Fuel Cells as a Solution for Tomorrow's Fuel Problem bstract Technological development this phrase stands for a process

s that has, especially over the last two centuries, brought countless improvements to mankind and has been granting many people a lifestyle of luxury and comfort. With time moving on, this development could continue and make life even easier and more comfortable. However, there is a great obstacle to the present progress: it is highly dependent on fossil fuels, which are running out more quickly than ever. There is an urgent need to shift the energy system to other primary and secondary energy sources. One very promising technology for the use of alternative secondary energy storage are fuel cells. Although fuel cells have already been in use for over a century and have resulted in a handful of running projects, there is still a great need for more research in order to find solutions to some fundamental challenges. In his contribution, the author outlines these existing projects as well as the different types of fuel cells, leading to the present situation and stage of development. Furthermore, he describes the most important challenges that will have to be mastered in the near future and points out some presently suggested solutions.

Keywords: Fuel Cells, Fossil Fuels Problems, Secondary Energy Sources

1 Introduction How will the future of energy supply and consumption look like? How will and how should mankind produce electricity in the future? How does the worlds current energy production and use of fossil fuels effect the environment? At this moment, the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen depicts the urgency to face the pollution caused by the use of fossil fuels. However, pollution might not be the crucial problem that the use of fossil fuels brings along. According to the majority of scientists, the world will eventually run out of fossil fuels. Statistics by dpa Globus in 2006 calculate that, if the world continues its momentary use of fuels, the supplies of coal will be exhausted in 196 years, the ones of natural gas in 60 years, and the ones of petroleum in 40 years (NRW-Bildungsserver). Clearly, there is a need to change not only the means of producing electricity, but also the secondary energy sources used for transportation, which today are almost exclusively petroleum products.

One part of the solution might be, as mentioned earlier, fuel cells. However, fuel cells are still not present in everyday life. A bus or the prototype of a car this is what most people might have seen as fuel cells in action. Hardly anybody knows about the commercial use of fuel cells. Still, it already exists. In fact, fuel cells have already been in active use for over 50 years and the idea is even older. The British chemist Sir William Robert Grove built the first hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell in 1839, shortly after the discovery of the underlying principle by the Swiss chemist Christoph Friedrich Schnbein (Kurzweil 3). During the following years, other types of fuel cells were developed, leading to a variety of different options that have been used in various applications and are available today.

However, can fuel cells really be part of a near-term solution for the fossil fuel problem, or do the problems connected with handling hydrogen make an efficient use unrealistic, if not impossible? The author will outline the experiences made in past and present projects and describe current problems in order to answer the aforementioned question.

2 Types of Fuel Cells The various types of fuel cells, from a technical point of view, mainly differ in the used type of electrolyte. This choice, however, results in a wide variety of operating temperatures, determines the usable fuels and therefore leads to diverse applications.

The best known type is probably the proton-exchange membrane (or polymer electrolyte membrane) fuel cell, shortly PEM-FC. Its electrolyte consists of as the name suggests an acidic polymer membrane that is only permeable for positively charged particles, in this case, protons. Using hydrogen and oxygen as fuels, a single cell could theoretically provide a voltage of 1.229V at a temperature of 25C according to the electromotive force (Bagotsky 53). However, practical values are between 0.95 and 1.02 V (Bagotsky 53). Being relatively stable, the PEM-FCs developed by General Electric were already used in the Gemini space program during the early 1960s (Bagotsky 46). The high price for these cells, however, prevented the use of PEM-FCs in other fields than the space flight industry (Bagotsky 46). The revival of PEM-FCs did not happen until some 20 years later when the U.S. chemical company Du Pont de Nemours developed cheaper membranes with longer lifetimes, the Nafion membranes (Bagotsky 47). Fuel cells with those

membranes were implemented in many applications during the following years, for example in off-grid generators for emergency power supply in hospitals or lift trucks sold by the U.S. company Plug Power (Plug Power). Other commercial manufacturers include Ballard Power Systems, which sells PEM-FCs in units for power backup, as power supplies for cars and buses and in units for heat and power cogeneration for use in residential houses (Ballard).

