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Panama Canal
The Panama Canal
A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and passages Original owner Principal engineer Date of first use Locks La Socit internationale du Canal John Findlay Wallace, John Frank Stevens (19061908), George Washington Goethals August 15, 1914 3 locks up, 3 down per transit; all two lanes (2 lanes of locks; locks built in three sites) Status Open
The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panam) is a 82-kilometre (51mi) ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Started in 1880 it took till 1914, after the yellow fever threat was solved, to finish the canal. The canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships in 1914 to 14,702 vessels measuring a Location of Panama between Pacific (bottom) and Caribbean (top), with canal at total of 309.6 million Panama top center Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons in 2008. In total, over 815,000 vessels have passed through the canal.[1] It has been named one of the seven modern wonders of the world by the American Society of Civil Engineers.[2] One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the canal made possible fast and easy shipping between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, more than cutting in half the long Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America. Its major economic impact was in integrating the U.S. West Coast and Pacific countries more into the world economy. The first attempt to construct a sea level canal was begun in 1880 under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal, and heavy financing and support from Paris. The French seriously underestimated the medical dimension of working in a mosquito infested climate and the cost of building a sea level canal in the tropics with unstable mountains and up to 3 metres (9.8ft) of rain per year. The French effort went bankrupt and was largely
Panama Canal abandoned by 1890 after about 22,000 workers had died from accidents and from mosquito spread diseases (particularly malaria and yellow fever). During the French effort there was no demonstrated connection between mosquitoes and the spread of Yellow Fever and Malaria. The United States launched a second effort in 1904 after they bought the French rights for $40,000,000 and signed a treaty with the new country of Panama granting the U.S. control of the Panama Canal Zone for $10,000,000 and a fee payable each year. In all, it was estimated that about 30000000 cuyd ( m3) of French excavation, primarily in Gaillard Cut, were of direct use to the U.S. construction effort, this was valued at about $1.00 per 1cuyd (1m3) or $30,000,000. The usable French equipment, engineering surveys, etc. were valued at about $10,000,000 more.[3] A U.S. engineering panel was created to study building the canal and recommended to President Theodore Roosevelt that building a sea level canal (like the French had started) was best. However more extensive engineering studies showed a lock canal with a large reservoir 85 feet (26m) above sea level was a much better design. Creating the 115 feet (35m) high Gatun Dam, the largest in the world then, would make the world's largest (then) artificial lake, Gatun Lake (85 feet (26m) above sea level). This lake connected with a canal through the mountains--the Gaillard Cut--that crossed into the Pacific drainage and would be the main trans-oceanic route. Building Gatun Dam and Lake would eliminate having to remove 85 feet (26m) by about 13 miles (21km) of the treacherous soil in the Gaillard Cut and allow a way to "tame" the often wildly fluctuating Chagres River. In addition more of the work would be converted from expensive steam shovel work to less expensive dredge work which could excavate channels, etc. at about $0.25-0.50/cuyd. A ship lock canal which boosted ships up and down to Lake Gatun on the Atlantic and Pacific end was recommended by Chief Engineer John Frank Stevens as both much cheaper, quicker and more feasible than an all sea level canal and was agreed to by President Theodore Roosevelt. The Army Medical Department (United States) had shown in about 1898 that mosquitos were the vector allowing the spread of yellow fever and malaria. The Canal Commission appointed Colonel William Crawford Gorgas of the U.S. Army Medical Corp in March 1904 as head of hospitals and sanitation cleanup in Panama. After an extensive mosquito abatement project that involved a large sanitation corps, millions of dollars for improvements in mosquito abatement and about two years of intense effort followed by eight years of continuing effort they were largely successful--yellow fever deaths were essentially eliminated in the Canal Zone. The main sanitation projects involved: identifying and isolating patients with yellow fever or malaria, fumigation of buildings by burning pans of sulfur or pyrethrum to kill the mosquitoes, spraying mosquito breeding areas with oil and larvicide, paving roads in towns to minimize stagnant water, mosquito netting, window screens, eliminating stagnant water in all containers and draining swamps or any other stagnant water when practical, etc. Despite all their effort about 5,600 deaths due to disease and accidents occurred during the U.S. building of the canal. In 1907, when Chief Engineer John Frank Stevens resigned, Roosevelt appointed U.S. Army Colonel George Washington Goethals of the United States Army Corps of Engineers as Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal construction project. Goethals was experienced with locks and canals and with thousands of workers and strong leadership succeeded in opening the canal in 1914. They minimized the mosquito transmitted disease threat; moved, rebuilt and extensively expanded the Panama Railroad; excavated over 200000000 cuyd ( m3) of material; built Gatun Dam to allow filling Lake Gatun; poured about 2000000 cuyd ( m3) of concrete, the largest concrete use in the world at that time to build Lake Gatun spillway and three sets of double 110 feet (34m) by 1000 feet (300m) ship locks to boost ships up to and down from Lake Gatun; built one of the world's earliest and most extensive electrical systems to power and control the flow of water into the locks and spillway and spent almost $375,000,000 to finish the projectby far the largest American engineering project of that era. Colonel Goethals was promoted to Major General after the successful completion of the projectone of his many honors. Colonel William Crawford Gorgas was promoted to Major General and made Surgeon General of the Army in 1914 for his workone of his many honors. The U.S. controlled the canal and the canal defenses in the Panama Canal Zone surrounding it until the 1977 TorrijosCarter Treaties provided for the transition of control to Panama. From 1979 to 1999 the canal was under
Panama Canal joint U.S.Panamanian administration, and from 31 December 1999 command of the waterway was assumed by the Panama Canal Authority, an agency of the Panamanian government. While the Pacific Ocean is west of the isthmus and the Atlantic to the east, the 8- to 10-hour journey through the canal from the Pacific to the Atlantic is one from southeast to northwest. This is a result of the isthmus's "curving back on itself" in the region of the canal. The Bridge of the Americas (Spanish: Puente de las Amricas) at the Pacific end is about a third of a degree of longitude east of the end near Colon on the Atlantic.[4] The maximum size of vessel that can use the canal is known as Panamax. A Panamax cargo ship typically has a DWT of 65,00080,000 tonnes, but its actual cargo is restricted to about 52,500 tonnes because of draft restrictions in the canal.[5] The longest ship ever to transit was the San Juan Prospector, now Marcona Prospector, an ore-bulk-oil carrier that is 973ft (296.57m) long, with a beam of 106ft (32.31m).[6]
History
Satellite image showing location of Panama canal. Dense jungles are visible in green.
