133

chemical

conditions, and to

helpconserve soil

moisture (Sattar

andGaur, 1989; Gill

and

Meelu, -1

1982;Tran-Thuc

Son et al., 1995). A

one-time application

of FYM (10-15 t ha

)increased wheat

yields for up to

threesuccessive

crop cycles, when

appliedin

conjunction with

inorganic

Nfertilizers, and for

up to four years

withthe addition of

fertilizers under

hotand humid

conditions in

Bangladesh(Mian et

al., 1985). Under

high-temperature 3

conditions,

volatilizationof N

fertilizers such as

NH

is morelikely, and

further decreases

wheatyields

compared with the

application

of equivalent N in

organic forms such

asFYM (Tran-Thuc

Son et al.,

1995).Straw mulch

is another

agronomicinput

with the potential to

amelioratestress by

reducing

evaporation of

soilmoisture and

increasing

infiltration rate(Lal,

1975). Straw mulch

has

also

beenreported to

lower soil

temperature(Benoit

and Kirkhoun,

1963) and toimpede

seedling emergence,

a negativeeffect

(Chopra and

Chaudhary,

1980).Surface soil

temperatures can

exceedair

temperature by 10

to 15

C if thesoil surface

is bare and

radiationintensity is

high; straw mulch

in suchconditions

may increase

seedlingemergence

and survival

(Fischer,1984).

Given that wheat

growth

underwarm

conditions is highly

sensitive

tomanagement,

judicious

combinationsof

management

practices

couldsubstantially

benefit performance

byimproving crop

establishment and

theavailability of

water and

nutrientsduring

subsequent growth

stages.A

collaborative study

was conductedby

CIMMYT and the

national

wheatresearch

programs of Sudan

andBangladesh to

provide

informationfrom

warm

environments

on theresponse of

wheat to

managementfactors

such as mulching

andapplication of

FYM, and to

elevatedlevels of

inorganic fertilizer

andincreased

irrigation

frequency(Badarud

determine

whethermodificati

d o

in et al., 1999). The

researchwas

conducted to

ns to recommended

cropmanagement

practices

couldsignificantly

improve grain

yield.Control

treatments

representedrecom -1

ended practices and

gave yieldsof 3.6 t

ha

, averaged across -1

allenvironments.

Considering main

effects,FYM (10 t

ha

) gave the highest

yieldresponse

(14%), and

approximatelyequi

alent levels of NPK

the lowest(5.5%),

suggesting that

organic

fertilizerprovided

growth factors in

addition

tonutrient

content. Mulch and

extrairrigation

increased yield in

the hot, lowrelative

humidity

environments

(i.e.,Sudan and

Mexico), but not

inBangladesh,

which is hot and

humid.In Mexico,

extra inputs were

morebeneficial

under hotter, spring

sownconditions

than in winter

sowings.Comparis

n of heat tolerant

(Glennson81) and

heat sensitive

(Pavon

76)genotypes

showed that the heat

tolerantgenotype

was generally more

responsiveto

additional inputs.

Improvedperforma

ce in response to

inputs

wasgenerally

associated with

better

standestablishment

and with

significantincreases

in plant height, -2

grain m

, andabove-ground

biomass; in Mexico

it wasalso related to

higher canopy

temperaturedepress

on and light

interception.These

results clearly

indicate that

wheatyields in

warm environments

can beraised

significantly by

modifyingagronom

practices. Overall,

theapplication of

animal manure had

thelargest and most

consistent

effect

onyield. Some of

the benefits

associatedwith extra

organic matter may

also

beprovided by

practicing residue

retentionand

reduced tillage.

Such

integratedapproach

s to crop and soil

managementin

abiotically stressed

environments

arebecoming

increasingly

relevant in lightof

diminishing water

supplies in

manyagro

ecosystems.This

study did not

attempt to analyze

theeconomic basis

of

management

factors,only to

establish their

biological

value.Nonetheless,

data indicate

thatrecommended

levels of

fertilizer,whether

organic or

otherwise, were

notgenerally

sufficient to meet

croprequirements.

Average yield

responses toNPK

and FYM at a given

site

were asmuch as

17% and 24%,

respectively,sugges

ing that in hot

regions

eveneconomic

yields might be

improvedthrough

better crop

nutrition.The

economic

basis of

increasingirrigation

frequency is more

complex fortwo

reasons. First,

irrigation

schemessuch as the

one in the Gezira of

centralSudan lack

the flexibility to

permitfarmers

to

irrigate at will. Water

isusually available

only at set times in

agiven area as water

is

passedsystematical

y through the

wholeirrigation

scheme. Second,

wateravailability is

declining in many

regionsof the world,

so the expectation

of raising economic

returns

throughincreased

irrigation may not

be fulfilledif water

prices rise

dramatically.

Asmentioned

previously, it may

be possibleto obtain

the benefits of

mulching

and,perhaps,

increase soil organic

matterthrough a

combination of

residueretention and

reduced tillage

practices.Nonethel

ss, significant

investment willbe

required on the part

of

nationalagricultural

research systems

and

theirgovernments,

or

agriculturaldevelo

ment agencies

sponsored

byindustrialized

countries, if such

practicesare to

become a reality in

the

developingworld.

Conclusions

While patterns of

heat stress may

varywidely between

wheat growing

regions,a major

factor explaining

genotype

byenvironment

interaction has been

shownto be relative

humidity (RH). In

low

RHenvironments,

lack of

physiological

heattolerance is the

major yield

constraint,while in

high RH

environments,

diseasepressure may

be an

additional

andpossibly more

serious limitation.

Canopytemperature

depression seems to

be apotentially

powerful indirect

selectioncriterion in

low RH

environments,

whilestomatal

conductance and

membranethermost

bility may be

applied in all

hotenvironments. H EAT T OLERANCE

However, genetic

gains to

134

selection should be

tested in any

newenvironment

using locally

adaptedgermplasm

(as

outlined in

theintroductory

chapter) before the

use of physiological

traits as

indirectselection

criteria is

incorporated

intomainstream

breeding.Where

germplasm

collections

areavailable,

accessions from

abioticallystressed

regions should be

screened

forheat

tolerance

characteristics as

ameans of

introducing new

sources of genetic

diversity into the

breedingprogram. In

addition to

geneticimprovemen

, agronomic

strategies(such as

residue retention to

lower soilsurface

temperatures and

increase

soilorganic

matter) are also a

means of increasing

productivity in

warmenvironments.

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