While the aforementioned PEM-FCs only work with hydrogen and oxygen, slight modifications exist that use methanol as fuel. Due to their ability to use methanol directly, without having to extract hydrogen first, they are called Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, short DMFC. Their great advantage is the easier handling of liquid methanol compared with the dangerous gaseous hydrogen. Especially the effort necessary to carry the fuel declines drastically when no high-pressure tanks for gas are needed. They theoretically provide a similar voltage of 1.21V, but are currently not sold commercially (Bagotsky 74).

Another type of fuel cells that has been implemented successfully are Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAC-FCs), using phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. Between the early 1970s and the late 1990s, different efforts were made to install small and large power plants using PACFCs. The United Technology Corporation has built various power plants together with the Japanese Company Toshiba, the largest one with an output of 11MW (Bagotsky 105). However, those systems were very expensive and lacked long-term operating reliability causing a decrease in interest in this technology. Today, practically no more research is done on PAC-FCs (Bagotsky).

A similar future is faced by cells using an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) (Bagotsky 117). During the 1960s they were used in several space programs, such as in the Apollo program, the U.S. Orbiter Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran Space Shuttle (National Air and Space Museum). The produced water was of great advantage since it could be used as drinking water. In the spacecrafts, the need for pure oxygen and electrolyte hydrogen was no problem either, since the vehicles already carried those fuels. On earth, however, the situation is different: air oxygen and technical hydrogen contain large amounts of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, both substances that gradually would destroy Alkaline Fuel Cells. For this reason, scientists do not foresee a significant role for AFCs in the future (Bagotsky 117).

All of the types mentioned earlier work at relatively low temperatures below 220C (Huppmann). A solution with high-temperature applications above 600C are Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) (Huppmann). The elevated temperature offers several advantages: reaction heat can be used more efficiently to generate additional electric energy. The use of technical hydrogen with large concentrations of impunities is possible. Due to an internal conversion process at these high temperatures, carbon monoxide, natural gas and several petroleum products can be used as fuels (Bagotsky 125). Naturally, the required high temperature limits the possible fields of application. Therefore, MCFCs are used for stationary power plants with larger electric output ranging from 345 kW to 2 MW, with more than forty such plants installed since 2000 (Bagotsky 130). A company selling MCFCs is the German MTU, whose MTU Hot Modules have already proven to work for over 29.000 hours at an electrical efficiency of 50 % and optionally run on biogas, natural gas or sewage gas (mtu).

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) share the same advantages (except for the possible use of non-hydrogen fuels) and operate at even higher temperatures than MCFCs, between 800 and 1000C. The electrolyte used is mostly yttrium-doped (stabilized) zirconium [(ZRO2)1-x (Y2O3)x], the anode is made of a ceramic-nickel composite and the cathode is made of manganites or cobatites of lanthanum doped with divalent metal ions (Bagotsky 136). Several pilot plants have already been built, for example by Siemens-Westinghouse in Westervoort in the Netherlands. This 100 kW plant with an electrical efficiency of 46 % has proven a particularly high functional reliability during its 37,000 hours of operating time (Bagotsky 141).

Summing up this section, one can state that there are four basic types of fuel cells with great potential for the use in the future: Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, Direct Methanol (or more general Direct Liquid) Fuel Cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells. There has already been quite some research on each one of them, which has brought all types but DMFCs to commercial use. For SOFCs and MCFCs, the commercial use has been (and probably will be) limited to small and large stationary power plants. Nevertheless, there are few research projects working on the use of SOFCs as so-called minifuel cells for portable electronic devices. Still, for portable electronic devices as well as for the use in transport applications like cars, PEM-FCs and DMFCs seem to be most suitable.