Early proposal
The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates to 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain ordered a survey for a route through Panama that would ease the voyage for ships traveling to and from Spain and Peru, as well as give the Spanish a tactical military edge over the Portuguese.[7] During his expedition of 17881793, Alessandro Malaspina demonstrated the feasibility of a canal and outlined plans for its construction.[8] Given the strategic location of Panama and its isthmus separating two great oceans, other forms of trade links were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was an attempt launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route, but was defeated by the generally inhospitable conditions, and abandoned in July 1699.[9] However, the discovery of gold in California created a great deal of interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Finally, the Panama Railway was built across the isthmus, opening in 1855. This overland link became a vital piece of infrastructure, greatly facilitating trade and largely determining the later canal route. Also in 1855, William Kennish, a Manx-born engineer in the employ of the United States government, surveyed and issued a report on a route for a proposed Panama Canal.[10] His report was published in a book entitled The Practicality and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[11]
Panama Canal
U.S. construction
At this time, various interests in the United States were also expressing interest in building a canal across the isthmus, with some favouring a route across Nicaragua (see Nicaragua Canal and Ecocanal) and others advocating the purchase of the French interests in Panama. Eventually, in June 1902, the U.S. Senate voted in favor of pursuing the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained. (It is claimed that the vote was swayed by William Nelson Cromwell.[15] ) On January 22, 1903, the Hay-Herran Treaty was signed by United States Secretary of State John M. Hay and Dr. Toms Herrn of Colombia. It would have granted the United States a renewable lease in perpetuity from Colombia on the land proposed for the canal.[16] This Construction work on the Gaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from 1907 is often misinterpreted as the "99-year lease" due to misleading wording included in article 22 of the agreement that refers to property within the land but does not pertain to the control of the canal and the right for the United States to renew the lease indefinitely.[17] It was ratified by the United States Senate on March 14, 1903, but the Senate of Colombia did not ratify the treaty. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief engineer of the French canal company, told Roosevelt and Hay of a possible revolt and hoped that the U.S. would support it with troops and money. President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt changed tactics, promising support for the separation of Panama from Colombia. On November 2, 1903, U.S. warships blocked sealanes for Colombian troops from coming to put down the revolt, while dense jungles blocked land routes. Panama achieved independence on November 3, 1903 when the United States sent naval forces to encourage Colombia's surrender of the region. The United States quickly recognized them. Also, on November 6, 1903, Phillipe Bunau-Varilla, Panama's ambassador to the United States, signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla
Panama Canal Treaty, granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal. Although Bunau-Varilla was serving as Panama's ambassador, he was a French citizen and was not authorized to sign treaties on behalf of Panama without Panamanian review. This treaty would later become a contentious diplomatic issue between Panama and the U.S. The United States, under President Theodore Roosevelt, bought out the French equipment and excavations for US$40 million and began work on May 4, 1904. The United States paid Colombia $10 million in 1921 and (later $250,000 per annum), seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty.
Panama Canal physician and scientist Dr. Carlos Finlay in 1881. Finlay's theory and investigative work had recently been confirmed by Dr. Walter Reed while in Cuba with the U.S. Army after the Spanish-American War (1898) (see also Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal). With the diseases under control, and after significant work on preparing the infrastructure and railroad, construction of an elevated canal with locks began in earnest. Even the construction of the Panama Canal with locks still required the excavation of an enormous volume of material and was envisioned by John Frank Stevens as a massive earth-moving project using the Panama Railway as efficiently as possible. The railroad, starting in 1904, had to be comprehensively upgraded with heavy-duty double-tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate all the new rolling stock of about 115 heavy-duty locomotives and 2,300 dirt spoils railroad cars. There were about 102 of the new railroad-mounted steam shovels brought in from the United States and elsewhere. The steam shovels were some of the largest in the world in 1906 when they were introduced. The new railroad closely paralleled the canal where it could and was moved and reconstructed where it interfered with the canal work. In many places the new Lake Gatun flooded over the original rail line and a new rail line had to be raised above the water by massive dirt fills and bridges. The Panama Canal Railway, besides hauling thousands of men, all the millions of tons of equipment and supplies, did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions of cubic yards of material removed from the required canal cuts were broken up by explosives, loaded by steam shovels mounted on one set of railroad tracks onto spoils cars on parallel tracks, and hauled out by locomotives. Most of the cars carrying the dirt spoils were wooden flat cars lined with steel floors A Marion steam shovel excavating the Panama that used a crude but effective unloading devicethe Lidgerwood Canal in 1908 system. The railroad cars had only one side and steel aprons bridged the spaces between the cars. The rock and dirt was first blasted loose by explosives. Two sets of tracks were then built or moved up to where the loosened material lay. The steam shovels, moving on one set of tracks, picked up the loosened dirt and then piled it on the steel-floored flat cars traveling on a parallel set of tracks. The dirt was piled high up against the one closed side of the car. The train moved forward as the cars were filled until all cars were filled. A typical train had twenty dirt cars arranged as essentially one long gondola car. On arrival of the train at one of the approximately 60 different dumping grounds, a three-ton steel plow was put on the last car (or a car carrying the plow was attached as the last car) and a huge winch with a braided steel cable stretching the length of all cars was attached to the engine. The winch, powered by the trains steam engine, pulled the plow the length of the dirt-loaded train by winching up the steel cable. The plow scraped the dirt off the railroad cars, allowing the entire train-load of dirt cars to be unloaded in about ten minutes or less. The plow and winch were then detached for use on another train. Another plow, mounted on a steam engine, then plowed the dirt spoils away from the track.