CHAPTER 2 BANDPASS DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Binary Modulated Bandpass Signaling

- Most common binary bandpass signaling techniques, as illustrated in Fig. 5-19:

1) On-off keying (OOK) also called amplitude shift keying (ASK). Consists of
keying (switching) a carrier sinusoid on and off with a unipolar binary signal.
Morse code radio transmission is an example. One of the first modulation
techniques and precedes analog communication system.

2) Binary phase shift keying (BPSK) consists of shifting the phase of a sinusoidal
carrier 0 or 180 with a unipolar binary signal. Equivalent to PM signaling with
a digital waveform.

3) Frequency shift keying (FSK) consists of shifting the frequency of a sinusoidal
carrier from a mark frequency (corresponding, e.g., to send a binary 1) to a space
frequency (corresponding to send a binary 0), according to the baseband digital
signal. Identical to modulating an FM carrier with a binary digital signal.


On-Off Keying (OOK)

- OOK signal is represented by

t t m A t s
c c
e cos ) ( ) ( = (5-70)

where m(t) = unipolar baseband data signal, as shown in Fig. 5-19a.

- Its complex envelope is

) ( ) ( t m A t g
c
= for OOK (5-71)

- The spectrum of OOK signal as shown in Fig. 5-20a shows that:
a) the null-to-null BW, B
T
= 2R where R = 1 / T
b
is the bit rate
b) absolute BW, B
T
=
c) transmission BW, B
T
= 2B where B = baseband BW since OOK is AM-
type signaling.

- If raised cosine-rolloff filtering is used (to conserve BW), the absolute BW of filtered
binary signal is related to the bit rate R by Eq. (3-74), where D = R for binary digital
signaling.


- Thus, the absolute baseband BW is

( )R r B + = 1
2
1
, where r = rolloff factor of filter (5-73)

- This gives absolute transmission BW of

( )R r B
T
+ = 1 (5-74)

for OOK signaling with raised cosine-rolloff filtering.


OOK Detection

- OOK can be detected by using either:

1) envelope detector (noncoherent detection)
2) product detector (coherent detection)

because it is a form of AM signaling.

- These detectors are shown in Figs. 5-21a and 5-21b.

- For optimum detection of OOK (to obtain the lowest BER when input OOK signal is
corrupted by additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)) require product detection
with matched filter processing.

- This is shown in Fig. 5-21c where waveforms at various points of the circuit for OOK
signal reception are illustrated corresponding to binary data stream 1101.

- Matched filter requires a clocking signal to reset the integrator at the beginning of
each bit interval and to clock the sample-and-hold circuit at the end of each bit
interval. (Clock is provided by bit synchronizer circuit).


Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

- BPSK signal is represented by

| | ) ( cos ) ( t m D t A t s
p c c
+ = e (5-75a)

where m(t) = polar baseband data signal
D
p
= peak deviation

- Let m(t) have peak values of 1 and a rectangular pulse shape.

- Showing that BPSK is also a form of AM signaling by expanding Eq. (5-75a) we get

( ) ( ) t t m D A t t m D A t s
c p c c p c
e e sin ) ( sin cos ) ( cos ) ( =

- Recalling that m(t) has values of 1 and that cos (x) and sin (x) are even and odd
functions of x, then BPSK signal representation reduces to

( ) ( ) t t m D A t D A t s
c p c c p c
e e sin ) ( sin cos cos ) ( = (5-75b)

pilot carrier term data term

- The level of pilot carrier term is set by the value of peak deviation,
p
D = Au .
- For digital angle-modulated signals, the digital modulation index, h is defined by
t
u A
=
2
h (5-76)
where u A 2 = maximum peak-to-peak phase deviation (radians) during the time
required to send one symbol, T
s
. (T
s
= T
b
for binary signaling)

- The level of pilot carrier term is set by
p
D = Au for m(t) = 1.
- If D
p
is small, the pilot carrier term has larger amplitude compared to data term;
leading to very little power in the data term (which contains the source information).

- To maximize signaling efficiency, the power in data term needs to be maximized.
- By letting
2
90
t
u = = = A

p
D radians, this corresponds to digital modulation index
h = 1.
- For optimum case of h = 1, the BPSK signal becomes
t t m A t s
c c
e sin ) ( ) ( = (5-77)
- Equation 5-77 shows that BPSK is equivalent to DSB-SC signaling with a polar
baseband data waveform.