3 Remaining Challenges and Possible Solutions Considering the fact that applications of fuel cells are still not very widespread in todays daily life, one is dragged to the conclusion that some major problems must still exist. Indeed, challenges remain on the following issues: firstly, fuel cells are still very expensive compared to other means of energy storage and conversion. Secondly, fuel cells and especially means for the storage of their fuels are still hard to implement in many applications, mainly due to the current size of storage tanks. Thirdly, there is no existing hydrogen economy that would provide and distribute the necessary amount of hydrogen needed for a large-scale use of fuel cells. Each one of these problems can and has been further broken down and improvements have already been reached or are in sight on various sub-topics. In the following part, the author will summarize the findings of numerous researchers, break down the problems and outline the possible solutions.

4 Costs All fuel cells need a catalyst in order to start and accelerate the necessary chemical reactions. Today, the catalysts used are platinum, ruthenium or combinations of both, two very expensive noble metals. Additionally, the membranes used for PEM-FCs and DMFCs are very expensive (Bagotsky). Those two points lead to high prices for the whole fuel cells.

Concerning the catalysts, the solution can be very simple: they have to be used in less quantity. As simple as it might sound, this solution is actually the goal of many ongoing research projects (Bagotsky 213). The important figure for the efficiency of catalysts is the surface area they provide. Therefore, researchers try to develop measures of applying as few platinum or ruthenium as possible, creating a surface area as big as possible. One approach is using a technology already widespread in the semiconductor industry, the sputter deposition (Bagotsky 213). This technology uses ions to shoot platinum atoms out of a carrier that thereby form a sort of fog and later condense on the surface where they are needed (Bagotsky 213). However, this technology still applies more platinum than needed, which is the reason why research continues on other techniques as well (Bagotsky 213). Going one step further, there are also approaches that do not only change the way of depositing the catalyst but also change the support structure which the catalyst is applied on (Bagotsky 214). Promising approaches are supports consisting of carbon nanotubes, fullerenes or conductive polymers (Bagotsky 214). Naturally, one can still go further and replace the noble metals with other catalysts. Options in this direction include platinum alloys with tin, nickel, tungsten carbide

(WC) and the conducting polymer polyaniline (Bagotsky 218).

In respect to the membranes, the currently used Nafion membrane is not only expensive, but also suboptimal in two aspects: the current membranes still allow methanol to pass through and require a certain humidity in order to function properly and avoid damage Bagotsky 236). This is especially problematic if one wants to operate the fuel cells at higher temperatures. Although some achievements have been made by modifying Nafion membranes, efforts are made to develop other kinds: polybenzimidazole, the polyether ether ketone and polyvinyl alcohol with mordenite are proposed materials (Bagotsky 236). However, these materials still provide a lower chemical stability and thus a shorter lifetime of the fuel cell (Bagotsky 236). For this reason, researchers continue their search for alternative membrane materials (Bagotsky 236).

5 Problems Concerning Fuel Storage As mentioned above, the main problem when implementing fuel cells is the fuel storage. It is less of a problem for MCFCs and SOFCs, since these types are mostly used in stationary applications to which tanks or devices to produce hydrogen usually can be added easily. The storage creates a more serious problem for portable applications, whether for portable electronic devices or in cars. While it is relatively easy to store methanol for DMFCs, the storage of hydrogen for PEM-FCs is a great challenge. During the first applications of PEM-fuel cells, the question of efficient storage was answered almost automatically: rockets already had the necessary fuels on board, both hydrogen and oxygen stored in liquid form in cryogenic tanks (National Air and Space Museum). Therefore it was no problem to install additional tanks for the fuel cells. However, carrying a cryogenic tank at a temperature of -253C might not be a suitable solution on earth. Additionally, cryogenic tanks built as small as necessary for the use in cars could not totally prevent evaporation, and therefore leakage would occur. Consequently, a car parked over a longer period of time would lose fuel and possibly have to be refueled before the next use (Bagotsky 204). Taking also into consideration that it is very energy-consuming to turn hydrogen into a liquid form, liquid storage does not seem to be an efficient option (Bagotsky 204). Other options are the storage in form of gas and in metal hydrides.

