Polycycles and face-regular two-maps

Michel Deza
ENS/CNRS, Paris and ISM, Tokyo

Mathieu Dutour Sikiric

ENS/CNRS, Paris and Hebrew University, Jerusalem

and Mikhail Shtogrin

Steklov Institute, Moscow

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I. Strictly face-regular two-maps

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Denition
A strictly face-regular two-map is a -connected -valent map (on sphere or torus), whose -sphere or -torus) faces have size or (
  

holds: any -gonal face is adjacent to

-gons -gons

holds: any -gonal face is adjacent to

-sphere

-sphere

 

 

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Euler formula
If denote the number of edges separating - and -gon, then one has:
#! " $ % ( "! & ' & % " '  ( $ %

Euler formula genus, can be rewritten as

) 0 2 1 ' ( 6 6 ' 1 "

with

being the
4 53

4 53

&

'

& 6 %

'

3 '

This implies
7 6 6 ' ' 8 @  "! 1 "! 9  3 @ % $  ' '  $ % '4 & &

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A classication

If , then , the map exists only on sphere and the number of vertices depends only on .
B   9 A 4  

If torus.
9 9

, then

& &

If , then , the map exists only on surfaces of higher genus and the number of vertices is determined by the genus and .
B   C 4 A @

&

, the map exists only on

Detailed classication: On sphere: and

E FD GH I %

sporadic examples + two innite series:

% !R E E

On torus:

sporadic examples +

Q FP

@6

innite cases.

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Some sporadic spheres

-sphere

-sphere

  

S 

-sphere

-sphere

U 

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The parameters with sporadic tori

-torus

-torus

S

3 V

-torus

T V

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The parameters with sporadic tori

-torus

-torus

 

-torus

-torus

 

@ 

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-tori
6

`

They are obtained by truncating a -valent tesselation of the torus by -gons on the vertices from a set , such that every face is incident to exactly vertices in .
% a

3 @

There is an innity of possibilities, except for

-torus
V  

-torus
T V b

-torus
V b

&

@ 

-tori , ( ) are obtained (from 6 above) by -triakon (dividing -gon into triple of -gons)
U V  `   U

`%

% a

' 6

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-tori

Take the symbols

The torus correspond to words of the form with being equal to or .

f g 9

h iS 9

f q

g q

p #9

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-tori

Take the symbols

r g

The torus correspond to words of the form with being equal to or .

f g 9

h iS 9

t us wv

t us

x wv

p #9

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-tori

If -gons forming innite lines, then one possibility:



Take the symbols

e us x

Other tori correspond to words of the form with being equal to or .

t x

w v

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-tori


-gons and -gons are organized in innite lines.

T

Only two congurations for -gons locally:

Words of the form or .

g f

with

being equal to

h iS 9

p #9

t us

x wv

t us

xt

wv

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-tori
6

They are in one-to-one correspondence with perfect matchings of a -regular triangulation of the torus, such that every vertex is contained in a triangle, whose edge, opposite to this vertex, belongs to .
D D

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-tori
6

They are in one-to-one correspondence with perfect matchings of a -regular triangulation of the torus, such that every vertex is contained in a triangle, whose edge, opposite to this vertex, belongs to .
D D

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-tori
 

Given a -torus, which is and , the removal of edges between two -gons produces a -torus, and . which is
 T   S

 T  

Any such -torus can be obtained in this way from two -tori and , which are and .
T   U 

 

and are obtained from each other by the transformation

U

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Our research program

We investigated the cases of -regular spheres and tori being or .
 

Such maps with should be on sphere only. All -spheres are . There are innities of -spheres for ; there are -spheres . There are innities of -spheres for ; there are two spheres and spheres
& 6 S 6   6   3 b  6 6  6    3  36

, , , , . .
@ @

For a
` 6

-polyhedron, which is

, one has


For a -connected .