[20] When the fill got large enough, the track was relocated on top of the old fill to allow almost continuous unloading of new fill with a minimum amount of effort. When the steam shovels or dirt trains needed to move to a new section, techniques were developed by William Bierd, former head of the Panama Railroad, to pick up large sections of track and their attached ties by large steam-powered cranes and relocate them intactwithout disassembling and rebuilding the track. A dozen men could move a mile of track a daythe work previously done by up to 600 men. This allowed the tracks used by both the steam shovels and dirt trains to be quickly moved to wherever they needed to go. While constructing the Gaillard Cut, about 160 loaded dirt trains went out of the cut daily, and returned emptyone train about every one and a half minutes of the day. The railroads, steam shovels, enormous steam-powered cranes, rock crushers, cement mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills used to drill holes for explosives (about 30000000 pounds (14000t) were used) were some of the new (in 1906) pieces of construction equipment used to construct the canal. Nearly all this new equipment was built by new, extensive machine building technology developed and built in the United States by companies such as
Panama Canal the Joshua Hendy Iron Works. In addition, the canal used large refrigeration systems for making ice, extensive large electrical motors to power the pumps and controls on the canal's locks and other new technology. They built extensive electrical generation and distribution systemsone of the first wide-scale uses of large electrical motors and generators.[21] Electrical-powered donkey engines pulled the ships through the locks on railroad tracks laid parallel to the locks. New technology, not available before, allowed massive earth cuts and fills to be used on the new railroad and canal that were many times larger than those done in the original 18511855 railroad construction. The Americans replaced the old French equipment with machinery designed for a larger scale of work (such as the giant hydraulic crushers supplied by the Joshua Hendy Iron Works) to quicken the pace of construction.[12] President Roosevelt had the former French machinery minted into medals for all workers who spent at least two years on the construction to commemorate their contribution to the building of the canal. These medals featured Roosevelt's likeness on the front, the name of the recipient on one side, and the worker's years of service, as well as a picture of the Culebra Cut on the back.[22] In 1907, when John Frank Stevens resigned, Roosevelt appointed U.S. Army Colonel George Washington Goethals as Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal. Ellicott Dredges, a Baltimore, Maryland, USA company formerly known as the Ellicott Machine Company, built the cutter dredges used in some of the construction of the Panama Canal after the cuts were deep enough to float them.[23] The first machine delivered was a steam-driven, 900hp (670kW), 20-inch dredge. In 1941, Ellicott Dredges also built the dredge MINDI, a 10000hp (7500kW), 28-inch cutter suction dredge still operating in the Panama Canal.
SS Kroonland at the Culebra Cut while transiting the Panama Canal on 2 February 1915.
The building of the canal was completed in 1914, two years ahead of the target date of June 1, 1916. The canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914 with the passage of the cargo ship SS Ancon.[24] Coincidentally, this was also the same month that fighting in World War I (the Great War) began in Europe. The advances in hygiene resulted in a relatively low death toll during the American construction; still, about 5,600 workers died during this period (19041914). This brought the total death toll for the construction of the canal to around 27,500.[25]
Later developments
By the 1930s it was seen that water supply would be an issue for the canal; this prompted the building of the Madden Dam across the Chagres River above Gatun Lake. The dam, completed in 1935, created Madden Lake (later Alajuela Lake), which acts as additional water storage for the canal.[26] In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks for the canal, large enough to carry the larger warships which the United States was building at the time and had planned to continue building. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the new approach channels, but the project was canceled after World War II.[27] [28]
Panama Canal After the war, U.S. control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious as relations between Panama and the U.S. became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing in of the zone and an increased military presence.[29] The unrest culminated in riots in which approximately 20 Panamanians and 35 U.S. soldiers were killed on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964. Negotiations toward a new settlement began in 1974, and resulted in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos of Panama on September 7, 1977, this mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canals Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong-based shipping concern whose owner is Li Ka Shing.
Layout
The canal consists of artificial lakes, several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of locks. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American era as Madden Lake), acts as a reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship passing from the Pacific end to the Atlantic is as follows:[30] From the buoyed entrance channel in the Gulf of Panama (Pacific side), ships travel 13.2km (8.2mi) up the channel to the Miraflores locks, passing under the Bridge of the Americas. The two-stage Miraflores lock system, including the approach wall, is 1.7km (1.1mi) long, with a total lift of 16.5meters (54ft) at mid-tide. The artificial Miraflores Lake is the next stage, 1.7km (1.1mi) long, and 16.5meters (54ft) above sea level. The single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, which is 1.4km (0.87mi) long, USS Missouri passes through the canal in 1945 is the last part of the ascent with a lift of 9.5meters (31ft) up to the main level of the canal. The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut slices 12.6km (7.8mi) through the continental divide at an altitude of 26meters (85ft), and passes under the Centennial Bridge. The Chagres River (Ro Chagres), a natural waterway enhanced by the damming of Lake Gatn, runs west about 8.5km (5.3mi), merging into Lake Gatun. Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carries vessels 24.2km (15.0mi) across the isthmus. The Gatn locks, a three-stage flight of locks 1.9km (1.2mi) long, drop ships back down to sea level. A 3.2km (2.0mi) channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side. Limn Bay (Baha Limn), a huge natural harbour, provides an anchorage for some ships awaiting passage, and runs 8.7km (5.4mi) to the outer breakwater. Thus, the total length of the canal is 77.1km (47.9mi).
