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Lesson 1: Overview of Environmental Psychology

Introduction The lesson introduces the governing perspectives in psychology such as cognitive perspective, humanistic perspective, learning or behavioural perspective, neurobiological perspective, and socio-cultural perspective. It discusses the history o f the field, and explains in detail various academic programs and postgraduate opportunities i n this field. It also highlights the scope o f practice o f environmental psychology, and the variables affecting it such as culture, tradition and so on. The practical application o f these theories is demonstrated through various examples.

Objectives 1. To define psychology and environmental psychology. 2. To introduce various perspectives in psychology. 3. To discuss the history o f environmental psychology and the opportunities in the field.

4. To highlight the variables affecting the practice o f environmental psychology.

What is Psychology?
I svcholoev is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study o f mental processes and behavior. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychology el so refers to the application o f such knowledge to various spheres o f human activity, including issues related to daily lifee.g. family, education, and workand the treatment o f mental health problems. Psychology is one o f the behavioral sciencesa broad field that spans the social and natural sciences. Psychology attempts to understand the role human behavior plays i n social dynamics while incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions o f mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields o f study and application concerned w i t h such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, law, and spirituality. Environmental psychology is the study o f symbiotic relationships between humans and their environments.

Governing Perspectives in Psychology


I n order to understand the practice o f environmental psychology, a person must first understand the points o f reference from which the field gains much o f its information: *_-i-rTEe cognitive perspective - Cognition is the process by which an organzism gains knowledge or becomes aware o f events or objects i n its environment, and

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uses that knowledge for comprehension nd problem-solving. The cognitive perspective develops as a result o f the relationship organisms have with their environments. I t includes the processes people use to think, decide, and learn. For example, a child quickly learns which parent to ask if it wants a particular thing. He also learns how to ask the parent for what he wants. 2. the humanistic perspective - Free w i l l is the idea that people control their own ; destinies. Self-actualization is the idea that humans aspire to mere than just basic ) survival. The humanistic perspective is based on the concepts o f free w i l l and P^ self-actualization. Its m a i n premise is that a preson's primary motivation i n life is \o fulfill his or her potential. 3/^The learning or behavioural perspective - This suggests that people's future \s are dictated by what they learn from past experiences o f pleasure or j pain. For example, when once we touch a hot stove and find out that it burns, we \l avoid doing so or even touching any other hot thing. 4. The neurobiological perspective - This states that human behaviour results from both genetic makeup and people's physiological reactions to their environments. For example, too much noise may elevate the heart rate and increase blood pressure, so that people need to control the levels o f noise i n their environment. The socio cultural perspective - This states that social conditions, such as status, gender norms, and expectations, operate in conjunction w i t h cultural traits such as ethnicity, heritage, and tradition to produce certain behaviours.

5.

Because no one perspective is mors correct than another, the field o f environmental psychology tends to incorporate them all into a holistic analysis. Consider an example: A man is at work i n an office building that has caught fire. He deduces from a loud bell and the smell o f smoke that he should go to the fire exit. This is the cognitive perspective. Meanwhile, the sight, smell, and taste o f smoke cause his body to release chemicals, initiating the fight-or-flight response. This is the neurobiological perspective. As he works his way down the stairs, he starts to panic because he recalls being burned as a child. This is the learning or behavioural perspective. However, he was raised to believe that as a man, it is his obligation to help women and children, prompting h i m to stop and help. This is the sociocultural perspective. His decision to act on that learned obligation, however, is a choice. This is the humanistic perspective.

History of Environmental Psychology


Human beings are inextricably woven into the fabric o f their environments, and they affect those environments just as the environment affects them. Early humans examined weather patterns, interpreted animal behaviours, and identified fertile soils among their efforts to improve their understanding o f and relationship to the natural world. B y doing so, they conducted the first environmental studies, the results o f which prompted certain human response behaviours like stockpiling food and water, seeking shelter and high ground, and planting and harvesting crops. Hie principles o f observation and assessment, that is observing the role o f stimuli and tracking the subsequent reactions, are at the core o f every science. However, even today,

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most social science fields, including the various disciplines o f psychology, tend to neglect the role o f the environment when considering behavioural responses. A m o n g the famous historical analyses conducted o f the human-environment relationship were the 1924 Hawthorne studies that analyzed the effects o f lighting on workers' performances. Researchers hypothesized that increased lighting would result i n increased worker production. O n testing, they found that this was true. When they tried the reverse, that is, to slowly decrease the lighting and find the result that worker production tends to decrease w i t h decrease in lighting, however, that did not happen. Instead, worker production continued to increase as a result o f other variables. Many scientists regarded the Hawthorne studies as a failure, but they resulted in three important findings: 1. The effect o f the physical environment is buffered by perceptions, preferences, experiences, and personality. beliefs,

2. One environmental variable turned out to be more important than the subtler variations o f light (the employees felt special). 3. The physical environment changed the social dynamics (the study room layout facilitated more social contact). These and other studies illustrated that ilie environment humans occupy dramatically influences how they perceive the w o r l d around them, how they see themselves i n relation to the greater social hierarchy, and h o w the environment affects their social behaviours. Understanding this symbiotic relationship is essential to the success o f any environmental psychologist. Egon Brunswik is considered to be the first to use the term 'environmental psychology' in 1943 to describe human-environment relations. Further developments led to the first PhD program i n environmental psychology i n 1968 at the City University o f N e w Your, which awarded its first doctorate i n the subject i n 1975. The discipline o f environmental psychology is almost unknown to the general public. Most instit itions include the environmental psychology program in studies o f architecture, design, psychology, human or social ecology, or even arts and sciences. The study o f environmental psychology offers many areas o f research: 1. Human response to built and natural settings 2. Impact o f technological and natural hazards 3. Environmental perception and cognition 4. Design and planning issues i^iivironmental psychologists attempt to explain why hum oris engage i n particular behaviours i n relation to their environments. Designers need to consider how buildings affect the people using them by understanding both h o w design influences people and h o w people can modify designs to facilitate the function for w h i c h the setting is intended.

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Variables Affecting the Practice of Environmental Psychology


Environmental psychology is rooted in scientific methods related to posing a theory, pursuing knowledge related to that theory, and th^n practically applying the theory. However, theory and knowledge are often blurred. Many variables affect the practice o f environmental psychology: 1. C u l t u r e - the values, norms and artifacts o f a group o f people 2. Tradition - a custom or practice that has been passed down from generation to generation Humans tend to maintain cultural and traditional behaviours as long as the results are not negative to their health and well-being.