-torus, which is

, one has

`

&

&

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Representations of

-maps

Steinitz theorem: Any -connected planar graph is the skeleton of a polyhedron. Torus case: A -torus has a fundamental group isomorphic to , its universal cover is a periodic -plane. A periodic -plane is the universal cover of an innity of -tori. Take a -torus and its corresponding -plane . If all translation preserving arise from the fundamental group of , then is called minimal. Any -plane is the universal cover of a unique minimal torus.
U D D

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II.

-polycycles

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-polycycles
3  2 U 2

A generalized -polycycle is a -connected plane graph with faces partitioned in two families and , so that: all elements of -gons;

W U 2  2

(proper faces) are (combinatorial)

all elements of (holes, the exterior face is amongst them) are pairwisely disjoint; all vertices have valency or lies on a boundary of a hole.

and any -valent vertex

3

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and

-polycycles

cases:

(i) Any

-polycycle is one of the following

(ii) Any

-polycycle belongs to the following

cases:

or belong to the following innite family of

-polycycles:

This classication is very useful for classifying

-maps.

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Polycycle decomposition
A bridge is an edge going from a hole to a hole (possibly, the same).

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Polycycle decomposition

Any generalized along its bridges.

-polycycle is uniquely decomposable

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Polycycle decomposition
The set of non-decomposable classied:

-polycycles has been

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Polycycle decomposition

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Polycycle decomposition
The innite series of non-decomposable :
p 0 @

-polycycles

The only non-decomposable innite and

0

-polycycle are

d0 e

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Polycycle decomposition
The innite series of non-decomposable generalized -polycycles , , :
% & f !R Q FP E E 

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III.

-maps

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- and
 &

-cases
T

-maps exist only for or . For : innity of spheres and minimal tori. For , the only case is strictly face-regular -torus , .
T & T &  S 

-maps exist only for For and : innity of spheres and minimal tori. For , no sphere is known, but such tori exist:
`  & b & T ` @ B

For

, only tori exist and they are

&

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-case

is always
` `

; so, we consider different maps.

@ T

E FD GH

-gons are organized in triples. , , or , they exist only on torus and are
& ` @ B ` & @ 3 @ @6 & @ T @6

One has For

V

Innity of spheres is found for , and . Uncertain cases are and . Possible spheres and vertices. have at least
& @ @ @ b 3 @ @6 & @

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- and
   &

-cases
.
T  

-maps are only

& 

-tori and they are

-maps exist only for and . For , there is an innity of spheres (Hajduk & Sotak) and tori.

For

, they exist only on torus and are also

j lk

h i

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-case
3   0

Possible only for . The set of -gons is decomposed along the bridges into polycycles and :
6 ` U 0 ` @

For For

, they exist only on torus and are , they exist only on torus and are

&

&

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-case

For

, they exist only on sphere and are:

&

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-case

For

, it exist only on sphere and is:

&

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-case
T

For , an innity of are known, one being

& T

-spheres is known. Two tori , the other not.

@ B  B

, some spheres are known with , and vertices. Innitness of spheres and existence of tori, which are not , are undecided.
b B & @ B U @ B

For

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III. Frank-Kasper maps, i.e. -maps

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Frank-Kasper polyhedra
A Frank-Kasper polyhedron is a . Exactly cases exists.
S  0 6 6

-sphere which is

A space fullerene is a face-to-face tiling of the by Frank-Kasper polyhedra. They Euclidean space appear in crystallography of alloys, bubble structures, clathrate hydrates and zeolites.

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Polycycle decomposition
We consider


-spheres and tori, which are

The set of -gonal faces of Frank-Kasper maps is decomposable along the bridges into the following non-decomposable -polycycles:


 0

ts

The major skeleton of a Frank-Kasper map is a -valent map, whose vertex-set consists of polycycles and .
x dn o w q r

 m

o pn

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Polycycle decomposition

A Frank-Kasper

@

-sphere

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Polycycle decomposition

The polycycle decomposition

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Polycycle decomposition
C3

E1 E1 C1 E1 C3 E1 C1

E1 E1 C1

Their names

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Polycycle decomposition

E1 E1 C1 E1 C3 E1 C1

E1 E1 C1

The graph of polycycles.