Panama Canal
Point
Coordinates (links to map & photo sources) 92315N 795507W 91620N 795522W 91236N 795527W 91042N 795200W 91103N 795042W 90933N 794849W 90714N 794814W 90642N 794607W 90704N 794321W 90546N 794104W
Notes
Atlantic Entrance Gatn Locks Trinidad Turn Boho Turn Orchid Turn Frijoles Turn Barbacoa Turn Mamei Turn Gamboa Reach Bas Obispo Reach
Las Cascadas Reach 90436N 794030W Empire Reach Culebra Reach Cucaracha Reach Paraiso Reach 90340N 793947W 90251N 793901W 90201N 793814W 90133N 793730W
Pedro Miguel Locks 90101N 793646W Miraflores Lake Miraflores Locks Balboa Reach Pacific Entrance 90027N 793609W 85948N 793531W 85822N 793440W 85318N 793117W
Lock size
The size of the locks determines the maximum size of ships allowed passage. Because of the importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximum size allowed. These are known as Panamax vessels. Initially the locks at Gatun had been designed to be 28.5 meters (94ft) wide. In 1908 the United States Navy requested that width be increased to at least 36 meters (118ft) which would allow the passage of U.S. naval ships. Eventually a compromise was made and the locks were built 33.53 meters (110.0ft) wide. Each lock is 320 meters (1050ft) long with the walls ranging in thickness from 15 meters (49ft) at the base to 3 meters (9.8ft) at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatn is 18 meters (59ft) thick and stands in excess of 24 meters (79ft) high. The steel lock gates measure an average of 2 meters (6.6ft) thick, 19.5 meters (64ft) wide and 20 meters (66ft) high.[31] It is the size of the locks, specifically the Pedro Miguel Locks,
Panama Canal
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along with the height of the Bridge of the Americas at Balboa, that determine the Panamax metric and limit the size of ships that may use the Canal. The 2006 Third lock lane project will create larger locks, and deeper and wider channels, allowing bigger ships to transit. The allowed dimensions of ships will increase by 25% in length, 51% in beam, and 26% in draft, as defined by New Panamax.[32]
Lock gate at Miraflores
Tolls
Tolls for the canal are decided by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo carried.[33] For container ships, the toll is assessed per the ship's capacity expressed in twenty-foot equivalent units or TEUs. One TEU is the size of a container measuring 20 feet (6.1m) by 8 feet (2.44m) by 8.5 feet (2.6m). Effective May 1, 2009, this toll is US$72.00 per TEU. A Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400TEU. The toll is calculated differently for passenger ships and for container ships carrying no cargo (in ballast). As of May 1, 2009, the ballast rate is US$57.60 per TEU.
RORO carriers, such as this one at Miraflores locks, are among the largest ships to use the canal
Passenger vessels in excess of 30,000 tons (PC/UMS), known popularly as cruise ships, pay a rate based on the number of berths, that is, the number of passengers that can be accommodated in permanent beds. The per-berth charge is currently $92 for unoccupied berths and $115 for occupied berths. Started in 2007, this charge has greatly increased tolls for such vessels.[34] Passenger vessels of less than 30,000 tons or with less than 33 tons per passenger are charged on the same "per-ton" schedule as freighters.[35] Most other types of vessel pay a toll per PC/UMS net ton, in which one "ton" is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.83m3). (The calculation of tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of fiscal year 2008, this toll is US$3.90 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, US$3.19 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US$3.82 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US$3.76 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, a reduced toll is charged for freight ships "in ballast". Small vessels up to 583 PC/UMS net tons when carrying passengers or cargo, or up to 735 PC/UMS net tons when in ballast, or up to 1,048 fully loaded displacement tons, are assessed minimum tolls based upon their length overall, according to the following table :
Panama Canal
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Length of vessel Up to 15.240meters (50ft) More than 15.240meters (50ft) up to 24.384meters (80ft)
More than 24.384meters (80ft) up to 30.480meters (100ft) US$1,500 More than 30.480meters (100ft) US$2,400
The most expensive regular toll for canal passage to date was charged on May 16, 2008 to the Disney Magic, which paid US$331,200.[36] [37] The least expensive toll was 36cents to American adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam the canal in 1928.[38] The average toll is around US$54,000. The highest fee for priority passage charged through the Transit Slot Auction System was US$220,300, paid on August 24, 2006 by the Panamax tanker Erikoussa,[39] bypassing a 90-ship queue waiting for the end of maintenance works on the Gatun locks, thus avoiding a seven-day delay. The normal fee would have been just US$13,430.[40]
Current issues
Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal. Left: Pacific and Puente de las Americas (Pan American Highway); far right: Miraflores locks. Ninety-seven years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Even though world shippingand the size of ships themselveshas changed markedly since the canal was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargo than ever before, with fewer overhead costs. Nevertheless, the canal faces a number of potential problems.
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The Panama Canal Authority (ACP) has invested nearly US$1 billion in widening and modernising the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20%.[48] The ACP cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on passing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances of the canal. This is supported by new equipment, such as a new drill barge A bucket dredge works to deepen and widen the and suction dredger, and an increase of the tug boat fleet by 20%. In canal. addition, improvements have been made to the operating machinery of the canal, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than 16km of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal.[49] In December 2010, record breaking rain totals caused a 17-hour closure of the canal; this was the first closure since the American invasion in 1989.[50] [51] Also, an access road to the Centenario bridge collapsed.[52] [53] [54] [55]
Capacity
The canal is presently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year;[56] as noted above, canal traffic in 2009 consisted of 299.1 million tons of shipping. To improve capacity, a number of improvements have been imposed on the current canal system. These improvements aim to maximise the possible use of current locking system:[57] Implementation of an enhanced locks lighting system; Construction of two tie-up stations in Gaillard Cut; Gaillard Cut widening from 192 to 218 metres (630 to 715 ft); Improvements to the tugboat fleet; Implementation of the carousel lockage system in Gatun locks; Development of an improved vessel scheduling system; Deepening of Gatun Lake navigational channels from 10.4 to 11.3 metres (34 to 37 ft) PLD
The water that is used to raise and lower vessels in the Canal is fed by gravity from Gatun Lake (pictured above) into each set of locks.
Modification of all locks structures to allow an additional draft of about 0.30 metres (0.98ft); Deepening of the Pacific and Atlantic entrances; Construction of a new spillway in Gatun, for flood control. These improvements will enlarge the capacity from 280290 million PCUMS (2008) to 330340 PCUMS (2012).
