Review on the Residual Stress in through the Course of Manufacture Technique for Cold Formed Coil Spring

Renzhi Wang Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China, 100095 TEL&FAX: +86-10-62453469, E-mail: xsr09180815@sina.com Abstract: the changes of residual stress through the course of manufacturing technique including cold forming, annealing, nitriding, shot peening and prestressed treatment for the cold forming coil spring have been discussed. It is found out that residual stress state of spring is the only physical parameter through the course manufacturing technique. To grasp and control the residual stress state during every manufacturing process is the control the fatigue resistance stress relaxation resistance as well as permanent deformation resistance. Key words: spring, residual stress, fatigue, stress relaxation and deformation resistance. Introduction What kind of physical parameter impenetrate the course of manufacture technique for the cold formed spring? In the other word, which parameter has the most close relationship with the key manufacture technique in the cold formed coil spring fabrication? It is easy to find that each key processing technique is related to the distribution of residual stress (RS) after analyzing the whole manufacture processes. The tensile residual stress (TRS) and compressive residual stress (CRS) are introduced in the inner and outer surface layer respectively due to uniform plastic deformation during manufacturing of cold formed spring. Whereafter the TRS is relieved by tempering, and the CRS is introduced by the nitriding or by the shot peening (SP). At last, the RS is influenced by the cold/hot setting as well. It can be seen that there is only answer for the question mentioned above, the physical 1. Cold formed technology the category of spring materials that need not to quenching after cold formed, are as follows: cold drawn carbon steel wire, music wire, standard steel wire, oil tempered wire of spring as well as same copper beryllium alloy wire. After the manufacture of spring by means of parameter of which is obviously the residual stress. All fabrication processes have close relationship with RS in cold formed coil spring. Moreover there is no other physical parameter has much close relationship with the whole key manufacture technique. Each manufacture processing can cause some change in the RS. For cold formed coil spring the favorable RS are finally introduced by series of manufacture processed which can improve mechanical and physical properties of spring. In a sense, controlling RS introduced into the spring is controlling deformation its fatigue of resistance, spring. It stress RS relaxation resistance as well as permanent resistance introduced by each process is not found out and detected, the influence of manufacture process on the fatigue resistance can be not recognized. The main contents proposed in the present paper is how to introduce the favourable RS into the spring by means of detecting and controlling through the manufacture processes to obtain higher RS value or residual stress field intensity (ISF), from which the higher fatigue resistance, stress relax resistance as well as permanent deformation resistance of cold formed coil spring can be achieved.

cold bending forming, the un-uniform plastic deformation is taken place on the cross section which introduce TRS into the inner circle surface layer and CRS into the outer circle surface layer respectively of spring as shown in Fig.1

circle surface layer by cold forming is usually at the scope of different

=+200~+400 MPa for the strength steels

superhigh

( b =1700~2200 MPa) with different spring index (C=2~8)[1], and the RS distribution depth is usually at the scope of Zo=0.25~0.5 mm. The TRS within the surface layer of spring can be changed by means of adjusting and improving the cold forming technology. Furthermore, the

Fig.1 distribution of stresses on the cross section: (a) bending loading; (b) unloading ( ap -applied stress;

decrease of TRS, on the other hand, can reduce the difficult of relieving TRS during subsequent tempering process, on the other hand, it could create advantage for the introducing the CRS by shot peening (SP). 2. tempering technology The spring is a bearing part which subjects to both applied stress and RS. The stress is a vector which has not only its modulus, but also its acting direction, positive or negative direction. TRS always decreases fatigue and stress corrosion cracking resistance in all circumstance. On the contrary, CRS always improves the mechanical properties mentioned above. In any cases, therefore, the TRS should be avoided during the whole manufacture processes of spring. Once TRS is introduced, some measure must be taken to relieve or reduce it. As regards CRS, it should not only be relieved, on the contrary, but also should be protected or increased. As for the tempering technology, which links up the cold forming, it is used mainly to remove the TRS by cold formed spring. As a meter of fact, the removing TRS is only one of its effects. To sum up, the tempering treatment has several purposes. 2.1 To remove TRS introduced by cold drawn of steel wire and cold forming of spring For the spring manufacture used either cold drawn steel wire or oil tempered wire, the TRS introduced in the spring has two kinds of

r - RS)