Environmental Psychology and Design


Incorporating the practice o f environmental psychology w i t h i n the design fields offers the designer unique opportunities. Designers can make use o f tools such as user needs assessments, called predesign research (PDR) to evaluate a client's requirements prior to construction or occupancy. PDR is the survey conducted prior to construction or occupancy to determine the environmental conditions and user needs. Once the design has been created and translated into reality, a post occupancy evaluation (POE) should be conducted to assess the human-environment relationship because design ideas and concepts may not be applicable in an actual setting. For example, an office's airconditioning system may be blocked i f employees were to pile storage boxes atop strategically placed furnishings. Since they are able to understand the thought and emotional processes that produce or shape human desires, environmental psychologists help people understand the differences between temporary and long-standing needs. They also ascertain the primary, secondary, and tertiary functions o f people's homes so that those homes can be designed to fulfill people's needs,

CASELET: Scenario:
A business executive who has been transferred to Ladakh commissions a design firm to build her new home. The designer conducts a P D R to find the executive's desires, which is a beach house. Realizing the design's impracticality i n such a harsh environment, the designer tries to suggest an alternative design style, but the executive insists that siv... a beach house has been a dream since her childhood. Further meetings reveal that she was born and brought up in Goa, and has the design styles o f that region as a primary point o f reference, and is drawing upon that which is most familiar and comfortable to her.

Commentary:
The case raises three issues which the designer must discuss w i t h the client:

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a. b. c.

The executive has had very little time to get used to and feel good i n her new environment. Her feelings o f insecurity about the unfamiliar surroundings are a source o f her attempt to create a comfort zone, A beach house w i l l be a problem i n the winter. As the executive gets to know the new environment, her design preferences w i l l slowly change. She w i l l start to embrace the Ladakh style, want to fit i n more with her surroundings, and avoid the extra costs associated w i t h architecture inappropriate to the Ladakh climate.

Maslow's hierarchy Gf needs states that self-actualization is the ultimate goal for all humans. I n this context, the human-environment relationship w o u l d be at the top o f the pyramid. However, i n reality, environments have a tremendous impact, on how we feei, respond, and cope i n daily life. Because the environment plays an intricate roie in the overall physiological health and responses o f the human psyche, concern for our surroundings is a component not only o f self-actualization but also o f safety and physiological needs. For example, a child who feels crowded and vulnerable within an environment may experience child-related stress. Human-environment interactions are based on people's psychological processes in relation to their surroundings. The environment is made up o f physical stimuli (noise, light, and temperature), physical structures (dimensions, furniture, and hallways), and symbolic artifacts (the meaning or image o f a setting). The fundamental psychological processes given below are integral to human-environment interactions: 1- Arousal - I h i s can be defined as excitement or stimulation to action or physiological readiness for activity. 2. Overload - This is the negative mental state that results from stimulation and arousal. excessive

3. Affect - This encompasses emotional reactions to the environment. 4. Adaptation conditions. This describes the process o f adjustment to environmental

5. Personal control - This is the ability to control an emironrnent or a situation.

By studying the processes above, as well as the environment, environmental psychologists identify factors that either contribute to or detract from desired behaviours, and they analyze the links between behaviours and outcomes. This information enables them to nredict emotional and physical reactions to environmental attributes in open spaces and within the buiit environment.

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Revision Points

/Summary

1. Psychology is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study o f mental processes and behavior. 2. Environmental psychology is the study o f symbiotic relationships between humans and their environments. 3. In order to understand the practice o f environmental psychology, it is important to understand the points o f reference from which the field gains much o f its information: the cognitive perspective, the humanistic perspective, the learning perspective, the neurobiological perspective, and the sociocuitural perspective. Because no one perspective is more correct than another, the field o f environmental psychology tends to incorporate them all into a holistic analysis. 4. Human beings are inextricably woven into the fabric o f their environments, and they affect those environments just as the environment affects them. 5. The environment humans occupy dramatically influences how they perceive the world around them, how they see themselves i n relation to the greater social hierarchy, and how the environment affects their social behaviours. Understanding this symbiotic relationship is essential to the success o f any environmental psychologist. 6. Egon Brunswik is considered to be the first to use the term 'environmental psychology' i n 1943 to describe human-environment relations. 7. Environmental psychologists attempt to explain why humans engage i n particular behaviours i n relation to their environments. Designers need to consider how buildings affect the people using them by understanding both how design influences people and how people can modify designs to facilitate the function for which the setting is intended. 8. Many variables affect the practice o f environmental psychology: among them culture and tradition. 9. Humans tend to maintain cultural and traditional behaviours as long as the results are not negative to their health and well-being. 10. Environmental designers use tools like user needs assessments, called predesign research (PDR) to evaluate a client's requirements prior to construction or occupancy. Once the design has been created and translated into reality, a postoccupancy evaluation (FOE) should be conducted to assess the humanenvironment relationship. l l . S i n u e they are able to undersold the thudght and emotional processes that produce or shape human desires, environmental psychologists help people understand the differences between temporary and long-standing needs. 12. Human-environment interactions are based on people's psychological processes in relation to their surroundings. These fundamental psychological processes are integral to human-environment interactions: arcusai, overload, affect, adaptation, and personal control.

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B y studying these processes, environmental psychologists identify factors that enable them to predict emotional and physical reactions to environmental attributes i n open spaces and w i t h i n the built environment.

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Lesson 2: Foundational Theories of Environmental Psychology


Introduction The lesson discusses the foundational theories o f environmental psychology. The theories o f the human-environment relationship include social learning theories, integration theories, control theories, behaviour-setting theories, and stimulation theories. Each o f these presents the interaction between human beings and their environment in a new light. The theories o f environmental perception include Brunswick's probabilistic lens model, i n which the process o f perception is similar to a lens through which stimuli are perceived and become focused. Other theories o f environmental perception include Gibson's affordances, Berlyne's collative properties, the pleasure-arousal-dominance hypothesis, Kaplan and Kaplan's preference framework, and Lynches elements o f legibility.

Objectives 1. To present various theories o f environmental psychology.

There are various theories that help explain the human-environment relationship These theories are applied as a means of developing successful designs for human occupation.

Theories of the Human-Environment Relationship


The theories o f human-environment relationship are: 1. Social learning theories

2. Integration (integral) theories 3. Control theories 4. Behaviour-setting theories 5. Stimulation theories

Social Learning Theories


Social or observational learning theories differ from human-environment theories because they declare that people learn by first observing others and eventually reproducing their action. Social learning theory emphasizes the following three precepts: 1. People are intrinsically motivated to seek reinforcement, such as positive stimulation, and avoid unpleasant stimulation 2. Personality represents an interaction o f the individual w i t h the environment and is a relatively stable framework for responding to situations i n a particular way.

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3. To understand behaviour, one must consider an individual's life history and learning experiences as well as the environment because his subjective interpretation o f the environment determines his behaviour.