Competition
Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls are expected to rise, some critics[58] have suggested that the Suez Canal may become a viable alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the U.S. east coast. The Panama Canal, however, continues to serve more than 144 of the worlds trade routes and the majority of canal traffic comes from the "All-Water Route" (the route from Asia to the U.S. East and Gulf Coasts via the Panama Canal). The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to speculation that the Northwest Passage or Arctic Bridge may become viable for commercial shipping at some point in the future. This route would save unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u',' (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator:
Panama Canal u','mi) on the route from Asia to Europe compared with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some traffic to that route. However, such a route is beset by unresolved territorial issues and would still hold significant problems owing to ice.[59]
13
Water issues
Gatun Lake is filled with rainwater, and the lake accumulates excess water during wet months. The water is lost to the oceans at a rate of 101000 m3 (US gal; imp gal) per lock-cycle going downwards. Since a ship will have to go upward to Lake Gatun first and then descend, a single passing will cost double the amount, but the same waterflow cycle can be used for another ship passing in the opposite direction. The ship's submerged volume is not relevant to the amount of water.[38] [60] During the dry season, when there is less rainfall, there is also a shortfall of water in Gatun Lake.
As a signatory to the United Nations Global Compact and a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the ACP has developed an environmentally and socially sustainable program for expansion, which will protect the aquatic and terrestrial resources of the Canal Watershed. After completion, expansion will guarantee the availability and quality of water resources by using unique water-saving basins at each new lock. These water-saving basins will diminish water loss and preserve freshwater resources along the waterway by reusing water from the basins into the locks. Each lock chamber will have three water-saving basins, which will reuse 60 percent of the water in each transit. There are a total of nine basins for each of the two lock complexes, and a total of 18 basins for the entire project. The Pacific side sea level is about 20 centimeters (8inches) higher than that of the Atlantic side due to differences in ocean conditions such as water densities and weather conditions.[61]
The future
As demand is rising, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature of world shipping for the foreseeable future. However, changes in shipping patternsparticularly the increasing numbers of post-Panamax shipswill necessitate changes to the canal if it is to retain a significant market share. It is anticipated that by 2011, 37% of the world's container ships will be too large for the present canal, and hence a failure to expand would result in a significant loss of market share. The maximum sustainable capacity of the present canal, given some relatively minor improvement work, is estimated at between 330 and 340 million PC/UMS tons per year; it is anticipated that this capacity will be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50% of transiting vessels are already using the full width of the locks.[62] An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, to allow for a greater number of transits and the ability to handle larger ships, has been under consideration for some time,[63] has been approved by the government of Panama,[64] and is in progress, with completion expected in 2014.[65] The cost is estimated at US$5.25 billion, and the project will double the canal's capacity and allow more traffic and the passage of longer and wider ships. This proposal to expand the canal was approved in a national referendum by approximately 80% on October 22, 2006.[66]
Panama Canal
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Panama Canal
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Canal Pilots
During the last one hundred years, the Autoridad del Canal de Panam has appointed a few "Panama Canal Honorary Pilots". The most recent of these were Commodore Ronald Warwick,[75] a former Master of the Cunard Line's RMS Queen Mary 2, who has traversed the Canal more than 50 times, and Captain Raffaele Minotauro, Master Senior Grade, of the former Italian governmental navigation company known in the shipping world as the "Italian Line.
Gatun Lake
Created in 1913 by the damming of the Charges River, Gatun Lake is an essential part of the Panama Canal which forms a water passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, permitting ship transit in both directions. At the time it was formed Gatun Lake was the largest man-made lake in the world. The impassable rain-forest around Gatun Lake has been the best defense of the Panama Canal. Today these areas have endured practically unscathed by human interference and are one of the few accessible areas on earth that various native Central American animal and plant species can be observed undisturbed in their natural habitat. World famous Barro Colorado Island, which was established for scientific study when the lake was formed and is today operated by the Smithsonian Institution, is the largest island on Gatun Lake. Many of the most important ground breaking scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Lake Gatun encompasses approximately 180 square miles (470km2), a vast tropical ecological zone part of the Atlantic Forest Corridor and Eco-tourism on Gatun Lake has become a worthwhile industry for Panamanians. Gatun Lake also serves to provide the millions of gallons of water necessary to operate the Panama Canal locks each time a ship passes through and provides drinking water for Panama City and Colon. Angling is one of the primary recreational pursuits on Gatun Lake. It is suspected that the Cichla Pleiozona species of Peacock Bass was introduced by accident to Gatun Lake by a renowned Panamanian aquarist and doctor in 1958. Locally called Sargento these peacock bass are not a native game fish of Panama but originate from the Amazon, Rio Negro and Orinoco river basins of South America where they are called Tucanare or Pavon and are considered a premier game fish. Since 1958 the Cichla Pleiozona species of Peacock Bass have flourished to become the dominant angling game fish in Gatun Lake.
References
[1] "Panama Canal Traffic Years 19142010" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ maritime/ routes. html). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2011-01-25. [2] "Seven Wonders" (http:/ / www. asce. org/ content. aspx?id=2147487305). American Society of Civil Engineers. . Retrieved 2011-02-21. [3] The Panama Canal Congressional Hearings 1909; Col. Goethals testimony; p.15 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xmM-AAAAYAAJ& lpg=PA11& ots=_DioQP6G7S& dq=general electric westinghouse panama canal 1908& pg=PA11#v=onepage& q& f=false) Accessed 26 Dec 2011 [4] "Panama Canal Traffic Fiscal Years 20022004" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ maritime/ reports/ table01. pdf) (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [5] Modern ship size definitions (http:/ / www. lr. org/ Images/ 30 ship sizes_tcm155-173543. pdf), from Lloyd's register [6] Background of the Panama Canal (http:/ / rainforest. montclair. edu/ pwebrf/ rainforest/ Region/ panama. html), Montclair State University [7] "A History of the Panama Canal: French and American Construction Efforts" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ history/ history/ index. html). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2007-09-03.; Chapter 3, Some Early Canal Plans (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ history/ history/ early. html) [8] Caso, Adolph; Marion E. Welsh (1978). They Too Made America Great. Branden Books. p.72. ISBN0828317143.; online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7q3WTS1IREkC) [9] "Darien Expedition" (http:/ / www. kinnaird. net/ darien. htm). . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [10] "Manx Worthies" (http:/ / www. isle-of-man. com/ manxnotebook/ fulltext/ worthies/ p118. htm).
Panama Canal
[11] The Practicality and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rAwsAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=william+ kennish& source=bl& ots=lZpfP9ZKq9& sig=7AXnp--aBGqytMe2vcb9DIXvJPY& hl=en& ei=rDFvS7rSNqimtgeNlpiUBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CBQQ6AEwBA). [12] Avery, Ralph E. (1913). "The French Failure" (http:/ / www. czbrats. com/ Builders/ FRCanal/ failure. htm). America's Triumph in Panama. Chicago, IL: L.W. Walter Company. . [13] Rocco, Fiammetta (2003). The Miraculous Fever-Tree. HarperCollins. p.192. ISBN0006532357. [14] "Read our history: The French Canal Construction" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ history/ history/ index. html). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [15] Overthrow, Stephen Kinzer, 2006. [16] "Hay-Herrn Treaty" (http:/ / www. u-s-history. com/ pages/ h930. html). U-s-history.com. 1903-11-18. . Retrieved 2010-10-24. [17] "Avalon Project - Convention for the Construction of a Ship Canal (Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty), November 18, 1903" (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ pan001. asp). Avalon.law.yale.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-24. [18] Matthew Parker. Hell's Gorge: The Battle to Build the Panama Canal, p. 214 [19] My Dear Bishop, p. 222 [20] DuTemple, Lesley A. "The Panama Canal"; 2002; pp 5055; Lerner Publishing Group; ISBN-978-0822500797 [21] "Milestones:Panama Canal Electrical and Control Installations, 1914" (http:/ / www. ieeeghn. org/ wiki/ index. php/ Milestones:Panama_Canal_Electrical_and_Control_Installations,_1914). IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. . Retrieved 29 July 2011. [22] "The Roosevelt Medal" (http:/ / historywired. si. edu/ object. cfm?ID=195). National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2008-06-05. [23] "Panama Canal: The Big Dig of Central America" (http:/ / www. constructionequipmentguide. com/ Panama-Canal-The-Big-Dig-of-Central-America/ 7868/ ). Construction Equipment Guide. 2006-11-24. . Retrieved 2010-08-27. [24] "Read our history: American Canal Construction" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ history/ history/ index. html). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [25] "A History of the Panama Canal: French and American Construction Efforts" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ history/ history/ end. html). Panama Canal Authority. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [26] "Panama Dam to Aid Canal Traffic." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2ikDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA25& dq=1930+ plane+ "Popular& hl=en& ei=ALyXTujZIsTC0AH14e3IBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10& ved=0CFQQ6AEwCTgU#v=onepage& q=1930 plane "Popular& f=true) Popular Mechanics, January 1930, p. 25. [27] Enlarging the Panama Canal (http:/ / www. czbrats. com/ Articles/ 3rdlocks/ 3rdlocks. htm), Alden P. Armagnac, CZ Brats (http:/ / www. czbrats. com/ ) [28] Enlarging the Panama Canal for Bigger Battleships (http:/ / www. czimages. com/ CZMemories/ thirdlocks/ tcindex. htm), notes from CZ Brats (http:/ / www. czbrats. com/ ) [29] The Martyrs of 1964 (http:/ / www. czbrats. com/ Jackson/ martyrs/ martyrs. htm), by Eric Jackson [30] "Historical Map & Chart Project" (http:/ / historicals. ncd. noaa. gov/ historicals/ histmap. asp). NOAA. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [31] "The Panama Canal" (http:/ / www. eclipse. co. uk/ ~sl5763/ panama. htm). . Retrieved 2007-10-18. [32] "New Panamax publication by ACP" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ common/ maritime/ advisories/ 2009/ a-02-2009. pdf) (PDF). November 2006. . Retrieved 2010-10-24. [33] "Maritime Operations Tolls" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ maritime/ tolls. html). Panama Canal Authority. . [34] Panama Canal Toll Table http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ maritime/ tolls. html [35] Almost all major cruise ships have more than 33 tons per passenger; the rule of thumb for cruiseline comfort is generally given as a minimum of 40 tons per passenger. Note that a ton is not a unit of weight, but displacement, and represents a volume of about 100 cubic feet. [36] "Crucero paga cifra rcord en Canal de Panam" (http:/ / noticias. terra. com/ noticias/ articulo/ html/ act1287447. htm) (in Spanish). Terra Noticias. 2008-06-10. . Retrieved 2009-08-08. [37] "ACP rectifica rcord en pago de peaje" (http:/ / mensual. prensa. com/ mensual/ contenido/ 2008/ 06/ 24/ hoy/ negocios/ 1416962. html) (in Spanish). La Prensa. 2008-06-24. . Retrieved 2009-08-08. [38] "The Panama Canal; Canal FAQ" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ noticiero/ canal-faqs/ index. html). . [39] "''Rcord en pago de peajes y reserva''. ''La Prensa''. Seccin Economa & Negocios. Edition 2007-04-24" (http:/ / ediciones. prensa. com/ mensual/ contenido/ 2007/ 04/ 24/ hoy/ negocios/ 960466. html). Ediciones.prensa.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-13. [40] "''Cupo de subasta del Canal alcanza rcord''. La Prensa. Seccin Economa & Negocios. Edicin 25 August 2006 in Spanish" (http:/ / mensual. prensa. com/ mensual/ contenido/ 2006/ 08/ 25/ hoy/ negocios/ 714407. html). Mensual.prensa.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-13. [41] "A Man, A Plan, A Canal: Panama Rises" (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. si. edu/ smithsonian/ issues04/ mar04/ panama. html). Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. March 2004. . [42] "ACP 2005 Annual Report" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ common/ general/ reports/ informe-anual-2005. pdf) (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2005. . Retrieved 2010-07-09. [43] "News - PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2008 Metrics" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ pr/ press-releases/ 2008/ 10/ 24/ pr300. html). Panama Canal Authority. 2008-10-24. . Retrieved 2010-07-09. [44] "News - PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2009 Metrics" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ pr/ press-releases/ 2009/ 10/ 30/ pr366. html). Panama Canal Authority. 2009-10-30. . Retrieved 2010-07-09.