The distribution of RS ( r ) due to cold forming process along the depth (Z), ie

r -Z

curve, is defined as residual stress profile or simplified as the stress profile and it changes with the spring index C (C=D2/d, D2-mean coil spring diameter, d-wire diameter). For the springs with constant diameters (d), the RS introduced by cold forming increases bye the spring index C decreases, ie stress profile increases. It is well known that high cyclic fatigue strength at room temperature is most sensitive to the RS which is especially notable for the superhigh strength steels ( b >1600 MPa). This influence of CRS and TRS is quite contrary usually, the former increases but the later decrease the fatigue strength. It is known from mechanics of materials that the position of the maximum applied stress of compressive coil spring is on the inner circle surface when it subjects to a loading. If TRS introduced by cold forming into the inner circle surface layer of spring again, beyond doubt, the fatigue fracture of such spring occurs rapidly. TRS in the inner

harmful effects: (1) to cause the materials on the surface of spring; (2) to obstruct the CRS introduced by SP. Therefore, after cold forming the spring should be tempered. (1) Prevention of surface cracking According to the different tensile strength of steel wire, the TRS in the inner circle surface of spring may be reached to

wire diameter 11~17 mm, the same depth is about Zo=0.30~0.6 mm. (b) TRS decreases gradually with the tempering holding time The decrease of TRS is not even for the whole stress profile, but it is different at different depth from the surface. At a certain relaxed stage, the

r =+200~+400 MPa

r -Z

profiles have the maximum RS value as

after cold forming. Under the action of TRS together with the environment hydrogen the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in the inner surface of spring may be happen before tempering treatment. The nature of such cracking is the hydrogen embrittlement for this superhigh strength steel ( b >1700 MPa). In order to prevent such cracking spring must be tempered in 2hours after cold forming process. If there is only CRS instead of TRS in the surface (2) Preparation for introducing CRS by SP A lot of test results of RS determinations have been shown that[3,4] the TRS has the destructive effect for introducing CRS during SP process. The tempering at intermediate temperature, therefore, must be adopted in order to relieve the TRS. For the convenient discussion and the quantitative conception establishment of RS ( r ) and its distribution with the depth (Z), the concrete numeric of both of spring, the HE may be avoided[2].

shown in Fig.2,d. for the cold drawn carbon steel wire with lower heat resistance, it usually reaches the metastable stress profile at the lower temperature, while it needs higher tempering temperature and longer holding time to reach the metastable stress profile for superhigh steel wire with higher heat resistance.

Tempering temperature T=const. t1<t2<t3

CRS

Depth Z, mm

Fig.2 schematic diagram of

r -Z profile of

spring introduced by cold forming a and the relaxed r -Z profile with different holding time (t) at the same constant tempering temperature b, c, d A higher TRS profile ( r.c -Z) of cold formed spring. CRS profile ( r.sp -Z) by SP as well as the resulting CRS profile are shown in Fig.3 (a). On the contrary, if the cold formed spring is carried out the reasonable tempering treatment in time, a higher resulting CRS profile ( r -Z) after SP process can be obtained as shown in Fig.3 (b). It can be seen from comparing Fig.3 (a) and (b) that a higher resulting CRS profile can

r and

Z have been

supposed in the following discussion. A typical change of RS profile during the tempering process has the following characteristics. (a) The change of

r -Z profile introduced by

cold forming shows the monotonic distribution (Fig.2 curve a), i.e. the position of the maximum tensile stress is on the surface and decreases with the depth. For the coil springs with the wire diameter 2~6 mm, the depth of TRS is about Zo=0.25~0.5 mm, while as for springs with the

be introduced in the spring by means of the relieving TRS introduced by cold forming process. A lot of RS determination results have been pointed out that the surface TRS may be decreased to the range

tempering temperature for 14 categories spring steels have been given in the literature [5]. The tensile strength of all steels decreases as tempered temperature increased. 2.2 To obtain the microstructure for improved mechanical properties of steel wire Cold-drawing makes the steel wire to subject to a relatively uniform plastic deformation, while cold-forming shows nonuniform plastic deformation. Except for macroscopic residual stress, this plastic deformation also cause such changes in the substructure of steel wire as increase in density of dislocation, strong distortion of crystal lattice, extreme fragmctation of subgrain etc. Or in other words, all of these changes mentioned above introduce higher

r.s +50~+100

MPa

which is favorable to introduce the higher CRS by subsequent SP . Below is temper system recommended in Spring Mannal for steel wire with different materials
[5] [1]

RS, MPa

RS, MPa

microscopic stress. This deformed substructure is an unstable and the mechanical properties of which appears to be increase in the tensile strength and hardness, decrease in ductility, toughness and especially resistance to stress relaxation. The dislocation density and lattice