Integration (Integral) Theories Integral theories describe a group o f models used to understand the complexity o f the human-environment relationship. The following five major elements w o r k i n harmony, or integrate, to facilitate a particular behaviour: 1. Global environment - generalized characteristics o f an environment 2. Instigators - stimuli that trigger particular behaviours 3. Goal objects a n d noxients situations that cause satisfaction or produce unpleasantness 4. Supports and constraints - environmental aspects that facilitate or restiict behaviours 5. Directors - features that tell people where to go and what to do

Three other theories are also considered to be part o f the integration theories. These are: 1. The interactional theory - This is the simplest form o f the integration theory, and i t declares that people and the environment are separate entities that constantly interact. 2. The transactional theory - This concentrates on patterns o f relationships and contends that the human-environment relationship is mutually supportive. Thus, the bees and the flowers support each other; bees are sustained by the flowers' nectar, while the flowers use me bees to spread pollen. 3. The organismic theory - This states that social, societal, and individual characteristics intertwine with the environment i n a complex symbiosis. Thus, multiple contributing factors combine with the environment to induce a particular behaviour. For instance, a man who does not ordinarily recycle may do so if he is dating a woman who believes i n recycling, and he wishes to please her, i f litter i n his neighbourhood annoys him, and i f recycling bins are available.

Control Theories Control theories suggest that having a sense o f control over one's world and one's place in it is crucial t o one's well-being. People have three types o f control over their environments: 1. Behavioural control - The ability to change the environmental event 2. Cognitive control - The ability to change the way i n which we conceive o f an environment 3. Decisional control - The ability to choose a response.

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There is also the notion o f primary and secondary control, with primary control being overt i n a given situation, and secondary control being more accommodating to the reality o f a given situation. When people believe they cannot control distressing factors within their environments, or they experience repeated failed efforts to establish or regain control, they may create physical or psychological barriers and eventually give up.

Behaviour-setting Theories
Some behaviour is considered appropriate in certain environments but not in others (for example, dressing and acting provocatively in a temple are not considered appropriate). Behaviour setting theories are based on the notion that public places or occasions evoke particular patterns o f behaviour. Behaviour settings are not permanent, but they evolve according to the support and constraints o f society over time. Most behaviour settings are public environments that contain the following three components: 1. Physical properties 2. Social components 3. The environmental setting.

Stimulation Theories
Every living thing on earth reacts to sensory stimulation. Stimulation theories serve to conceptualize and explain the environment as a source o f sensory information derived from sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. Each o f the five senses can be over-stimulated (hyperstimulated) or under-stimulated (hypostimulatinn). A n important concept to understand is that o f threshold, the point at which too mucn or too little stimulation is available. Once accustomed to a certain level of stimuli, peoiJe no longer consciously notice it until it changes. Related theories that help to explain the relationship between stimulation and human behaviours include: 1. The arousal perspective - This says that the environment itself causes an autonomic r ^ s i p j $ g ? a l Response related to increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, adrenaline secretion, and neural activity within the brain i.e.the environment itself arouses the brain. A person may be over-aroused (excited) or under-aroused (bored). Arousal is a component o f the human psyche, and Is dependent on stimulation. 2. Environmental load - Humans have a limited ability to process incoming information, and i n many cases when they experience too much information, it leads to overload. However, under-stimulation can lead to psychological problems such as anxiety. o O c O v ^ t ' i _ 3. Adaptation level theory - This states that as a person becomes accustomed to a component or variable within an environment, its influence w i l l be reduced. This has both positive and negative implications. I f a person's optimal level o f

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stimulation is high, when thrust into average level o f stimulation, he w i l l experience the negative effects o f under-stimulation. 4, Attention restoration theory - This theory maintains that situations requiring mental effort cause us to engage i n directed attention (voluntary, intention-based, or goal-based), which requires more exertion over time. Like overworked muscles, directed attention can fail, thus creating attention deficit or an inability to concentrate. Periodic episodes o f effortless attention (involuntary, interestbased attention) such as a walk in the park, serve as powerful and effective means o f restoring attention capacity. The presence o f nature i n the environment has a profound effect on reducing levels o f stress, thereby helping to restore attention capacity. These are called restorative experiences.

The differing aspects o f stimulation theories affect the design process. People who are over-stimulated in the workplace w i l l probably desire homes w i t h few environmental stimuli, while people who tlirive on stimulation w i l l probably have high-stimulus homes along with high-stimulus offices

Theories of Environmental Perception


The human-environment experience is complex, and researchers have attempted to explain the relationship from various perspectives to better comprehend h o w individuals perceive their environments.

Brunswik's Probabilistic Lens Model


Brunswik's model states that the environment contains an abundance o f cues and that perceivers must be able to make sense o f the most important ones i f they are to function effectively. Because our understanding o f an environment is affected by our perceptions o f and familiarity w i t h its individuai components, Brunswik suggests that problems arise when we encounter environments that contain components or patterns that are unfamiliar to us. I n these environments, we may come to incorrect conclusions about size, height, colour, or angle. The model also suggests that observers infer personality judgments about occupants based on environmental cues. ,

Gibson's Affordances

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Affordance is a perspective that takes an ecological appro<tvh to perception. I t suggests that, rather than perceiving individual features within an environment, people organize those features into recognizable patterns based on the arrangement o f cues that provide immediate perceptual information. K e also suggests that humans actively explore their environments and perceive objects i n a variety o f ways. Thus, a flower garden may afford a quiet place to meditate, a source for freshly cut flowers, and a place to w o r k ; it also affords many insects w i t h a home and a source for food. Thus, designers strive to create environments that afford more than shelter.

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Beriyne's Collative Properties Berlyne's theory suggests that humans respond to aesthetics based on their collative stimulus properties, i.e. properties such as novelty, complexity, incongruity, and surprise that elicit comparative or investigative responses, which i n turn, cause perceptual conflict w i t h other present or past stimuli. Novelty is anything new, an innovative idea, or something used i n a different way Incongruity refers to design features that seem out o f place or out o f context. Complexity refers to the variety o f items in the environment. Surprise reveals the unexpected, such a home built around a large tree or a bathtub situated i n a large room.

These properties are sometimes referred to as collative properties, meaning that they create a perceptual conflict; how we resolve that conflict leads to an aesthetic evaluation, Berlyne believed that these properties influence the perceiver's aesthetic judgments through the following t w o psychological dimensions: 1. Hedonic tone refers to those design elements that serve no purpose other than to provide beauty and pleasure. 2. Uncertainty-arousal refers to subjective uncertainty that is simultaneous feelings o f excitement and discomfort evoked by environments that seem both complex and simple or ordered and chaotic.

Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance Hypothesis
This states that humans have three primary emotional responses to an environment pleasure (positive feelings), arousal (excitement or challenge), and dominance (control over the setting or situation) - based on the perspective that emotion mediates between our environments and personalities o n the one hand, and our behaviour on the other. The hypothesis claims that people are most attracted to settings that are moderately arousing, and maximally pleasurable. Variables that affect a person's response to these dimensions include: 1. Environmental factors - light, temperature, and objects or cues 2. Individual personality characteristics - introvert-extrovert and internal-external locus o f control. The interaction o f environmental and personal variables manifests i n emotions which affect work performance, interpersonal relations, and other behaviours.

