.

If is transitive on , then its action on ZC-circuit is transitive too and



dened by morphism.

, is an injective group is normal in .




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Extremal cases

non-trivial



restrictions on


transitive on case) or ( -valent case).


= ( -valent

is formed of even permutation on directed edges.

or

In some cases

We have no example of -valent plane graph .

 


with

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commutative
is either a graph ,a

graph Class

commutative or a -hedrite.

(Grunbaum-Zaks): Goldberg-Coxeter of the

Bundle

Class (Grunbaum-Motzkin)

Class -hedrites (Deza-Shtogrin)

No other classes of graphs or -hedrites is known to admit such simple descriptions.

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VII. Parametrizing graphs

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Parametrizing graphs

Idea: the hexagons are of zero curvature, it sufces to give relative positions of faces of non-zero curvature. Goldberg (1937): All , or of symmetry ( , ( , ) or ( , ) are given by Goldberg-Coxeter . construction

),

Fowler and al. (1988) All are described in terms of Graver (1999) All parameters.

of symmetry parameters.

 

or

can be encoded by

integer complex ,

Thurston (1998) The parameters.

are parametrized by

Sah (1994) Thurstons result implies that the Nrs of , , , .

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The structure of graphs

triangles in

The corresponding triangulation

The graph

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Tightness
A railroad in a -valent plane graph is a circuit of hexagons with any two of them adjacent on opposite edges.

They are bounded by two zigzags. A graph is called tight if and only if it has no railroads. If a - (or -)valent plane graph has no -gonal faces then is tight. with = (or ) and

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- and railroad-structure of graphs

All zigzags are simple. The -vector is of the form

with

the number of railroads is has

zigzags with equality if and only if it is tight.

If is tight, then Hamiltonian circuit).

(so, each zigzag is a is prime. is odd.

All

are tight if and only if

There exists a tight

if and only if

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Conjecture on

are described by two complex parameters. They exists if and only if and .

with one zigzag

$

"

The dening triangles

! &' ( )0 1 32 4$

 %  5  (    ! "   #

exists if and only if

 $   

 %

If

increases, then part of goes to 100%

!   $  

amongst

 

! 6

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More conjectures
All
 

   

with only simple zigzags are: , and the family of with parameters with and

and .

They have symmetry

or

or

Any

 

with one zigzag is a

 

For tight graphs with

or

the -vector is of the form with



Tight exist if and only if z-transitive with iff



iff

and, otherwise,

, they are

"

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The End

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