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Polycycle decomposition

E1 E1

E1

C3

E1

E1 E1

: eliminate

, so as to get a -valent map

 m

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Results
For a Frank-Kasper the -valent map
@ 3 C    y

-map, the gonality of faces of is at most .

U z % { h v

If , then there is no -torus nite number of -spheres . For : There is a unique -torus
 3 & @ 3

and there is a

The
S @ 3

-spheres are classied.

@

Conjecture: there is an innity of any .

h 

-spheres

for

} ~ s|

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IV.

-maps

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Euler formula

If is a then:
D 6 '

-map, which is
1 3 6

( -gons in isolated pairs),

(

on sphere on torus
h

'

'

'

& 

'

'

'

'

with being the number of vertices included in three -gonal faces.



For -maps this yields niteness on sphere and non-existence on torus. For
`

-maps this implies niteness on sphere for and non-existence on torus

&

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Polycycle decomposition
There is no


-sphere

.
@ &

-map , the non-decomposable appearing in the decomposition are:



-polycycles,

and the innite serie

(see cases

below):

U p 0

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-maps


In the case , Euler formula implies that the number of vertices, included in three -gons, is bounded (for sphere) or zero (for torus).
& b

All non-decomposable -polycycles (except the single -gon) contain such vertices. This implies niteness on sphere and non-existence on torus.


While niteness of -spheres is proved for and , the actual work of enumeration is not nished.
  & b

&

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-tori

and beyond

Using Euler formula and polycycle decomposition, one can see that the only appearing polycycles are:

-torus, which is , corresponds, in a one-to-one fashion, to a perfect matching on a -regular triangulation of the torus, such that every vertex is contained in a triangle, whose edge, opposite to this vertex, belongs to .
 @ @ B D

For any

, there is a
@ B

-torus, which is


.


Conjecture: there exists an innity of if and only if .

-spheres

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V.

-maps

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Euler formula
The -gons of a -map are organized in rings, including triples, i.e. -rings.
U

One has the Euler formula

(

on sphere on torus
h

'

'

'

'

    6 1 1 S ' ' ' % '  S 

is the number of vertices incident to -gonal faces and the number of vertices incident to -gonal faces. , ,
6    

It implies the niteness for

&

& 

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All

-maps
):
T & 6

two possibilities (for

and the innite series

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-maps

For

spheres and no tori. Two examples:

&

36

For , there is an innity of minimal -tori, which are .

T

-map is

if and only if it is

-spheres and
U

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III.

-maps

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Classication for
The are:


-case

-polycycles, appearing in the decomposition,

Consider the graph, whose vertices are -gonal faces of a -sphere (same adjacency). It is a -valent map Its faces are -, - or -gons. It has at most vertices.
  3 T 

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yields

yields

yields

(one innite series)

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yields

and (two innite series)

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yields

(a family

with

 %

`@

' 

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-maps
if and only if it is
  S

-torus is

. with -gonal
3 B & 

A -sphere, which is , has being the number of vertices contained in faces.



For all

-tori,

are known:

 

Conj. For any

there is an innity of

-spheres.

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III.

-maps

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Classication of
For
T

-maps

-maps, which are

1 S 

, one has
T @ '4

&

!

with being the genus ( for sphere and for torus) and the number of vertices contained in -gonal faces.
B 4

$ 

'4

&

There exists a unique

-torus

We use for the complicated case of -sphere exhaustive computer enumeration method.
s



an

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Classication of

-maps

Two examples amongst

sporadic spheres.

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Classication of

-maps

One innite series amongst

innite series.

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III.

-maps

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-case
, are known for any
! @ 3

-tori, which are , they are

  & 

For


. . Is there an
$  &

-spheres satisfy to innity of such spheres?

S 

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-case
for , ,
T

The smallest

-spheres

are:

 &

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