Kaplan and Kaplan Preference Framework


Based on the idea that people prefer scenes that are engaging and involving rather than simple or boring, Kapian and Kaplan devised a theoretical framework to organize environmental preferences according to four elements. 1. Coherence - This means 'making sense'. It refers to the way thai objects in a scene come together to form some sort o f understandable context. For instance, a

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room w i t h cushioned seating and a fireplace is immediately recognizable as a living room. 2. L e g i b i l i t y - This means 'the promise o f making sense'. It refers to the level at which an individual is able to understand or categorize the scene and the objects w i t h i n it. For instance, a false bookcase may hide a safe behind i t . 3. Complexity - This means 'involvement'. I t relates the number and variety o f elements w i t h i n the scene. The perception o f complexity varies from person to person. 4. M y s t e r y - This means the promise o f involvement. It is the degree to which a scene contains hidden information or begs exploration. Elaborate carvings and ironwork, cabinets placed in obscure locations etc. are examples o f mystery. Normally, secret and special places intrigue us and invite us to explore. However, as mystery, and therefore uncertainty increase, cognition, which is initially arousing and pleasurable, w i l l decrease.

L y n c h ' s Elements o f L e g i b i l i t y This states that any built environment has five predominating qualities that enhance its legibility to the average person. These are: 1. Paths - channels that people use as they travel from one area to another. 2. Edges - such as shorelines and fences, preclude travel and may appear to be boundaries 3. Districts - these are the largest elements; they are regions having a particular character that people can readily identify, such as commercial, residential, artistic, and so on. 4. Nodes - well-known points within the environment to and from which people travel; they are often places where paths converge, such as at an airport. 5. Landmarks - these are easily seen and are singular components within an environment, are used for location orientation and are often found within districts and nodes. Districts are structured w i t h nodes, defined by edges, penetrated by paths, and sprinkled w i t h landmarks. Elements regularly overlap and pierce one another. Conclusion Tneories, models, and perspectives offer ways i n which to approach or evaluate the design process. The environment being designed often calls for the use o f multiple theories, models or perspectives. For example, i f a hospital were tc be designed, the designer would need to gain an understanding o f established societal norms (societal learning theory) such as expected privacy levels. The designer would also want to understand the interrelationship between the different areas w i t h i n the hospital (integral theories), and the design elements thai lead to perceptions o f control (control theories).

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Revision Points L

/Summary

The theories o f human-environment relationship are: social learning theories, integration (integral) theories, control theories, behaviour-setting theories, and stimulation theories.

2. Social or observational learning theories differ from human-environment theories because they declare that people learn by first observing others and eventually reproducing their action. 3. Integral theories describe a group o f models used to understand the complexity o f the human-environment relationship. The following five major elements integrate to facilitate a particular behaviour: global environment, instigators, goal objects or noxients, supports and constraints, and directors. 4. The interactional theory declares that people and the environment are separate entities that constantly interact. 5. The transactional theory contends that the human-environment relationship is mutually supportive. 6. The organismic theory states that social, societal, and individual characteristics intertwine w i t h the environment i n a complex symbiosis. 7. Control theories suggest that having a sense o f control over one's world and one's place i n it is crucial to one's well-being. People have three types o f control over their environments: behavioural, cognitive, and decisional. 8. There is also the notion o f primary and secondary control, w i t h primary control being overt i n a given situation, and secondary control being more accommodating to the reality o f a given situation. 9. Most behaviour settings are public environments that contain the following three components: physical properties, social componen s, and the environmental setting. 10. Stimulation theories serve to conceptualize and explain the environment as a source o f sensory information derived from sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. 11. Each o f the five senses can be over-stimulated (hyperstimulated) or understimulated (hypostimulation). A n important concept to understand is that o f threshold. 12. Related theories that help to explain the relationship between stimulation and human behaviours include: the arousal perspective, environmental load, adaptation level theory, and attention restc^Jon theory. 13. The human-environment experience is complex, and researchers have attempted to explain the relationship from various perspectives to better comprehend h o w individuals perceive their environments. 14. Brunswik's model states that the environment contains an abundance o f cues and that perceivers must be able to make sense o f the most important ones i f they are to function effectively.

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15. Affordance suggests that, rather than perceiving individual features within an environment, people organize those features into recognizable patterns based on the arrangement o f cues that provide immediate perceptual infonnation. 16. Berlyne's theory suggests that humans respond to aesthetics based on their collative stimulus properties, i.e. properties such as novelty, complexity, incongruity, and surprise that elicit comparative or investigative responses. 17. The pleasure-arousal-dominance hypothesis states that humans have three primary emotional responses to an environment - pleasure (positive feelings), arousal (excitement or challenge), and dominance (control over the setting or situation) and claims that people are most attracted to settings that are moderately arousing, and maximally pleasurable. 18. Kaplan and Kaplan organized environmental preferences elements: coherence, legibility, complexity, and mystery. according to four

19. This states that any built environment has five predominating qualities that enhance its legibility to the average person. These are: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks.

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Terminal Exercises for Unit I


1. 2. Define psychology and environmental psychology. Name and explain the five governing perspectives in psychology.

3. Write a note on the history o f environmental psychology i n nGt more than 300 words. 4. Explain how environmental psychology relates to and enriches design.

5. What are the fundamental psychological processes integral to human-environment interactions? Explain w i t h examples. 6. H o w do social learning and integration learning theories differ from each other? 7. What types o f control do people have over their environment? 8. Name and explain the theories that help to explain the relationship between stimulation and human behaviours? 9. Explain in detail any three theories of environmental perception.

Assignments for Unit I


1. 2. List three environmental factors that cannot be controlled by humans, and develop a way to modify inhabitable structures to compensate for those factors. Host a small party at your home w i t h the intention o f designing a home. Ask your guests questions and record their responses. Develop a design according to the consensus of input and see what materializes. What d i d you learn from this exercise? Submit your conclusions and findings i n a report.

3. Rewrite "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" i n terms o f Gibson's affordances.

Learning Activities for Unit I


1. V i s i t an architect or interior designer after making an appointment. Ask them how they speak w i t h a client to understand how the latter uses his or her home. Be sure that the questions are open-ended and worded i n such a way that they require no architectural knowledge, but w i l l still tell the designer / planner what the client needs and wants i n a home. Team up w i t h a classmate. Person A takes ten seconds to examine a room and closes his or her eyes. Next, Person B tells Person A to proceed to a specific destination i n that room. H o w well Person A is abte to leach that destination w i l l indicate how w e l l he or she was able to form a cognitive map. The same exercise can be done i n reverse, using another r o ^ m . This time, Person B w i l l form a cognitive map and try to proceed to a destination pointed out by Person A .

2.

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Unit - I I
Behaviour
Lesson 3: Human Factors Affecting Behaviour Lesson 4: The Psychology o f Behaviour

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Lesson 3: Human Factors Affecting Behaviour


Introduction The lesson initially explores physiological influences on behaviour such as brain physiology, petrochemicals and hormones, and personality traits are explained in depth. It also discusses information management i n terms o f perception, cognition, and memory. Finally, it introduces Gestalt psychology.