Current projects often use the first alternative, storing hydrogen gas in steel cylinders with a volume of 50-100 l at up to 700 bar of pressure (Bagotsky 203). This form of storage is

a practical solution in regard to fueling and extraction of hydrogen. However, the current cylinders are very heavy and thus provide a low weight-specific capacity (Bagotsky 203). In addition, the volume-specific capacity is with a value of 0.03 kg H2/l the lowest one among the three options mentioned (Bagotsky 203). A solution could be tanks made of fiberreinforced plastic as developed during the last years (Bagotsky 203). While they are half as heavy as their steel counterparts, they still have the same volume-specific capacity (Bagotsky 203). Usually having a given amount of space to install tanks in cars, the volume-specific capacity is the limiting factor for the driving range.

The only current option that would provide a greatly improved capacity is the storage in metal hydride batteries. Some metals like iron-titanium alloys and vanadium possess the ability to absorb hydrogen (Bagotsky 204). Since the absorbed hydrogen is in an atomic, non molecular state, the capacity can reach up to 2 kg H2/l (Bagotsky 204). Being a very promising, but still young approach, metal hydride storages leave some need for further research: the slow charging and discharging processes will have to be accelerated, for example by using catalysts, and a memory effect similar to the one known from regular batteries will have to be minimized (Bagotsky 204).

6 Non-Existent Hydrogen Infrastructure Not directly connected with the technology within fuel cells but nevertheless of crucial importance is the question where will the hydrogen to power our fuel cells come from? Presently, practically no infrastructure exists. Neither are there any capacities to produce the amount of hydrogen that a widespread use of fuel cells would require nor any means to distribute large amounts of hydrogen to gas stations or private consumers. At the moment the only effective means of producing hydrogen are either chemical reforming of methane, butane, other alkanes or petroleum products or the electrolysis of water. Both technologies require energy, with the first technology also demanding a cleaning following the hydrogen production. Therefore a sustainable implementation and use of fuel cells highly depends upon the way electricity is provided. For commercial success, the missing infrastructure is a great burden, currently limiting the possible areas for the use of fuel cell powered cars to a few cities. However, the decline in worldwide petroleum supplies will make it necessary to establish an infrastructure for other secondary energy sources, and the growing hydrogen economy using hydrogen in regular combustion engines might amplify the hydrogen infrastructure within the next decades.

7 Conclusion Summing up the situation described above, a different future presents itself to different applications of fuel cells. Stationary power plants meet with relatively few problems and are already in large-scale commercial use. They already have the potential to spread widely as emergency power supplies, power supplies in remote areas or combined heat and power supplies for houses or neighborhoods. For portable application as in cars or portable consumer electronics, the situation is different. In these cases, inefficient hydrogen storage and the missing supplier system present a notable handicap. Whereas the second point is mainly a question of agreeing on a universal system and investing in infrastructure, the first one is more troublesome. As long as no light weight, volume-efficient storage solution for hydrogen is found or another efficient fuel established, portable fuel cells will wait for their dawn.

Works Cited

Plug Power Inc. Products. Home page. Web. 15 Dec. 2009 <http://www.plugpower.com/products/products.aspx>

Kurzweil, Peter. Brennstoffzellen. 1st ed. Wiesbaden: vieweg, 2003. Print.

Bagotsky, Vladimir S. Fuel Cells. Problems and Solutions. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, 2009. Print.

Ballard Power Systems Inc. Home page. Web. 15 Dec. 2009 < http://www.ballard.com/>

National Air and Space Museum. Apollo to the Moon. National Air and Space Museum, 1999. Web. 16 Dec. 2009 <http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/ATTM/a11.jo.fc.1.html>

Huppmann, Gerhard. Die MCFC Brennstoffzelle. Entwicklungsstand und Einsatzmglichkeiten. MTU CFC Solutions. PowerPoint Presentation.

mtu onsite energy. Hotmodule Brennstoffzelle. PDF file.

NRW-Bildungsserver. Agenda 21. NRW-Bildungsserver. Web. 17 Dec. 2009 http://www.agenda21-treffpunkt.de/daten/energie.htm

Author: Philipp Maier, Student of Aerospace Engineering at Dresden University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering