Neuroendocrinology

Hormones and their effect on body and brain Chapter 5

Hormones
Hormones (Greek, to excite) chemical messengers in the bloodstream released by endocrine glands.

Endocrine System

History
Aristotle (384-322 BC) observed changes and compared behaviors in men and birds when castrated.
Body Fluids and Temperaments
Fluid Yellow bile Black bile Blood Phlegm Temperament Choleric Melancholic Sanguine Phlegmatic Character Irritable Depressed Optimistic Sluggish
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Arnold Berthold
If male chicks were castrated early in development they loose their sexual drive and secondary sexual characteristics.

Experiment

Testes Replaced Group

When testes is replaced in the abdominal cavity it establishes blood supply (not nerves) and the rooster develops normal sexual behavior and secondary sexual characteristics. So there had to be some chemicals that lead to such changes. Indeed testes secrete testosterone hormone!

Claude Bernard

Internal environment is independently regulated in the ever changing external environment.

(1813-1878)

Walter Cannon
Homeostasis: Based on Bernards ideas Cannon proposed the concept of homeostasis which is a constant internal environment by an array of mechanisms in the body including the endocrine system.
1871-1945
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Synaptic Communication
Synaptic communication or neurocrine function is chemical communication between neurons at the synaptic cleft or neurons releasing chemical onto blood vessels.

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Autocrine Communication
Autocrine Communication involves chemical activity that regulates cells own functions. Negative feedback effect of NT on autocrine receptors to control NT release.
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Paracrine Communication

Paracrine Communication involves regulating chemicals that affect distant target cells.

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Endocrine Communication
Endocrine Communication involves chemicals that travel via blood vessels to effect/regulate distant target tissue.

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Pheromone Communication

Pheromone Communication involves chemicals that travel outside the body of an animal to affect the behavior of another animal of the same specie.
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Allomone Communication

Pitcher plant releasing chemicals to entice insects.

Allomone Communication involves chemicals that travel outside the body of an animal/plant to affect the behavior of another animal of the another specie. 15

Hormonal-Neural Communication
Differences
Neural
Works like telephone system. Communicates messages through fixed anatomical connections to specific cells/targets. Rapid message on the order of milliseconds. Digitized messages (all-or-none)

Hormonal
Works like television system. Communicates messages through blood vessels affecting many cells at the same time. Slower messages, on the order of seconds or minutes. Analog messages (graded)
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Hormonal-Neural Communication
Differences
Neural
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) travel short distances across neurons. Voluntary control of messages sent to target cells or tissues. There are exceptions. Heart rate cannot change with voluntary command. Vagus nerve.

Hormonal
Hormones (chemical) travel large distances to affect target cells. No voluntary control on messages sent to target cells or tissue. There are exceptions. Milk let down from breast through oxytocin.
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Hormonal-Neural Communication
Similarities
Neural
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) are synthesized, stored and released. Mechanism for neurotransmitter release is based on stimulation. Variety of neurotransmitters exist in nerve cells.

Hormonal
Hormones (chemical) are also synthesized, stored and released. Mechanism for hormonal release is also based on stimulation Variety of hormones exist in endocrine glands.
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Hormonal-Neural Communication
Similarities
Neural
Neurotransmitters react with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the nerve cells. Epinephrine Norepinephrine

Hormonal
Hormones also react with receptors on the membranes of target cells. Epinephrine Norepinephrine

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Kinds of Hormones
Protein Hormones: Hormones composed with many amino acids, e.g., Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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Protein Hormones

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Kinds of Hormones
Amine Hormones: Hormones composed with a single amino acid, e.g. Thyroxine hormone

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Kinds of Hormones
Steroid Hormones: Hormones composed of four interconnected carbon rings, e.g., testosterone

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Amine & Steroid Hormones

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Composition of Hormones
Steroid 15%

Amine 8%

Protein 77%
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Gland Importance
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Number of Hormones

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Pineal Pituitary Hypothalamic

12 10 6 3 1
Thyroid

4 1
Parathyroid Pancreatic

4 2 2

4 2 1
Cardiac

1
Fat Cell

1
Skin

Adrenal Medulla

Digestive

Gonadal

Placental

Liver

Adrenal Cortex

Gland/Tissue
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Hormone Action

Protein hormones have higher mol. wt. (5000 Daltons) cant diffuse through membranes therefore require receptors

Steroid hormones have lower mol. wt. (200 Daltons) and are lipid soluble, therefore diffuse through membrane.
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Kidney

Pituitary Gland
1. 2. 3. 4. Master gland Pea Size (1 cm2) Weight 1g. Two lobes (anterior and posterior) 5. Connects to the hypothalamus via the pituitary stalk (infundibulum)
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Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamic neurons descend from SCN and PVN to posterior pituitary and directly pour hormones into the blood stream (neurocrine function). Other neurons of the hypothalamus secrete hormones in vessels in the hypothalamus and pass them to the anterior pituitary (neurocrine function).