Objectives 1. T o explain physiological influences on behaviour. 2. To discuss h o w the brain manages information. 3. To expose the student to Gestalt psychology.

Physiological Influences on Behaviour Science provides data that could explain the neurochemical reactions to environmental combinations such as lighting, colour, and odour. A better understanding o f the environmental factors related to the secretion, absorption, and interaction o f neurochemical enables people to predict more precisely human behavioural responses to certain environments.

B r a i n Physiology and Behaviour A l l behaviour is i n some way represented i n brain physiology. For instance, the frontal lobe o f the cerebral cortex (a part o f the brain) is particularly active d u r i r ^ memory recall. T w o recognized types o f long-term memory include: 1. P r o c e d u r a l memory - This is also called implicit memory, and is based on the unconscious recall o f information. This is used when learning motor skills such as riding a bicycle. 2. Declarative memory - Also called explicit memory, it functions as the storage and retrieval o f information that is available to the consciousness. It consists o f factual information such as remembering a telephone number, a poem, or people.

Another important brain structure is the amygdala, which plays a key role i n the fight-orflight response, which is also called stress response. It also plays a key role i n the conditioned fear response, influencing emotion and behaviour i n response to neurochemical triggers.

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Neurochemical and Hormones


The brain relies on several important chemicals to facilitate transmission o f impulses among nerves. Hormones and neurotransmitters operate in a symbiotic manner.

Some important neurotransmitters are: 1. Acetylcholine a. b. c. d. Thought to be involved in cognitive functions, especially memory Causes excitatory actions in the brain and tensing o f muscle fibres in the body associated w i t h the fight-or-flight response Deficiency may produce signs and symptoms o f motor dysfunction Severe shortage o f acetylcholine may be associated with Alzheimer's disease

2. Dopamine a. Critical to brain control o f physical movements synthesis o f epinephrine and necessary for

b. Controls the flow o f information within the brain and can cause a decline i n neurocongnitive function, particularly related to memory, attention and problem solving. c. Associated w i t h the pleasure system o f the brain, related to feelings o f enjoyment reinforcement that motivate us to do, or continue doing, certain activities

d. Deficiency is a contributory factor i n Parkinson's disease, and increased concentration has a role i n the development o f schizophrenia 3. Epinephrinea Produces a short-term stress reaction that increases the heart rate and forcefulness o f each contraction, dilates the pupils, and constricts small blood vessels i n the skin Elevates the blood sugar level by increasing the liver's conversion of glycogen to glucose, while at the same time beginning the breakdown of lipids (fats) i n fat cells Sometimes called adrenaline

b.

c.

4. Glutamate a. M a y be involved i n cognitive functions such as learning and memory

b. Excessive amounts may cause neuronal damage associated i n disease like Alzheimer's 5. Norepinephrine a. Increases the level o f excitatory activity w i t h i n p[arts o f the brain where attention, arousal, and impulsivity are controlled

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b.

Plays a role i n the iight-or-flight response by activating the sympathetic nervous response system and increasing the heart rate i n readiness for taking action

6. Serotonina. Important for a range o f brain functions, including mood control, regulation o f sleep, pain perception, body temperature, blood pressure, hormonal activity, appetite, and sexual desire Imbalances are associated with depression, bi-polar disorder, and anxiety

b.

Some important hormones are: 1. Cortisol a. b. Secretion increases in response to physical or mental stress Produces an increase in blood pressure and heart rate

2. Melatonina. b. Production is regulated by light passing through the eye A control sleep patterns and is also involved in modulation o f mood, sexual behaviour, reproductive alterations, and immunological functions.

When a person fust wakes up i n the morning his production o f melatonin during the night w i l l cause h i m to be lethargic and cold. A s light passes through the person's retinas, it triggers the re-uptake o f melatonin. As the person drives to work, he is nearly in a car accident. This triggers the secretion o f Norepinephrine, which is responsible for selfpreservation and is associated with the fight-or-flight response. Because epinephrine and Norepinephrine are almost identical i n structure, dopamine is released after the urgency of the event to synthesize the epinephrine, which brings blood pressure and heart r re down to normal. When the person finally arrives at work, he feels lethargic and moody. The reason he feels this way is that he has woken up i n the middle o f the night and has had difficulty falling asleep again. This and the moodiness can be a result o f low serotonin levels, which can be caused by prolonged stress. The person then checks his voice mail to find a harsh message left by his supervisor. I n response to stress, the person's body releases Cortisol. Because the supervisor routinely leaves such messages, the person experiences chronic stress. Therefore, the person's body routinely produces high levels o f Cortisol, w h i c h compromise his ability to learn and remember. This chronic stress w i l l also cause the levels o f other neurotransmitters and hormones to be abnormal. The person's body has multiple responses that occur c o n c ' ^ e n t l v and a multitude o f other physical, biological, and social variables affecting his physiological responses.

Understanding the effects o f neurotransmitters and hormones on learning behaviours is an important start to understanding personality.

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It is important to remember that people are more than the sum o f chemical reactions. It is the aggregate o f chemical, cultural, and social situations that determine a person's personality.

Personality T r a i t s Personality traits are those unique attributes which define who a person is. Personality traits are often expressed through the quantity and types o f artifacts found within a built environment as w e l l as the overall environmental style; the assumption is that individuals develop environments that reflect and reinforce who they perceive themselves to be.

Primary Components o f Personality Designers who strive to understand their clients' personalities arc more likely to engage i n more communication with their clients, which enables them to develop the most appropriate designs and thus better meet their clients' needs.

There are many methods to determine personality traits: T w o o f the most well-known are: 1. The B i g Five Inventory ( B F I ) 2. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ( M B T I ) B F I has ihe following broad dimensions: 1. Extraversion - It is sometimes called surgency. I t encompasses such specific traits as talkativeness, energy, and assertiveness. 2. A greeableness - This includes such traits as sympathy, kindness, and affection. 3. Conscientiousness - This includes being organized, thorough, and able to make plans. 4. Neuroticism - The reverse is called emotional stability. Neuroticism is characterized b y traits such as tension, moodiness, and anxiety. 5. Openness This implies openness to new experiences, and is sometimes called culture or intellect. It includes having interests and being imaginative and insightful.

The M B T I expands on personality types developed by Carl Jung. Four dichotomies combine to many different personality types. The four dichotomies are: 1. Introvert-Extrovert - This relates to a person being either outgoing o reserved. People w i t h extroverted personalities tend tG have high energy levels, prefer to multitask, and like to be around other people. They also tend to talk more than listen, act before thinking, and can be easily distracted. Such people often use open furniture arrangements like sofas because they prefer to be physically close to others.
r

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Introverts tend to be quiet thinkers who prefer being in a supportive role where attention is not focused on them, and they tend to appear reserved. They enjoy time alone, prefer to focus on one task at a time, and have great capacity for concentration. They use closed arrangements like single seats and chairs, and prefer unobstructed paths that allow free mobility and easy escape.

