www.jntuworld.

com

Data Communications
National Engineer Training Services

www.jntuworld.com

Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

Time domain concepts
Continuous signal
Various in a smooth way over time

Discrete signal
Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant level

Periodic signal
Pattern repeated over time

Aperiodic signal
Pattern not repeated over time

www.jntuworld.com

Continuous & Discrete Signals

www.jntuworld.com

Periodic Signals

www.jntuworld.com

Wavelength
Distance occupied by one cycle Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two consecutive cycles Assuming signal velocity v

= vT f = v
c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)

www.jntuworld.com

Frequency Domain Concepts

Signal usually made up of many frequencies Components are sine waves Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of component sine waves Can plot frequency domain functions

www.jntuworld.com

Spectrum & Bandwidth

Spectrum range of frequencies contained in signal Absolute bandwidth width of spectrum Effective bandwidth Often just bandwidth Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy DC Component Component of zero frequency

www.jntuworld.com

Data Rate and Bandwidth

Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies This limits the data rate that can be carried

www.jntuworld.com

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data
Entities that convey meaning

Signals
Electric or electromagnetic representations of data

Transmission
Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

www.jntuworld.com

Data
Analog
Continuous values within some interval e.g. sound, video

Digital
Discrete values e.g. text, integers

www.jntuworld.com

Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)

www.jntuworld.com

Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content May be analog or digital data Attenuated over distance Use amplifiers to boost signal Also amplifies noise

www.jntuworld.com

Digital Transmission
Concerned with content Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc. Repeaters used Repeater receives signal Extracts bit pattern Retransmits Attenuation is overcome Noise is not amplified

www.jntuworld.com

Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital technology
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology

Data integrity
Longer distances over lower quality lines

Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links economical High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques

Security & Privacy

Encryption

Integration
Can treat analog and digital data similarly

www.jntuworld.com

Encoding Techniques
Digital data, digital signal Analog data, digital signal Digital data, analog signal Analog data, analog signal

www.jntuworld.com

Digital Data, Digital Signal

Digital signal
Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data encoded into signal elements

www.jntuworld.com

Terms (1)
Unipolar
All signal elements have same sign

Polar
One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage

Data rate
Rate of data transmission in bits per second

Duration or length of a bit

Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit

www.jntuworld.com

Terms (2)
Modulation rate
Rate at which the signal level changes Measured in baud = signal elements per second

Mark and Space

Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively

www.jntuworld.com

Interpreting Signals
Need to know
Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels

Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals

Signal to noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth

www.jntuworld.com

Digital Data, Analog Signal

Public telephone system
300Hz to 3400Hz Use modem (modulator-demodulator)

Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PK)

www.jntuworld.com

Modulation Techniques

www.jntuworld.com

Amplitude Shift Keying

Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier Usually, one amplitude is zero
i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used

Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines Used over optical fiber

www.jntuworld.com

Frequency Shift Keying

Values represented by different frequencies (near carrier) Less susceptible to error than ASK Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines High frequency radio Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

www.jntuworld.com

FSK on Voice Grade Line

www.jntuworld.com

Phase Shift Keying

Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data Differential PSK
Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal

www.jntuworld.com

Quadrature PSK
More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one bit
e.g. shifts of /2 (90o) Each element represents two bits Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one amplitude 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have two amplitudes

www.jntuworld.com

Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes

Bandwidth
ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit rate FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower frequencies, but to offset of modulated frequency from carrier at high frequencies

In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK

www.jntuworld.com

Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitization
Conversion of analog data into digital data Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L Digital data can then be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L Digital data can then be converted to analog signal Analog to digital conversion done using a codec Pulse code modulation Delta modulation

www.jntuworld.com

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1)

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal Voice data limited to below 4000Hz Require 8000 sample per second Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM) Each sample assigned digital value

www.jntuworld.com

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2)

4 bit system gives 16 levels Quantized
Quantizing error or noise Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly

8 bit sample gives 256 levels Quality comparable with analog transmission 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps

www.jntuworld.com

Nonlinear Encoding
Quantization levels not evenly spaced Reduces overall signal distortion Can also be done by companding

www.jntuworld.com

Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by a staircase function Move up or down one level () at each sample interval Binary behavior
Function moves up or down at each sample interval

www.jntuworld.com

Delta Modulation - example

www.jntuworld.com

Delta Modulation Performance

Good voice reproduction
PCM - 128 levels (7 bit) Voice bandwidth 4khz Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCM

Data compression can improve on this

e.g. Interframe coding techniques for video

www.jntuworld.com

Analog Data, Analog Signals

Why modulate analog signals?
Higher frequency can give more efficient transmission Permits frequency division multiplexing Types of modulation Amplitude Frequency Phase

www.jntuworld.com

Analog Modulation

www.jntuworld.com

Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted Analog - degradation of signal quality Digital - bit errors Caused by
Attenuation and attenuation distortion Delay distortion Noise

www.jntuworld.com

Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance Depends on medium Received signal strength:
must be enough to be detected must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

www.jntuworld.com

Delay Distortion
Only in guided media Propagation velocity varies with frequency

www.jntuworld.com

Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between transmitter and receiver Thermal
Due to thermal agitation of electrons Uniformly distributed White noise

Intermodulation
Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a medium

www.jntuworld.com

Noise (2)
Crosstalk
A signal from one line is picked up by another

Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes e.g. External electromagnetic interference Short duration High amplitude

www.jntuworld.com

Channel Capacity
Data rate
In bits per second Rate at which data can be communicated

Bandwidth
In cycles per second of Hertz Constrained by transmitter and medium

www.jntuworld.com

Encoding Schemes
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI) Bipolar -AMI Pseudoternary Manchester Differential Manchester B8ZS HDB3

www.jntuworld.com

Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZL)

Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Voltage constant during bit interval
no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage

e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other This is NRZ-L

www.jntuworld.com

Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1 No transition denotes binary 0 An example of differential encoding

www.jntuworld.com

NRZ

www.jntuworld.com

Differential Encoding
Data represented by changes rather than levels More reliable detection of transition rather than level In complex transmission layouts it is easy to lose sense of polarity

www.jntuworld.com

NRZ pros and cons

Pros
Easy to engineer Make good use of bandwidth

Cons
dc component Lack of synchronization capability

Used for magnetic recording Not often used for signal transmission

www.jntuworld.com

Multilevel Binary
Use more than two levels Bipolar-AMI
zero represented by no line signal one represented by positive or negative pulse one pulses alternate in polarity No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a problem) No net dc component Lower bandwidth Easy error detection

www.jntuworld.com

Pseudoternary
One represented by absence of line signal Zero represented by alternating positive and negative No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

www.jntuworld.com

Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

www.jntuworld.com

Trade Off for Multilevel Binary

Not as efficient as NRZ
Each signal element only represents one bit In a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits Receiver must distinguish between three levels (+A, -A, 0) Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error

www.jntuworld.com

Biphase
Manchester
Transition in middle of each bit period Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents one High to low represents zero Used by IEEE 802.3

Differential Manchester
Midbit transition is clocking only Transition at start of a bit period represents zero No transition at start of a bit period represents one Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5

www.jntuworld.com

Biphase Pros and Cons

Con
At least one transition per bit time and possibly two Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ Requires more bandwidth

Pros
Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking) No dc component Error detection
Absence of expected transition

www.jntuworld.com

Modulation Rate

www.jntuworld.com

Scrambling
Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage Filling sequence
Must produce enough transitions to sync Must be recognized by receiver and replace with original Same length as original

No dc component No long sequences of zero level line signal No reduction in data rate Error detection capability

www.jntuworld.com

B8ZS
Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution Based on bipolar-AMI If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+ If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+Causes two violations of AMI code Unlikely to occur as a result of noise Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all zeros

www.jntuworld.com

HDB3
High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros Based on bipolar-AMI String of four zeros replaced with one or two pulses

www.jntuworld.com

B8ZS and HDB3

www.jntuworld.com

Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Coaxial cable Optical fiber

www.jntuworld.com

Twisted Pair

www.jntuworld.com

Twisted Pair - Applications

Most common medium Telephone network
Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop)

Within buildings
To private branch exchange (PBX)

For local area networks (LAN)

10Mbps or 100Mbps

www.jntuworld.com

Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons

Cheap Easy to work with Low data rate Short range

www.jntuworld.com

Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics

Analog Amplifiers every 5km to 6km Digital Use either analog or digital signals repeater every 2km or 3km Limited distance Limited bandwidth (1MHz) Limited data rate (100MHz) Susceptible to interference and noise

www.jntuworld.com

Unshielded and Shielded TP

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ordinary telephone wire Cheapest Easiest to install Suffers from external EM interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference More expensive Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

www.jntuworld.com

UTP Categories
Cat 3
up to 16MHz Voice grade found in most offices Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm

Cat 4
up to 20 MHz

Cat 5
up to 100MHz Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm

www.jntuworld.com

Near End Crosstalk

Coupling of signal from one pair to another Coupling takes place when transmit signal entering the link couples back to receiving pair i.e. near transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair

www.jntuworld.com

Coaxial Cable

www.jntuworld.com

Coaxial Cable Applications

Most versatile medium Television distribution
Ariel to TV Cable TV

Long distance telephone transmission

Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously Being replaced by fiber optic

Short distance computer systems links Local area networks

www.jntuworld.com

Coaxial Cable - Transmission Characteristics

Analog
Amplifiers every few km Closer if higher frequency Up to 500MHz

Digital
Repeater every 1km Closer for higher data rates

www.jntuworld.com

Optical Fiber

www.jntuworld.com

Optical Fiber - Benefits

Greater capacity
Data rates of hundreds of Gbps

Smaller size & weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Greater repeater spacing
10s of km at least

www.jntuworld.com

Optical Fiber - Applications

Long-haul trunks Metropolitan trunks Rural exchange trunks Subscriber loops LANs

www.jntuworld.com

Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics

Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz Portions of infrared and visible spectrum Light Emitting Diode (LED) Cheaper Wider operating temp range Last longer Injection Laser Diode (ILD) More efficient Greater data rate Wavelength Division Multiplexing

www.jntuworld.com

Optical Fiber Transmission Modes

www.jntuworld.com

Wireless Transmission
Unguided media Transmission and reception via antenna Directional
Focused beam Careful alignment required

Omnidirectional
Signal spreads in all directions Can be received by many antennae

www.jntuworld.com

Frequencies
2GHz to 40GHz
Microwave Highly directional Point to point Satellite

30MHz to 1GHz
Omnidirectional Broadcast radio

3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
Infrared Local

www.jntuworld.com

Terrestrial Microwave
Parabolic dish Focused beam Line of sight Long haul telecommunications Higher frequencies give higher data rates

www.jntuworld.com

Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on another frequency Requires geo-stationary orbit
Height of 35,784km

Television Long distance telephone Private business networks

www.jntuworld.com

Broadcast Radio
Omnidirectional FM radio UHF and VHF television Line of sight Suffers from multipath interference
Reflections

www.jntuworld.com

Infrared
Modulate noncoherent infrared light Line of sight (or reflection) Blocked by walls e.g. TV remote control, IRD port

www.jntuworld.com

Standards
Required to allow for interoperability between equipment Advantages
Ensures a large market for equipment and software Allows products from different vendors to communicate

Disadvantages
Freeze technology May be multiple standards for the same thing

www.jntuworld.com

Standards Organizations
Internet Society ISO ITU-T (formally CCITT) ATM forum

www.jntuworld.com

OSI - The Model

A layer model Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions Each layer provides services to the next higher layer Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers

www.jntuworld.com

The OSI Environment

www.jntuworld.com

OSI as Framework for Standardization

www.jntuworld.com

Layer Specific Standards

www.jntuworld.com

Elements of Standardization
Protocol specification
Operates between the same layer on two systems May involve different operating system Protocol specification must be precise
Format of data units Semantics of all fields allowable sequence of PCUs

Service definition
Functional description of what is provided

Addressing
Referenced by SAPs

www.jntuworld.com

OSI Layers (1)

Physical
Physical interface between devices
Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural

Data Link
Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link Error detection and control Higher layers may assume error free transmission

www.jntuworld.com

OSI Layers (2)

Network
Transport of information Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology Not needed on direct links

Transport
Exchange of data between end systems Error free In sequence No losses No duplicates Quality of service

www.jntuworld.com

OSI Layers (3)

Session
Control of dialogues between applications Dialogue discipline Grouping Recovery

Presentation
Data formats and coding Data compression Encryption

Application
Means for applications to access OSI environment

www.jntuworld.com

Terminology (1)
Transmitter Receiver Medium
Guided medium
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber

Unguided medium
e.g. air, water, vacuum

www.jntuworld.com

Terminology (2)
Direct link
No intermediate devices

Point-to-point
Direct link Only 2 devices share link

Multi-point
More than two devices share the link

www.jntuworld.com

Terminology (3)
Simplex
One direction
e.g. Television

Half duplex
Either direction, but only one way at a time
e.g. police radio

Full duplex
Both directions at the same time
e.g. telephone

www.jntuworld.com

A Communications Model
Source generates data to be transmitted Transmitter Converts data into transmittable signals Transmission System Carries data Receiver Converts received signal into data Destination Takes incoming data

www.jntuworld.com

Simplified Communications Model - Diagram

www.jntuworld.com

Key Communications Tasks

Transmission System Utilization Interfacing Signal Generation Synchronization Exchange Management Error detection and correction Addressing and routing Recovery Message formatting Security Network Management

www.jntuworld.com

Simplified Data Communications Model

www.jntuworld.com

Networking
Point to point communication not usually practical
Devices are too far apart Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections

Solution is a communications network

www.jntuworld.com

Simplified Network Model

www.jntuworld.com

Local Area Networks

Smaller scope
Building or small campus

Usually owned by same organization as attached devices Data rates much higher Usually broadcast systems Now some switched systems and ATM are being introduced

www.jntuworld.com

LAN Applications (1)

Personal computer LANs
Low cost Limited data rate

Back end networks and storage area networks

Interconnecting large systems (mainframes and large storage devices)
High data rate High speed interface Distributed access Limited distance Limited number of devices

www.jntuworld.com

LAN Applications (2)

High speed office networks
Desktop image processing High capacity local storage

Backbone LANs
Interconnect low speed local LANs Reliability Capacity Cost

www.jntuworld.com

LAN Topologies

www.jntuworld.com

Bus and Tree

Multipoint medium Transmission propagates throughout medium Heard by all stations Need to identify target station Each station has unique address Full duplex connection between station and tap Allows for transmission and reception Need to regulate transmission To avoid collisions To avoid hogging Data in small blocks - frames Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium

www.jntuworld.com

Frame Transmission - Bus LAN

www.jntuworld.com

Ring Topology
Repeaters joined by point to point links in closed loop
Receive data on one link and retransmit on another Links unidirectional Stations attach to repeaters

Data in frames
Circulate past all stations Destination recognizes address and copies frame Frame circulates back to source where it is removed

Media access control determines when station can insert frame

www.jntuworld.com

Frame Transmission Ring LAN

www.jntuworld.com

Star Topology
Each station connected directly to central node
Usually via two point to point links

Central node can broadcast

Physical star, logical bus Only one station can transmit at a time

Central node can act as frame switch

www.jntuworld.com

Wide Area Networks

Large geographical area Crossing public rights of way Rely in part on common carrier circuits Alternative technologies
Circuit switching Packet switching Frame relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

www.jntuworld.com

Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation e.g. telephone network

www.jntuworld.com

Packet Switching
Data sent out of sequence Small chunks (packets) of data at a time Packets passed from node to node between source and destination Used for terminal to computer and computer to computer communications

www.jntuworld.com

Frame Relay
Packet switching systems have large overheads to compensate for errors Modern systems are more reliable Errors can be caught in end system Most overhead for error control is stripped out

www.jntuworld.com

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATM Evolution of frame relay Little overhead for error control Fixed packet (called cell) length Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps Constant data rate using packet switching technique

www.jntuworld.com

Protocols
Used for communications between entities in a system Must speak the same language Entities User applications e-mail facilities terminals Systems Computer Terminal Remote sensor

www.jntuworld.com

Key Elements of a Protocol

Syntax Data formats Signal levels Semantics Control information Error handling Timing Speed matching Sequencing

www.jntuworld.com

Characteristics
Direct or indirect Monolithic or structured Symmetric or asymmetric Standard or nonstandard

www.jntuworld.com

Direct or Indirect
Direct
Systems share a point to point link or Systems share a multi-point link Data can pass without intervening active agent

Indirect
Switched networks or Internetworks or internets Data transfer depend on other entities

www.jntuworld.com

Symmetric or Asymmetric
Symmetric
Communication between peer entities

Asymmetric
Client/server

www.jntuworld.com

Standard or Nonstandard
Nonstandard protocols built for specific computers and tasks K sources and L receivers leads to K*L protocols and 2*K*L implementations If common protocol used, K + L implementations needed

www.jntuworld.com

Use of Standard Protocols

www.jntuworld.com

Monolithic or Structured
Communications is a complex task To complex for single unit Structured design breaks down problem into smaller units Layered structure

www.jntuworld.com

Functions
Encapsulation Segmentation and reassmebly Connection control Ordered delivery Flow control Error control Addressing Multiplexing Transmission services

www.jntuworld.com

Encapsulation
Addition of control information to data
Address information Error-detecting code Protocol control

www.jntuworld.com

Segmentation (Fragmentation)
Data blocks are of bounded size Application layer messages may be large Network packets may be smaller Splitting larger blocks into smaller ones is segmentation (or fragmentation in TCP/IP)
ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets long Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets long

Checkpoints and restart/recovery

www.jntuworld.com

Why Fragment?
Advantages
More efficient error control More equitable access to network facilities Shorter delays Smaller buffers needed

Disadvantages
Overheads Increased interrupts at receiver More processing time

www.jntuworld.com

Connection Control
Connection Establishment Data transfer Connection termination May be connection interruption and recovery Sequence numbers used for Ordered delivery Flow control Error control

www.jntuworld.com

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET) Used by the global Internet No official model but a working one.
Application layer Host to host or transport layer Internet layer Network access layer Physical layer

www.jntuworld.com

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model