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Pituitary Gland
1. Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Prolactin (PRL)

2. Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin Vasopressin
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Anterior Pituitary
Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Prolactin (PRL)

Function
Stimulates growth Stimulates thyroids affects growth and development Stimulates adrenal cortex in stress response Stimulates egg and sperm production Stimulates egg release and testosterone release in males Promotes lactation in females
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Posterior Pituitary
Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin Vasopressin

Function
Reproductive/Parental behavior, uterine contractions Inhibits urine, increases blood pressure

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Growth Hormone
http://www.sd-neurosurgeon.com

Acromegaly
When the pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone (GH) it results in acromegaly. Thick, coarse, oily skin; skin tags; enlarged lips, nose and tongue; deepening of the voice due to enlarged sinuses and vocal cords; fatigue and weakness; headaches; impaired vision; abnormalities of the menstrual cycle; diabetes mellitus hypertension, arthritis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease. 33

Growth Hormone
http://www.lpaonline.org/Ledger1.jpg

Dwarfism Growth hormone deficiency involves abnormally short stature with normal body proportions. Growth hormone deficiency can be categorized as either congenital (present at birth) or acquired.
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

TSH directly affects thyroid gland and in turn is affected by thyroid hormones in the blood. Increased thyroid hormones in the blood decrease TSH from pituitary and vice versa (negative feedback).

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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex. More specifically, it stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids such as cortisol in response to many types of stress.

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FSH and LH

FSH and LH from pituitary gland lead to maturing of follicles in females, sperm in males. LH affects testes to 37 produce testosterone.

Prolactin

Prolactin from the pituitary is secreted to promote mammary development and production of milk. In ringdoves it promotes crop milk.

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Oxytocin

Oxy (rapid) tokos (child birth). Oxytocin causes contractions of the uterus for childbirth. Oxytocin triggers milk letdown reflex. Sucking at the nipple stimulates skin cells which activate neurons in the hypothalamus, oxytocin from neurons is released and through the blood vessels stimulate the mammary gland for release of milk. Oxytocin may also contribute to pleasurable feeling during sexual climax, in both 39 males and females.

http://medicalimages.allrefer.com

Vasopressin
Vasopressin or the antiduretic hormone (ADH) released from the pituitary directly affects the kidneys to reabsorb water and increase blood pressure by constricting blood vessels.

http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu

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Thyroid Glands
1. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyroxine (T3)
Regulate growth processes and carbohydrate use Deficiency leads to hypothyroidism, Hasimotos autoimmune disease and cretinism. Excess leads to hyperthyroidism, Graves autoimmune disease.

2. Calcitonin
Calcium deposition in bones
http://www.endocrineweb.com

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Hypothyroidism
Reduction in thyroid hormones results in a condition called hypothyroidism. More women (5) than men (1). Reduced release of thyroid hormones results in elevated TSH, causing thyroids to secrete more thyroid hormone. Thyroid usually enlarges (goiter). Thyroid hormone therapy is given to alleviate the condition.
http://137.222.110.150

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Hashimotos Autoimmune Disorder

http://www.uky.edu

A condition in which the bodys immune system mistakenly identifies the thyroid cells as foreign, and sends its protector cells, or antibodies to attack, destroying thyroids and in turn reducing thyroid hormone.
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Cretinism

http://www.thyroidmanager.org

Deficiency of thyroid hormones during early development result in a condition called cretinism resulting in mental retardation.

http://137.222.110.150

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Hyperthyroidism

http://www.nlm.nih.gov

Hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis results from excess quantities of thyroid hormone in the body, caused by tumors or inflammation of the thyroid, or ingestion of thyroid hormone or iodine. 45

Graves Autoimmune Disease

In this disease the immune system manufactures antibodies which behave like TSH and stimulate the thyroid uncontrollably.

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Exophthalmos

Due to hyperthyroidism an condition called exophthalmos may result. It is due to increased collagen deposition behind the eye.
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http://137.222.110.150

Adrenal Glands
Medulla Cortex

http://um-endocrine-surgery.org

Adrenal glands sitting on top of kidneys

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Adrenal Hormones
1. Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids: Carbohydrate metabolism. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) inhibit inflammation, can destroy neurons, and can affect appetite and muscular activity Mineralocorticoids: Salt balance. Sex steroids: (Androgens) Hair growth.

2. Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine Norepinephrine

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Cushings Syndrome

http://cnserver0.nkf.med.ualberta.ca

Prolonged exposure of the bodys tissues to high levels of the hormone cortisol. Could be due to pituitary or adrenal tumors. Symptoms include: upper body obesity, rounded face, increased fat around the neck, thinning arms and legs, skin becomes fragile and thin, bruises easily and heals poorly. 50

Gonads
1. Testes
Testosterone: Promotes changes in puberty, hair growth, voice change, genital size Androgens: Development, growth and maintenance of sex organs

2. Ovaries
Estrogen: Development and growth of female sex organs Progestin: Implantation of ovum and maintenance of pregnancy
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Gonads

http://images.encarta.msn.com

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Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome
1. An X-linked recessive disorder (affecting males). The male brain and body remain unresponsive to androgens and are feminized due to maternal estrogens. 2. At puberty the testes do not descend and secondary female sexual characteristics appear due to circulating estrogens. 3. Individuals are often reared as girls and do not discover that they are male until they fail to menstruate at puberty.

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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

1. An autosomal recessive disorder. The adrenal glands are unable to produce sufficient quantities of cortisol. ACTH is not inhibited and produced in large amounts 2. The fetus is exposed to excessive amounts of androgens which have a masculinizing effect 3. Affected females display masculinized genitals and behavior. Affected males may show precocious puberty.
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