2. Sensory-Intuitive - People who are sensory focus on the details rather than on ihe b i g picture. They embrace practicality, are aware o f finer points and subtleties, remember significant attributes and comments, and view life as a step-by-step process. Such clients are more concerned with budget issues and prefer a cGstbenefit analysis o f proposed designs. Intuitive people are more creative in their thought processes, prefer their environments to be more complicated, are inventive in their ideas, and consider future implications. They focus on the big-picture potential, trust their gut instincts, and enjoy learning. They usually desire more complex designs, and view designs i n their entirety rather than their individual components.

3. Thinker-Feeler - Thinkers tend to be reserved, draw their conclusions from observed facts, and respond best to rational, non-arbitrary arguments; they are usually honest and direct, value honesty and fairness, and are motivated by the end-results. They are business-oriented and view designs i n terms o f cost-benefit ratios. They w i l l demand extensive research and w ' l l aggressively question a designer's decisions. Feelers often make decisions based on personal valur s and h o w they feel at the time; they appear to be w a r m and friendly and tend to be diplomatic and tactful. They seek to avoid friction, and rely heavily on the designer's ability to ask the right questions and read between the lines.

4. Judger-Perceiver - Judgers are more serious and conventional i n their pieferred design styles. They do not m i x work with social activities, and make decisions fairly easily, but value rules and order over creativity. However, they like to keep their options open, so they may have difficulty adhering to decisions. They often regard designers as hired help and tend to avoid social interaction. Perceivers tend to be unconventional, and desire more social interaction. They value uniqueness and innovation, but mav have difficulty making and sticking w i t h decisions.

Other Influential Components of Personality


There are t w o other components that influence a person's design choices and level o f satisfaction: 1. Locus o f control, and 2. Ability' to screen or block out environmental stimuli

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Locus o f control relates to how a person views his opportunities and himself. Individuals who have a stiong external locus o f control (ELOC) believe that external forces like fate, luck, and powerful others control their destinies. They are unable to tolerate delays in rewards or to plan for long-term goals. In response to setbacks and frustration, they decrease their efforts. They rely on religion and superstition for support, arid prefer large, interpersonal spaces. Individuals with a strong internal locus o f control (ILOC) believe that their o w n actions, choices, and pursuits control their destinies. They work for achievements, and tolerate delays in rewards, and plan for long-term goals. They increase efforts i n response to setbacks. They rely on themselves for support, but are also able to utilize social supports. They tolerate higher-density situations, where people tend to be closer io each other. A person's ability to screen out unwanted environmental stimuli like noise, glare, and odour, depend on h o w he responds to various distractions that arrive in different patterns. People who are less affected by a stimulus are considered to possess greater screening abilities, whereas those who are bothered or annoyed by a stimulus are thought to be nonscreeners. Non-screeners are inclined to be much more sensitive than screcners. However, just because screeners can filter out negative environmental factors, it does not mean that they are unaffected by diem. Therefore, w i t h both screeners and non-screeners, it is important for designers to consider the quantity o f stimulation i n the environment as well as the level or the degree o f the stimulation from each source. I n f o r m a t i o n Management Humans are affected by the numerous stimuli within an environment. In this way, the brain functions as an information manager. However, when there is toe much stimulation, the brain cannot adequately filter and sort through everything. Perception Perception involves the interpretation o f sensations. It is influenced by a variety o f factors: the type i ad level o f the stimulus as well as a person's past experiences, level o f attention to detail, readiness to respond, level o f motivation, and current emotional state. Once sensory organs gather stimuli, the brain interprets that information into patterns o f understanding. This is a move beyond perception into cognition. instead o f perceiving individual components o f an environment, people organize all the components into recognizable patterns. Thus, the information is directly and immediately conveyed by perceptual patterns without higher-brain processing. Thus, people notice and respond to meaning that already exists i n a structured environment. A per-^n's attitude or predisposition strongly inffences his perception. Attitudes and beliefs tend to follow the values o f the times and vice versa. For instance, at one time, the general attitude toward design favoured detail-oriented craftsmanship, whereas today people tend to favour economical and easily assembled designs, one o f the reasons for the success o f I K E A .

Cognition
Cognition is the process o f thinking, knowing, or mentally processing information. Environmental cognition refers to h o w people understand, diagnose, and interact with the

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environment. People move through the environment by creating images in their minds. Some people find their way by identifying landmarks, others using written directions; the blind create cognition maps based primarily cn physical contact. Memory Memory is a form o f cognition, it is the process that enables a person to store information and recall it at a later time. There are three distinct phases in the formation o f memories: 1. Perception and recording o f a stimulus 2. Temporary maintenance o f a perception (short-term memory) 3. Encoding into long-term memory Memory loss often occurs due to a physiological process o f deterioration o f brain cells. Using design as a means o f association can help users make appropriate neural connections. For example, placing the commode i n the direct line o f sight once the bathroom door is open, prompts a patient with Alzheimer's disease to use the pot instead o f excreting wherever they want i n the bathroGin. Gestalt psychology This is one o f the most influential perceptual theories for design. ^Gestalt psychologists study the way in which people organize and select from the vast array o f stimuli presented to them, focusing on visual stimuli. Because humans are primarily visual, perception is heavily influenced by what a person sees as well as by other cues originating from sound, smell, and touch. Therefore, perception as a whole is greater than the sum o f its parts'! (Gestalt psychology contends that we are innately driven to experience the world around us in a regular, orderly, simplified, and symmetrical manner! The average person tends to prefer symmetry because o f the appearance o f balance, whereas designers tend to prefer asymmetry because o f the artistry. J t j i l s ^ j i x r j l a i n ^ o as a means o f creating illusions such as making a room look larger, more spacious, or more illuminated than the r e a l i t y . ~ ' " "~"'"' " """" Gestalt concepts are not applicable to visual images alone, but also to human cognition. I f a person experiences an event that does not quite make sense to h i m , he w i l l tend to remember it i n a way that has meaning, regardless o f the accuracy o f that meaning. Similarly, a person usually recalls a particular environment not i n isolation, but i n relation to its surroundings. For example, i f a person were asked to think o f a red apple, he would probably think o f it i n a setting, such as on a tree, in a b o w l , or some such thing, but not the red apple alone, i n its singularity. Without any change i n the environment, people run tle risk o f developing environment^ numbness, i.e. not taking notice o f an environment until some feature attracts the attention. However, i t is vital to remember, that when a person views a scene, he cannot do so without his values, opinions, attitudes, and emotions influencing his perceptions and subsequent cognitions.