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[45] Lipton, Eric (2004-11-22). "New York Port Hums Again, With Asian Trade" (http:/ / www. colliers. com/ Content/ Attachments/ Corporate/ Services/ NewYorkTimes112204. htm). New York Times. . [46] "ACP 2009 Annual Report" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ general/ reporte-anual/ 2009/ pdf/ InformePDFingles. pdf) (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2009. . Retrieved 2010-07-09. [47] "Panama Canal Traffic - Fiscal Years 2006 through 2008" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ maritime/ reports/ table01. pdf). Panama Canal Authority. . [48] Nettleton, Steve (1999). "Transfer heavy on symbolism, light on change" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ SPECIALS/ 1999/ panama. canal/ stories/ operation/ ). CNN Interactive. . [49] "Modernisation & Improvements" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ projects/ overview. html). Panama Canal Authority. . [50] "BBC News - Panama Canal reopens after temporary closure" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-latin-america-11953800). 2010-12-13. . Retrieved 2010-12-13. [51] "The Press Association: Panama flooding displaces thousands" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ ukpress/ article/ ALeqM5izSSaRRPlqlKrEgImAAMgZtqhsdw?docId=N0087151292030740345A). 2010-12-12. . Retrieved 2010-12-12. [52] "NOTICIAS PANAM - PERIODICO LA ESTRELLA ONLINE: Gobierno abrir parcialmente Puente Centenario; Corredores sern gratis [Al Minuto (http:/ / laestrella. com. pa/ mensual/ 2010/ 12/ 12/ contenido/ 18225705. asp)"]. 2010-12-13. . Retrieved 2010-12-13. [53] "Rain Causes Panama Canal Bridge To Collapsedigtriad.com" (http:/ / www. digtriad. com/ news/ national_world/ article. aspx?storyid=151684& catid=175). 2010-12-12. . Retrieved 2010-12-12. [54] "Entrance to Panama Canal Bridge Closed due to Rain Damage" (http:/ / english. cri. cn/ 6966/ 2010/ 12/ 11/ 2021s609648. htm). 2010-12-13. . Retrieved 2010-12-13. [55] "Aftermath of Panama flooding hits transport and finances -- rain continues" (http:/ / www. newsroompanama. com/ panama/ 2073-aftermath-of-panama-flooding-hits-transport-and-finances-rain-continues. html). 2010-12-13. . Retrieved 2010-12-13. [56] Mack, Gerstle (1944). The Land Divided - A History of the Panama Canal and other Isthmian Canal Projects (http:/ / www. czimages. com/ CZMemories/ thirdlocks/ tlpage3. htm). . [57] Proposal for the Expansion of the Panama Canal by the Panama Canal Authority (http:/ / www. acp. gob. pa/ eng/ plan/ documentos/ propuesta/ acp-expansion-proposal. pdf), p. 45 [58] Jackson, Eric (2007). Shipping industry complains about PanCanal toll hikes (http:/ / www. thepanamanews. com/ pn/ v_13/ issue_06/ business_03. html). . [59] Sevunts, Levon (2005-06-12). "Northwest Passage redux" (http:/ / www. washingtontimes. com/ news/ 2005/ jun/ 12/ 20050612-123835-3711r/ ). The Washington Times. . Retrieved 2009-04-20. See also: Comte publisher=DefenceNews.com (Agence France-Presse), Michel (2005-12-22). "Conservative Leader Harper Asserts Canada's Arctic Claims" (http:/ / www. defensenews. com/ story. php?F=1429085& C=america). . Retrieved 2006-02-23. [60] "The Panama Canal - Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ noticiero/ canal-faqs/ physical/ 14. html). . "Each lock chamber requires 101000 m3 (US gal; imp gal) of water. An average of 52000000USgal ( L; imp gal) of fresh water are used [in a single passing]." [61] "Sea Level: Frequently asked questions and answers" (http:/ / www. pol. ac. uk/ psmsl/ puscience/ ). Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory. . Retrieved 2009-01-08. [62] "Relevant Information on the Third Set of Locks Project" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ esp/ plan/ documentos/ propuesta/ acp-proposla-relevant-information. pdf) (PDF). Panama Canal Authority. 2006-04-24. . Retrieved 2006-04-25. [63] "The Panama Canal" (http:/ / www. businesspanama. com/ investing/ why_invest/ panama_canal. php). Business in Panama. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. [64] Monahan, Jane (2006-04-04). "Panama Canal set for $7.5bn revamp" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 4876322. stm). BBC News. . [65] "Panama Canal Authority: Panama Canal Expansion is "2009 Project Finance Deal of the Year", 12 March 2010" (http:/ / www. pancanal. com/ eng/ pr/ press-releases/ 2010/ 03/ 12/ pr379. html). Pancanal.com. 2010-03-12. . Retrieved 2010-10-24. [66] "Panama approves $5.25 billion canal expansion" (http:/ / msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 10627208/ ). MSNBC.com. 2006-10-22. . [67] Reagan, Brad (February 2007). "The Panama Canal's Ultimate Upgrade" (http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ technology/ transportation/ 4212183. html). Popular Mechanics. . [68] Kaufman, Andrew (February 2010). "The Panama Canal Gets a New Lane" (http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ technology/ transportation/ 4344444. html?page=1). Popular Mechanics. . [69] "Work starts on biggest-ever Panama Canal overhaul" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ newsOne/ idUSN0334522620070904). Reuters. 2007-09-04. . [70] "De Nul dredging company to build locks in Panama Canal" (http:/ / www. mediargus. be/ flanderstoday. admin. en/ rss/ 22548040. html?via=rss& language=en). Flanders Today. 2009-07-17. . [71] "China in talks over Panama Canal rival" (http:/ / www. ft. com/ cms/ s/ 0/ 7e14756c-37a9-11e0-b91a-00144feabdc0. html#axzz1DvyP1xhi). Financial Times. 2011-02-13. . Retrieved 2011-02-14. [72] Wheatley, Jonathan (2011-02-14). "Colombias smart canal" (http:/ / blogs. ft. com/ beyond-brics/ 2011/ 02/ 14/ colombias-smart-canal/ ). Financial Times. . Retrieved 2011-02-14. [73] "China in talk with Columbia over transcontinental railway: Colombian president" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english2010/ china/ 2011-02/ 14/ c_13731374. htm). Xinhuanet. 2011-02-14. . Retrieved 2011-02-14.
