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Variation
Shows that offspring differ somewhat in appearance Figure 13.1 from parents and siblings
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Genetics
Is the scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
Each gene in an organisms DNA Has a specific locus on a certain chromosome which is called locus
We inherit One set of chromosomes from our mother and one set f th d t from our father f th In animals and plants gametes are the vehicles that transmit genes from one generation to the next (female and male gametes)
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Parent Bud
0.5 mm
In sexual reproduction
Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents
A karyotype
Is an ordered, visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell (condensed chromosomes in pairs) Karyotyping can be used to screen abnormal numbers of b l b f chromosomes associated with certain disorders Karyotyping Isolated somatic cell Treated with a drug to stimulate mitosis Grown in culture for several days Cell arrested in metaphase are stained Viewd with microscope
5 m
Centromere
Sister chromatids
Figure 13.3
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Homologous chromosomes
Are the two chromosomes composing a pair Have the same characteristics M also b called autosomes May l be ll d t
Sex chromosomes
Are distinct from each other in their characteristics Are represented as X and Y Determine the sex of the individual, XX being female, XY being male
A diploid cell
Has two sets of each of its chromosomes The number of chromosomes in a single set is represented by n Human has 46 chromosomes (2n = 46)
Figure 13.4
At sexual maturity
The ovaries and testes (germ cells) produce haploid g p gametes by meiosis y
During fertilization
These gametes, sperm and ovum, fuse, forming a diploid zygote
The zygote
Develops into an adult organism
Ovary
Testis
Figure 13.5
The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles The three main types of sexual life cycles
Differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization I animals In i l In plants and algae Most fungi and some protists
In animals
Meiosis occurs during gamete formation Gametes are the only haploid cells
2n
Figure 13.6 A
2n
2n Mitosis
Zygote
Figure 13.6 B
MEIOSIS 2n
FERTILIZATION
Figure 13.6 C
Concept: Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid Meiosis
Takes place in two sets of divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II
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Sister chromatids
Meiosis I
1 Homologous
chromosomes h separate
Figure 13.7
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Meiosis I
Reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid p p
Meiosis II
Produces four haploid daughter cells
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Homologous Microtubule chromosomes attached to separate kinetochore Pairs of homologous Chromosomes duplicate Tertads line up chromosomes split up Homologous chromosomes (red and blue) pair and exchange Figure 13.8 segments; 2n = 6 in this example Chromatin Tetrad
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Nuclear envelope
Cleavage furrow
Figure 13.8
During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate; four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes
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Synapsis and crossing over Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information
Tetrads on the metaphase plate At metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the metaphase plates
Separation of homologs At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs move toward opposite poles of the cell In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister chromatids separate
MEIOSIS
Chiasma (site of crossing over) MEIOSIS I
Prophase Chromosome replication Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) 2n = 6 Chromosome replication
Metaphase
Metaphase I
Anaphase Telophase
2n
MEIOSIS II
Figure 13.9
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Sister chromatids are attached along their length by protein complex called cohesins
In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of metaphase, in meiosis sister chromatid release in two steps
Concept: Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution Reshuffling of genetic material in meiosis
Produces genetic variation Changes in the organisms DNA create the different versions of genes known as alleles
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Three mechanisms that contribute to the genetic variation arising from sexual reproduction are
Independent assortment of chromosomes Crossing over Random fertilization
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Each daughter cell represents one outcome of f all possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes The number of possible combinations when chromosomes sort independently during meiosis is 2n n=haploid number of the organism
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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In independent assortment
Each pair of chromosomes sorts its maternal and paternal homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
Key Maternal set of chromosomes Paternal set of chromosomes
Possibility 1
Possibility 2
Metaphase II
Daughter cells
Figure 13.10
Combination 1
Combination 2
Combination 3
Combination 4
Crossing Over
Crossing over
Produces recombinant chromosomes that carry genes derived from two different parents
Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids
Metaphase II
Daughter cells
Figure 13.11
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Recombinant chromosomes
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Mutations
Are the original source of genetic variation
Sexual reproduction
Produces new combinations of variant genes, adding more genetic diversity
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