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Revision Points / Summary 1. A better understanding o f the environmental factors related to the secretion, absorption, and interaction o f neurochemical enables people to predict more precisely human behavioural responses to certain environments. 2. A l l behaviour is i n some way represented in brain physiology. 3. The brain relies on several important chemicals to facilitate transmission o f impulses among nerves. Hormones and neurotransmitters operate in a symbiotic manner. 4. Some important neurotransmitters are: acetylcholine, dopamine, epinephrine, glutamate, Norepinephrine, and serotonin. 5. Some important hormones are: Cortisol, and melatonin. 6. Understanding the effects o f neurotransmitters and hormones behaviours is an important start to understanding personality. on learning

7. It is important to remember that people are more than the sum o f chemical reactions. It is the aggregate o f chemical, cultural, and social situations that determine a person's personality. 8. Personality traits are those unique attributes which define who a person is. 9. Designers who strive to understand their clients* personalities are more likely to engage i n more communication with their clients, which enables them to develop the most appropriate designs and thus better meet their clients' needs. 10. There are many methods to determine personality traits: T w o o f the most wellknown are: The B i g Five Inventory (BFI), and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). 11. The M B T I expands on personality types where four dichotomies combine to many different personality types: introvert-extrovert, sensory-intuitive, thinker feeler, andjudger perceiver. 12. Humans are affected by the numerous stimuli w i t h i n an environment. I n this way, the brain functions as an information manager. 13. Perception involves the interpretation o f sensations. I t is influenced by a variety o f factors: the type and level o f the stimulus as well as a person's past experiences, level o f attention to detail, readiness to respond, level o f motivation, and current emotional state 14 Cognition is the process o f thirihir.g, knowing, or mentally p r e v i s i n g information. Environmental cognition refers to h o w people understand, diagnose, and interact with the environment. 15. Memory is a form o f cognition, it is the process that enables a person to store information and recall it at a later time. 16, Gestalt psychologists study the way i n which people organize and select from the vast array o f stimuli presented to them, focusing on visual stimuli.

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Lesson 4: The Psychology of Behaviour


Introduction The lesson examines the psychology o f behaviour, w i t h design applications spelt out for each variable. It introduces the student to the concepts o f psychological health, meanings of place, territoriality, personal space, privacy, and crowding and density as being the basis for lifestyle space design.

Objectives 1. 2. T o introduce the concept o f psychological health. T'o inform the student regarding meanings of p\ace, etc. territonahVy, spate

Introduction
When examining the human-environment relationship, it is important to consider t n t joint nature o f utilitarian needs and aesthetic qualities. The need o f the hour is to develop designs that are both attractive and functional. How a person prioritizes incoming stimuli influences their first impressions. Most people prioritize incoming environmental influences according to their experiences. For example, i f a person who is looking to buy a house sees evidence o f a w i l d party having occurred the night before at the h :>use next door, then the person w i l l be more aware o f the potential for greater noise and oe discouraged.

Design Application
The process of having clients list and prioritize the attributes they find desirable i n a home (or specific room) allows the designer to see what bears the greatest importance for each client. Doing this greatly facilitates the creation o f environmental designs that w i l l more readily meet clients' individual needs.

Psychological Health
W i t h regard to psychological health, designers must identify those design attributes which piomote health *A \v2ll-being, as w e l l as on those that focus on people's disorders to alleviate them. Poor psychological health is perpetuated by environments i n which people are forced to surrender control, such as hospitals, prisons, workplaces, or schools. In these environments, the person who is not i n optimal psychological health often opts to be silent rather than be labeled a troublemaker. Environmental attributes possess variables that help people make sense o f their world. Environmental perceptions are influenced by proceedings: internal and external. Internal proceedings are mental processes that help a person to represent, explain, and predict the

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world around him; they are the thoughts and feelings that give order to the environment. These w i l l influence his external proceedings, the way he interacts w i t h the physical environment and other individuals. For example, a person goes to a neighbourhood that seems run-down and sees graffiti, trash, and potentially hostile residents, his internal proceedings may lead him to conclude that he is not safe there. This belief w i l l influence his external proceedings, and he w i l l be less likely to engage in conversation or make eye contact w i t h others and more likely to w a l k faster or to seek escape.

Five kinds o f personal impressions influence environmental perceptions: 1. E n v i r o n m e n t a l descriptions - these allow a person to encapsulate the features or attributes o f an environment that stand out i n his mind after leaving the environment. So seeing a temple provides a person with information abGut a place and allows h i m to understand it. 2. Judgment o f beauty - this is a notion that varies according to culture, and individual preferences and experiences. For this evaluation, both the viewer and the view must be considered by the designer because an environment that may be beautiful to one person may be repugnant to another. However, most people tend to like the ability to see for a distance, and also to understand the 3-dimensional relationship between objects in an environment.

3. E m o t i o n a l (affective) reactions - these reactions to an environment are typically less intense than other reactions, but they tend to be persistent and cumulative. Once the person's tolerance l i m i t has been exceeded, he w i l l probably react negatively to the environment. 4. E n v i r o n m e n t a l meaning - this develops as a person gains familiarity with an environment over time. When people become attached to their residences, neighborhoods, worl places or recreational sites, those environments become more than just places, they hold emotional meaning for the occupants and users.

5. R i s k o f safety - this refers to whether an individual perceives danger from crime, accidents, or physical hazards within an environment. This is relative' to a person's point o f reference. For instance, India is unsafe to a person from Singapore, but safe to a person from Afghanistan.

Meanings o f Place Meanings o f place define how a person sees himself i n relation to others and a particular environment, a n explains the emotional bond the person may develop to that piace over time. It involves: 1. Place identity - this refers to how people incorporate a concept o f their o w n identities or senses o f self. A place identifies generally provides a sense o f continuity, helps to and self-esteem, enables people to get things done, distinctiveness from others, or a sense o f belonging. place into the larger w i t h which a person reinforce self-identity and provides cither

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2. Sense of place - this develops when a level o f comfort and feelings o f safety are associated w i t h a place. Usually, this translates to a sense o f belonging. Thus, most Muslims identify w i t h the city o f Mecca. A person's personal history combines w i t h a setting to form a sense o f place. Thus, a punk rocker is not likely tc develop a sense o f place for a church i n Bihar. 3. Place attachment - thiG is denned as a person's bond w i t h the social and physical environments of a place. These are settings that have deep meaning for people because their identities are intricately woven into those places, which therefore serve as restorative environments. People become attached to a place because o f three reasons: the places define or express who they are; they give them a sense o f belonging, freedom, or both; and they have ample facilities, opportunities and resources available.

Place attachment can be culturally transmitted in six ways: a. Genealogy - people and places are linked through a historical connection for example generations o f a family may have worked i n a particular place

b. Loss and destruction - When places are destroyed, people often develop nostalgic feelings that lead to a form o f attachment. c. Ownership - when a person owns a place for a period o f time, it becomes a part o f h i m and vice versa. This usually translates into greater maintenance and custodianship. Thus, designers can work w i t h employees to develop unique designs for their work spaces as another way to facilitate their feelings o f ownership within the workplace.

d. Cosmological - A culture may have a religious or mythical connection to a certain place, and many groups o f people see their sacred areas as the centre o f the universe. For example, Varanasi or Vrindavan could be such places for Hindus. e. Pilgrimage - A journey to a sacred site can be non-religious, for example, the couple eating at the same restaurant every year on the same day to celebrate the day and place that they first met. Narrative - People can become attached to a place through romantic or idealistic stories. Thus, many NRIs are attached to the birthplaces o f their parents in India, though they have never visited them themselves.

f.

Territoriality
Territoriality involves the possession and defense o f physical space, as well as the exclusiveness o f use, marking, personalization, and identity (as a reflection c f the self) c f that space by the occupant or user. It most civilizations, territories serve to organize human behaviours so that acts o f violence, aggression, and overt domination are reduced. When a person is on his o w n territory, he feels more able'to control or dominate an intruder. Animals and humans both mark territories: for instance, a dog marks an area

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with urine, while a movie-goer marks his seat by placing a personal belonging on it. The concept o f territorial marking can be integrated into the design o f a built environment in overt or subtle ways. A n overt example would be inscribing a person's name into the wall next to the doorbell.

Types of Territories
Different territories meet different needs: 1. Primary territories - these are spaces that are generally owned by the individuals or primary groups and are controlled on a relatively permanent basis. A primary territory is psychologically very important to the user. 2. Secondary territories - these are less important than primary spaces. They are not usually owned by the occupants, and possess only moderate significance to them. Psychological control o f these territories is less important to current occupants, and is likely to change, rotate, or be shared with others. 3. Public territories - these are open to anyone in good standing within the community, and occupants cannot expect to have much control.

Usually, a person's home is his primary territory; the workplace is a secondary territory, while a public park is public territory. Interactional territories are temporarily controlled by a group o f interacting individuals. For instance, one team may be meeting in the conference room o f the office. Territories can be permanent, temporary, or temporarily permanent. A home is a permanent territory, but the guest room w o u l d be a temporary territory for out-of-town friends. A rented apartment is temporarily permanent territory for tenants.

Territorial Infringement
Conflict and aggression can result when territories have high perceived value or when territorial boundaries are unclear. Territorial infringements can be classified as: 1. Invasion - when an outsider physically enters a territory w i t h the intention o f taking control o f it. 2. Violation - this is a temporary incursion into someone else's territory. The violator's goal is not usually ownership, but rather annoyance, harm, or power. A n example this is when a child rummages i n -older sibling's room. 3. Contamination - this is the intentional fouling o f someone else's territory. Vandalism, graffiti, excessive noise, etc. are examples o f this.

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Defensible Space
Territoriality is based on feelings o f ownership. Defensible space is also related to control; people defend their control o f a territory by anticipating infringement and acting to prevent invasion, violation, or contamination.

1 Persona) Space
Personal space is actually an interpersonal phenomenon - it does not exist without interaction. Humans tolerate less personal distance when they feel strong, safe, and secure, and need more when they feel weak, insecure, or at risk. Space is culturally acquired over time and results from a combination o f a person's history and others' behaviour reinforcement.

Personal space requirements vary based on: * * * Personality - extroverts need less space than introverts Stage of development - a newly married couple needs less space between them than another couple who have been mamed for quite a while. Gender - men tend to require more personal space than women Age - a child needs less personal space than an adult Cultural and societal norms - In Asia, juniors would not sit / stand too close to much more senior people. Physical environment - climate, familiarity with the environment etc. Japan has a higher density o f population than India, so people tend to stand closer together th^re.
f

The effec s o f personal space violation can be profound. There are many ways to violate someone's personal space including physical invasion, eavesdropping, staring or watching without permission, playing loud music, and reeking o f perfume or body odour.

Design Application *s-Ul^<*


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'':\ ySpacing mechanisms used in design serve to help-maintain an individual's sense o f personal space. In architecture, walls, elevations serve to assist i n the management ef^ersoriaif sj5&e. w mfer.or design, end tables, chairs w i t h armrests, and potted plants can help to increase interpersonal YjtfiXA distances} I n interior design, furniture and layout often serve to establish appropriate I" interpersonal spacing. The size o f tables can serve to regulate how close one chair is from
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Privacy Privacy is the selective control over another's access to our selves, our groups, or our environments. I t involves more than just physical access; visual acoustical, olfactory, or informational privacy can also be infringed. People's needs to regulate their privacy are influenced by their culture, personalities, age, stage o f life, gender, and experiences.

Four aspects o f privacy are described: 1. Solitude - the state o f being alone, free from physical invasion. Solitude doesn't necessarily mean privacy, because people might be alone because they are alone. 2. Intimacy - refers to group privacy and emotional bonds, such as lovers who want to be alone together. Intimacy is also different with respect to intimacy w i t h friends, and intimacy w i t h family. A person is likely to share different things about himself to the two groups (friends and family).

3. Anonymity - the desire to be invisible or unknown to others. This privacy is lost by celebrities who want to be w i t h others but do not want to associate with them or to be identified by them. 4. Reserve - the distance created people create between themselves and others by erecting psychological barriers to protect inner thoughts and feelings, in public or private.

People regulate their privacy using four interpersonal mechanisms: space, territory, verbal behaviour, and non-verbal behaviour. It is also controlled by economics. The wealthy can easily exclude others most o f the time, but lower-income and poor people struggle to maintain social and physical privacy.

Design Application
Design professionals can ensure their clients' desired levels o f privacy via city planning initiatives, such as transforming thoroughfare streets into dead ends; landscape initiatives such as the use o f hedge lines and strategically placed bushes and trees; architectural initiatives such as the incorporation o f porches, photosensitive windows, and good insulation; and interior design initiatives such as the use o f occupied / vacant signs on restrooms, and wall textures (opaque, transparent or translucent), as desired.

Crowding and Density


Crowding means people feeling physically constrained, and feeling that others are interfering w i t h them. This happens when there are too many people, too little space, or both. Density is the ratio o f individuals to an area. Social density is created by a varied number o f individuals occupying different size spaces. Density and crowding are linked. Density is a mathematical formula, used to calculate the maximum number o f people who can board a lift, for example. Crowding- in contrast, is a psychological concept. Not everyone would feci crowded in a full lift.

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Perceptions o f crowding vary according to individual experiences, circumstances, belief systems, and personalities. High density is often a source o f physiological arousal and stress. High density is often, but not always, followed by feelings o f crowding. Crowding results in psychological stress when perceived control is lower, such as m a prison.

Design Application

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Design can decrease perceptions o f space confinement (by installing mirrors and increasing light levels), w h i c h w i l l i n turn, decrease perceptions o f crowding. Brightness, sunny rooms, rectangular rooms, rooms w i t h comers (no curved walls), and furniture arranged on the sides o f the room rather than i n the centre - all o f these reduce perceptions o f crowding. People have spatial needs i n both horizontal and vertical dimensions. I f available space is limited in one dimension, then a person's spatial needs w i l l increase in the other dimension. High temperature is another factor that increases the perception o f crowding.

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