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[74] Branigan, Tania and Lin Yi. China goes on the rails to rival Panama canal (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2011/ feb/ 14/ china-rail-rival-panama-canal) The Guardian, 14 February 2011. Accessed: 14 February 2011. [75] (http:/ / www. buckinghamcovers. com/ shop/ signer. php?signer_id=458)
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Further reading
Hoffman, Jon T.; Brodhead, Micheal J; Byerly, Carol R.; Williams, Glenn F. (2009). The Panama Canal: An Army's Enterprise (http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/panama/panamacanal/index.html). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 701151. Jaen, Omar. (2005). Las Negociaciones de los Tratados Torrijos-Carter, 1970-1979 (Tomos 1 y 2). Panama: Autoridad del Canal de Panama. ISBN 9962-607-32-9 (Obra completa) Jorden, William J. (1984). Panama Odyssey. 746 pages, illustrated. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292764-69-3 McCullough, David. (1977). The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22563-4 Maurer, Noel, and Carlos Yu. The Big Ditch: How America Took, Ran, and Ultimately Gave Away the Panama Canal (Princeton University Press, 2010); 420 pp.ISBN 978-0-691-14738-3. Econometric analysis of costs ($9 billion in 2009 dollars) and benefits to US and Panama Mellander, Gustavo A.(1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Daville,Ill.:Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568. Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Ro Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390. Murillo, Luis E. (1995). The Noriega Mess: The Drugs, the Canal, and Why America Invaded. 1096 pages, illustrated. Berkeley: Video Books. ISBN 0-923444-02-5. Parker, Matthew. (2007). Panama Fever: The Epic Story of One of the Greatest Human Achievements of All Time - The Building of the Panama Canal. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51534-4 Sherman, Gary. "Conquering the Landscape (Gary Sherman explores the life of the great American trailblazer, John Frank Stevens)," History Magazine, July 2008. Cullen, Ben. (2010). The Panama Canal and Me: A Panamax Special. ISBN 9780821277546 Mills, J. Saxon. (1913). The Panama Canal -- A history and description of the enterprise (http://www.gutenberg. org/ebooks/34124) A Project Gutenberg free ebook.
External links
Panama Canal Authority website (http://www.pancanal.com/) - Has a simulation showing how the canal works Making the Dirt Fly, Building the Panama Canal (http://www.sil.si.edu/Exhibitions/Make-the-Dirt-Fly/) Smithsonian Institution Libraries Canalmuseum (http://www.canalmuseum.com/) History, Documents, Photographs and Stories History of the Canal Zone (http://www.czbrats.com/Menus/Builders_menu.htm) from CZ Brats Judicial Watch, Inc. v. Panama Canal Commission case (http://web.archive.org/web/20040604011605/www. judicialwatch.org/1241.shtml) - archived Freshwater and Marine Image Bank Panama Canal (http://content.lib.washington.edu/cgi-bin/queryresults. exe?CISOOP=adv&CISORESTMP=/site-templates/search_results-sub.html&CISOVIEWTMP=/ site-templates/item_viewer.html&CISOMODE=thumb& CISOGRID=thumbnail,A,1;title,A,1;subjec,A,0;descri,200,0;0,A,0;10& CISOBIB=title,A,1,N;subjec,A,0,N;descri,K,0,N;0,A,0,N;0,A,0,N;10&CISOTHUMB=3,5&CISOTITLE=10& CISOPARM=/fishimages:subjec:panama&x=29&y=0) University of Washington Libraries - ongoing digital collection of images
Panama Canal Early stereographic images of the construction (http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/browse/ azBrowse/Panama+Canal) University of California A.B. Nichols Panama Canal Collection at the Linda Hall Library (http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm4/results. php?CISOOP1=all&CISOBOX1=nichols&CISOFIELD1=CISOSEARCHALL&CISOOP2=all& CISOBOX2=nichols,+a+b+(aurin+b).&CISOFIELD2=creato&CISOOP3=all&CISOBOX3=panama+ canal+(panama).&CISOFIELD3=subjec&CISOROOT=all&t=s) Archival collection of maps, blueprints, photographs, letters, and other documents, collected by Aurin B. Nichols (http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/ panama,5315), an engineer who worked on the canal project through from 1899 until its completion. 2700 digitised National Archives public domain images (http://gozonian.org/naramain.shtml) Photos of the building and early days of the Panama Canal digitised by GoZonian.org (http://gozonian.org/) from the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Originally from 8 x 10 glass plates Gatun Lake Benefits (http://www.panamafishingandcatching.com/gatun.htm) Panama & the Canal Digital Collection (http://ufdc.ufl.edu/pcm) New Plans For Panama, by Stephen L. Freeman (http://books.google.com/books?id=jiQDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA66&dq=popular+science+1950+can+our+jets+support&hl=en&ei=xnK-TM-LK8j9nAe7htCJDg& sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=popular science 1950 can our jets support&f=true) 1947 article about possible post World War II plans for the Panama Canal including first mention of a sea level canal to replace the locks Footage of ships going through Panama Canal in 1917 (http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//BHC_RTV/1917/ 11/05/BGT407051266/)
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License
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