BPSK Detection
- To detect BPSK, synchronous detection must be used as illustrated in Fig. 5-22a.
- Since there is no discrete carrier term in BPSK signal, a PLL can be used to extract
the carrier reference only if a low-level pilot carrier is transmitted together with
BPSK signal.
- For optimum detection of BPSK, the LPF in Fig. 5-22a is replaced by an integrate-
and-dump matched filter processing that was illustrated in Fig. 5-21c, where V
T
is set
to 0 V for BPSK.

Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)


- PSK signals cannot be detected incoherently.

- However, partial coherent technique can be used whereby the phase reference for the
present signaling interval is provided by a delayed version of the signal that occurred
during the previous signaling interval.

- As illustrated in Fig. 5-22b, the differential decoding is provided by the (one bit)
delay and the multiplier.

- Then, if the data on the BPSK signal are differentially encoded (e.g., in Table 3-4),
the decoded data sequence will be recovered at the output of the receiver.

- This signaling technique consisting of transmitting differentially encoded BPSK
signal is known as DPSK.

- For optimum detection of DPSK signal, the LPF of Fig. 5-22 is replaced by an
integrate-and-dump matched filter and the DPSK input signal needs to be prefiltered
by a bandpass filter that has an impulse response of

( ) | | ( ) t T T t t h
c b b
e cos / 5 . 0 ) ( H = .

- In practice, DPSK is often used instead of BPSK because DPSK receiver does not
require a carrier synchronization circuit.



Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

- Continuous phase FSK signal is generated by feeding the data signal into a frequency
modulator, as shown in Fig. 5-23b and its signal is shown in Fig. 5-19e.

- FSK signal is represented by

(

+ =
}

t
f c c
d m D t A t s e ) ( cos ) (
or
{ }
t j
c
e t g t s
e
) ( Re ) ( = (5-81a)
where

) (
) (
t j
c
e A t g
u
= (5-81b)


}

=
t
f
d m D t u ) ( ) ( for FSK (5-81c)

m(t) = baseband digital signal

- Although m(t) is discontinuous at switching time, the phase function u(t) is
continuous because u(t) is proportional to the integral of m(t).

- If serial data input waveform is binary, i.e., polar baseband signal, the resulting FSK
signal is called a binary FSK signal.

- In general, the spectra of FSK signals are difficult to evaluate since the complex
envelope, g(t), is a nonlinear function of m(t).


Transmission Bandwidth of FSK Signal

- The approximate transmission BW, B
T
for FSK signal is given by Carsons rule,
B
T
= 2(| + 1) B, where
B
F A
= | which is equivalent to
B F B
T
2 2 + A = (5-87)
where
B = BW of digital signal (e.g., square-wave) modulation waveform.

- For alternating binary 1 and 0 test pattern waveform, the BW of this square-wave
modulating waveform is B = R, and using Eq. (5-87), we find that FSK transmission
BW becomes

( ) R F B
T
+ A = 2 (5-88)

- The result is shown in Fig. 5-26.

- If a raised cosine-rolloff premodulation filter is used, the transmission BW of FSK
signal becomes

( )R r F B
T
+ + A = 1 2 (5-89)
- For wideband FSK, where | >> 1, F A dominates in the above equations and we have
F B
T
A = 2 .

- For narrowband FSK, the transmission BW is B
T
= 2B.


FSK Detection

- FSK can be detected by using (as shown in Fig. 5-28):

1) frequency (noncoherent) detector, or
2) two product detectors (coherent detection)

- To obtain the lowest BER when FSK signal is corrupted by AWGN, coherent
detection with matched filter processing and a threshold device (comparator) is
required. (See Fig. 7-8.)


5-10 MULTILEVEL MODULATED BANDPASS SIGNALING

- Fig. 5-29 shows multilevel signals can be generated from a serial binary input stream
by using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

- Let l = 2 bit DAC is used:

- number of levels, M = 2
l
= 2
2
= 4
- the symbol rate (baud) of multilevel signal, D = R / l = R
2
1
where R = 1 / T
b
bits/s.


Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) and M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)

- A PAM transmitter with an M = 4 level digital modulation, M-ary phase shift keying
(MPSK) is generated at transmitter output.

- Assume rectangular shaped data pulses, a plot of permitted values of complex
envelope,
) (
) (
t j
c
e A t g
u
= , contains 4 points, one value of g (a complex number in
general) for each of the 4 multilevel values, corresponding to the 4 phases that u is
permitted to have.

- A plot of 2 possible sets of g(t) is shown in Fig. 5-30.

- Suppose, permitted multilevel values at DAC are -3, -1, +1 and +3 V; then, in Fig. 5-
30a, these multilevel values correspond to PSK phases 0, 90, 180 and 270
respectively.

- In Fig. 5-30b, those levels correspond to carrier phases of 45, 135, 225 and 315
respectively.

- The two signal constellations are the same except for a shift in the carrier phase
reference.

- This example of M-ary PSK where M = 4 is called quadrature phase shift keyed
(QPSK) signaling.


MPSK Generation

- MPSK can be generated by using two quadrature carriers modulated by the x and y
components of the complex envelope (instead of using a phase modulator); in that
case,

) ( ) ( ) (
) (
t jy t x e A t g
t j
c
+ = =
u
(5-91)
where the permitted values of x and y are


i c i
A x u cos = (5-92)


i c i
A y u sin = (5-93)


for permitted phase angles
i
u , i = 1, 2, , M, of MPSK signal.

- The above situation is illustrated in Fig. 5-31, where signal processing elements
implements Eqs. (5-92) and (5-93).

- Fig. 5-30 gives the relationship between permitted phase angles
i
u and the ( )
i i
y x ,
components for 2 QPSK signal constellations.


Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

- Quadrature carrier signaling, as shown in Fig. 5-31, is called quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM).

- In general, QAM signal constellations are not restricted to having permitted signaling
points only on a circle (of radius A
c
, as for MPSK).

- The general QAM signal is

t t y t t x t s
c c
e e sin ) ( cos ) ( ) ( = (5-94)
Where

) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
t j
e t R t jy t x t g
u
= + = (5-95)

- A popular 16-symbol (M = 16 levels) QAM constellation is shown in Fig. 5-32 where
the relationship between ( )
i i
R u , and ( )
i i
y x , can be readily be evaluated for each of
16 signal values permitted.


QAM Generation

- This 16-symbol QAM signal can be generated by using two ( l/2 = 2) bit digital-to-
analog converters and quadrature balanced modulators as shown in Fig. 5-31b.

- The waveforms of I and Q components are represented by

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
D
n
t h x t x
1
) ( (5-96)
And

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
D
n
t h y t y
1
) ( (5-97)

where D = R / l and (x
n
, y
n
) denotes one of the permitted (x
i
, y
i
) values during the
symbol time that is centred on t = nT
s
= n / D
s
. (It takes T
s
to send each symbol.)

- h
1
(t) = pulse shape that is used for each symbol.

- In some applications, the timing between the x(t) and y(t) components is offset by

T
s
/ 2 = 1 / (2D) s.

- Then, x(t) is described by Eq. (5-96), and the offset is described by

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
D D
n
t h y t y
2
1
) (
1
(5-98)



OQPSK and t/4 QPSK


- Offset quadrature phase shift keying (OQPSK) is M = 4 PSK in which the allowed
data transition times for the I and Q components are offset by a
2
1
symbol (i.e., by 1
bit) interval.

- The technique is described by Eqs. (5-96) and (5-98) where the offset is 1 / (2D).

- This offset provides an advantage when nonrectangular (i.e., filtered) data pulses are
used, because the offset greatly reduces the AM on the OQPSK signal compared with
AM on the corresponding QPSK signal.

- The AM is reduced because a maximum phase transition of only 90
0
occurs for
OQPSK signaling (as opposed to 180
0
for QPSK), since the I and Q data cannot
change simultaneously because the data are offset.

- A t/4 quadrature phase shift keying (t/4 QPSK) signal is generated by alternating
between two QPSK constellations that are rotated by t/4 = 45
0
with respect to each
other.

- The 2 constellations shown in Fig. 5-30 are used alternately as follows:

Given a point on one of the signal constellations that corresponds to 2 bits of input
data, 2 new bits are read to determine the next point that is selected from the other
constellation.

- That is, the 2 new input bits cause a phase shift of 45
0
or 135
0
depending on their
value.

- For example, an 11 could correspond to a phase shift of
0
45 = Au , a 10 to
0
45 = Au , a 01 to
0
135 = Au and a 00 to
0
135 = Au .

This is also called t/4 differential quadrature phase shift keying (t/4 DQPSK) since it
uses a form of differential encoding.


t/4 DQPSK Detection

- The data on the t/4 QPSK signal can be detected by using 3 methods:

i) FM detector followed by a resettable integrator that integrates over a symbol (2-
bit) period. FM detector produces the derivative of the phase and the integrator
evaluates the phase shift that occurs over the symbol interval.

ii) baseband IQ processing

iii) differential detection


Spectral Efficiency for MPSK, QAM, QPSK, OQPSK and t/4 QPSK with Raised
Cosine Filtering


- The spectrum shown in Fig. 5-33 is for rectangular symbol pulses and the spectral
sidelobes are terrible.

- The sidelobes can be eliminated if raised cosine filtering is used (since raised cosine
filter has an absolutely bandlimited frequency response)

- To have no ISI, we select 6-dB BW of the raised cosine filter to be half the symbol
(baud) rate.

- The raised cosine filter has the disadvantage of introducing AM on MPSK signals.

- If the overall pulse shape satisfies the raised cosine-rolloff filter characteristic, then,
by Eq. (3-74), the absolute BW of the M-level modulating signal is

( )D r B + = 1
2
1
(5-105)
where
D = R / l
r = rolloff factor of the filter

- Transmission BW is related to the modulation BW by B
T
= 2B, then the overall
absolute transmission BW of QAM signal with raised cosine filtered pulses is

R
l
r
B
T
|
.
|

\
| +
=
1
(5-106)

- Because M = 2
l
, which implies that l = log
2
M = (ln M) / (ln 2), the spectral efficiency
of QAM-type signaling with raised cosine filtering is

( ) Hz
s bit
r
M
B
R
T
/
2 ln 1
ln
+
= = q (5-107)

- This result tells us how fast we can signal for a prescribed BW.

- Eq. (5-107) is used to generate Table 5-6.

- To conserve BW, the number of levels M in Eq. (5-107) cannot be increased too
much, since, for a given peak envelope power (PEP), the spacing between the signal
points in the signal constellation will decrease and noise on the received signal will
cause errors.

- However, R has to be less than C, the channel capacity, if the errors are to be kept
small.

- Consequently, using Eq. (1-10), we require that

max
q q < (5-108a)

where

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
N
S
1 log
2 max
q (5-108b)


5 -11 MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING (MSK) AND GMSK


- Minimum shift keying is another BW conservation technique.

- Its advantage is producing a constant amplitude and can be amplified with Class C
amplifiers without distortion.

- MSK is equivalent to OQPSK with sinusoidal pulse shaping [ for h
i
(t) ]

- Definition:

Minimum shift keying (MSK) is continuous phase FSK with a minimum modulation
index (h = 0.5) that will produce orthogonal signaling.

- Proof:

Let FSK signal:

( )
1 1 1
cos ) ( u e + = t A t s
c
represent binary 1 over bit interval 0 < t < T
b


( )
2 2 2
cos ) ( u e + = t A t s
c
represent binary 0 over bit interval 0 < t < T
b

where u
1
= u
2
for continuous-phase condition at switching time t = 0.

- For orthogonal signaling, the integral of the product of two signals over the bit
interval is zero.

- Thus, we require

( ) ( )
} }
= + + =
b b
T T
c
dt t t A dt t s t s
0 0
2 2 1 1
2
2 1
0 cos cos ) ( ) ( u e u e (5-109a)

- This reduces to

( ) ( ) | | ( )
(

+
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2
sin sin
2 e e
u u u u e e
b c
T A


+
( ) ( ) | | ( )
0
sin sin
2
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2
=
(

+
+ + + +
e e
u u u u e e
b c
T A
(5-109b)

- The second term is negligible because
2 1
e e + is large, so

( ) | | ( )
0
2
sin 2 sin
2 1 2 1
=
+
h
h
t
u u u u t
(5-110)

where ( ) ( )
b b
T F T A = 2 2
2 1
t e e

and from Eq. (5-82),
b
FT h A = 2

- For continuous phase case, u
1
= u
2
; and Eq. (5-110) is satisfied for a minimum value
of h = 0.5, or a peak frequency deviation of

,
4
1
4
1
R
T
F
b
= = A for MSK (5-111a)

- For discontinuous phase FSK,
2 1
u u = ; and the minimum value for orthogonality is
h = 1.0 or


,
2
1
2
1
R
T
F
b
= = A for discontinuous phase FSK (5-111b)

- MSK signal (which is h = 0.5 continuous-phase FSK) is a form of OQPSK signaling
with sinusoidal pulse shaping.


- Proof:

Consider FSK signal over the signaling interval (0, T
b
).

When Eq, (5-81) is used, the complex envelope is


( )
( )
}
= =
A
t
d m F j
c
t j
c
e A e A t g
0
2
) (
t
u


where m(t) = 1, 0 < t < T
b
. Using Eq. (5-111), the complex envelope becomes

), ( ) ( ) (
) 2 /(
t jy t x e A t g
b
T t j
c
+ = =
t
0 < t < T
b


where sign = possible data during the (0, T
b
) interval.

Thus,

,
2
1 cos ) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
c
T
t
A t x
t
0 < t < T
b
(5-112a)

,
2
1 sin ) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
c
T
t
A t y
t
0 < t < T
b
(5-112b)

- MSK signal is

t t y t t x t s
c c
e e sin ) ( cos ) ( ) ( = (5-112c)

- A typical input data waveform m(t) and the resulting x(t) and y(t) quadrature
modulation waveforms are shown in Fig. 5-34.

- The binary data of m(t) alternately modulate the x(t) and y(t) components and the
pulse shape for x(t) and y(t) symbols (which are 2T
b
wide instead of T
b
) is a sinusoid.

- Thus, MSK is equivalent to OQPSK with sinusoidal pulse shaping.

- In Fig. 5-34, x(t) and y(t) waveforms are illustrates the so-called Type II MSK in
which the basic pulse shape is always a positive half-cosinusoid.

- For Type I MSK, the pulse shape [for both x(t) and y(t)] alternates between a positive
and negative half-cosinusoid.

- Another form of MSK is Gaussian-filtered MSK (GMSK).

- For GMSK, the data (rectangular-shaped pulses) are filtered by a filter having a
Gaussian-shaped frequency response characteristic before the data are frequency
modulated onto the carrier.

- The transfer function of the Gaussian low-pass filter is

( ) ( ) | | 2 / 2 ln /
2
) (
B f
e f H

= (5-116)

where B = 3-dB BW of the filter.

- The filter reduces the spectral sidelobes on the transmitted MSK signal.

- MSK signals can be generated by using these methods (as shown in Fig. 5-36):

1) Generation of Fast Frequency shift keying (FFSK) (equivalent to Type I MSK
with differential encoding of the input data).

2) MSK Type I modulator (realization of Eq. (5-112)). It is called parallel method
of generating MSK since parallel in-phase (I) and quadrature-phase (Q) channels
are used.

4) Serial method of generating MSK.


5-12 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM)


- OFDM is a technique for transmitting data in parallel by using a large number of
modulated carriers with sufficient frequency spacing so that the carriers are
orthogonal.

- OFDM provides resistance to data errors caused by multipath channels.

- Over a T-sec interval, the complex envelope for OFDM signal is

=
=
1
0
), ( ) (
N
n
n n c
t A t g e 0 < t < T (5-117a)

where A
c
= carrier amplitude

e
n
= element of the N-element parallel data vector, w = ] ,..., , [
1 1 0 N
e e e

and the orthogonal carriers are


t f j
n
n
e t
t

2
) ( = where |
.
|

\
|
=
2
1 1 N
n
T
f
n
(5-117b)

- Duration of data symbol on each carrier is T seconds, and the carriers are spaced 1/T
Hz apart.

- This assures that the carriers are orthogonal since the
n
(t) satisfy orthogonality
condition of Eq. (2-77) over T-sec interval.

- Because the carriers are orthogonal, data can be detected on each of these closely
spaced carriers without interference from other carriers.

- Key advantage of OFDM is it can be generated by using FFT digital signal processing
techniques.

- For example, if we suppress the frequency offset (N 1)/2T of Eq. (5-117b) and
substitute Eq. (5-117b) into Eq. (5-117a), where t = kT/N, then the elements of IFFT
vector as defined by Eq. (2-177) are obtained.

- OFDM signal can be generated by using IFFT algorithm as shown in Fig. 5-37.

- Referring to Fig. 5-37, let input serial data symbols have a duration of T
s
sec. each.

- Data can be binary (1) to produce BPSK modulated carriers or can be multilevel
complex-valued serial data to produce QPSK, MPSK or QAM carriers.

-
s s
T D / 1 = = input symbol (baud) rate.

- Serial-to-parallel converter reads in N input serial symbols at a time and holds their
values (elements of w) on the parallel output lines for T = NT
s
seconds, where T =
time span of IFFT.

- IFFT uses w to evaluate output IFFT vector g that contains elements representing
samples of the complex envelope.

- The parallel-to-serial converter shifts out the element values of g.

- These are the samples of OFDM complex envelope described by Eq. (5-117), where
x(t) and y(t) are the I and Q components of complex envelope.

- OFDM signal is produced by I-Q modulators as shown in figure.

- At the receiver, the serial data are recovered from received OFDM signal by:

1) demodulating the signal to produce serial I and Q data
2) converting the serial data to parallel data

3) evaluating the FFT, and

5) converting the FFT vector (parallel data) to serial output data.

- The length of FFT vector determines the resistance of OFDM errors caused by
multipath channels.

- N is chosen so that T = NT
s
is much larger than the maximum delay time of echo
components in the received multipath signal.

- OFDM signal is used in Europe digital broadcast systems (radio and television).