Fig.3 Schematic diagram RS profile before (a) and ( after (b) tempering treatment:

distortion of deformed crystal is gradually decreasing gin the field of elevated tempering temperature. For the cold-drawing steel wire, this substructure appears to be obvious increase in the static strength ( 0.2 , 0.1 ,

r.c

-Z)-profile of cold formed spring;

( r.temp -Z)- profile after tempering; ( r.sp -Z)profile after both of cold forming and SP resulting profile or both of tempering and Sp resulting profile. Cold drawn steel wire and music wire: 240~340 oC, holding time 20-35 min Oil tempered wire: 360~460 oC, holding time 20-35 min Austenitic stainless steel wire: 280~360 C, holding time 20-40 min Commonly, the higher the temper temperature, the quicker the decrease of TRS. At high temperature tempering, however, the tensile strength of steel wire may be decreased resulting in the decrease of fatigue resistance of spring. The relative curves between tensile strength and
o

0.05 )[6] and

the improvement of the resistance to stress relax. As for the oil tempering steel wire it increases the static strength ( 0.2 , 0.1 , 0.05 ) and the ratio of yield point to tensile strength

0.2 / b

in a broad range of temperature (300~450 oC). On the other hand, it also improves the stress relax resistance of spring[7] . 2.3 To stabilize the geometrical dimensions of spring There will be strong changes happened in in the the geometrical dimensions

subsequent processes or in service for the cold-formed springs without tempering. Temper treatment may lead the transformation from the

both unstable substructure and macrostress, which introduce the changes in geometrical dimension of spring, to stable or metastable state. After temper treatment the springs generally undergo changes in diameter and the total coils.
CRS free SP nitriding nitriding + SP

And the range of the changes increases with the decrease of spring index. Based upon the experiments, the trend in the changes of spring dimension can be mastered and it can be feedback to adjust the cold-forming parameters to obtain the required dimension, specified in the technical requirements. 3. Surface nitriding technology In general, the subsequent process after tempering is SP. The nitriding process between tempering and SP added is just only for valve spring which needs high CRS. Surface nitriding an not only increase surface hardness (Hv>800) and improve abrasion resistance of spring, but also more important can introduce a CRS in the surface layer resulting the improvement of fatigue resistance. After nitirding a bright white layer about 1 um thick is formed on the spring surface. The nitrogen atoms diffused into the interstitial sites of matrix can cause strong distortion of matrix, which leads to the formation of CRS on the surface layer of spring (Fig.4). Comparing the CRS by SP, the CRS by nitriding is more stable and is not easily to relax in a cyclic stress and elevated temperature field. Therefore a relatively CRS field is created by nitriding. At present there is no a single process of nitriding being used as the strengthening to improve fatigue resistance. It is always applied together with SP as s multi surface strengthening technology. The multi nitriding and SP technology enables spring to have even higher CRS field (Fig.4), therefore, higher fatigue resistance than that of single surface strengthening technology. 4.

Fig.4 Schematic diagram of profiles of the CRS induced in the spring surface by free Sp, nitriding and nitiriding+SP Shot peening technology Sp technology is a process, which evolves bullets with hardness as high as HRC 55~62, moving at high speed (V=70~90 m/s) to impact the target (spring). Thus, nonuniform plastic deformation occurs in the surface layer, which introduces CRS into the spring. This is the only reason of applied SP to the spring. It can be seen from the comparison of the stress profiles between Fig.2 and Fig.5 that the curve of TRS by cold-forming changes with the depth (Z) monotonously, that is to say, its maximum value is located at the surface and gradually decrease with the depth. While the curve of CRS by SP (or nitriding) changes not monotonously. The maximum value appears to be in the subsurface. In order to the practical measuring of and investigating influence peening

technological parameters to the distribution of CSR and the influence of this RS profile on fatigue resistance (Fig.5), four characteristic parameters

rs , r ,max ,

Zc and Zo in

r -Z

curve are generally used to describe the stress profile. Frequently, these four characteristic parameters are need for calculating the intensity of RS field-ISF introduced by SP, that is
Zo

ISF = r ( Z )dZ
0

to study the correlation of ISF and fatigue resistance of spring. However, improper SP technology may cause increased surface roughness (Ra) which can generate the stress concentration effect. High stress concentration decreases the fatigue resistance, on the contrary, CRS increases it. Therefore, to compensate the side-effect of surface stress concentration by improper SP a secondary SP is used to decrease the surface roughness. Furthermore, the secondary SP may further increase the depth and level of

107circles)such as valve spring and pressure regulation spring. The other is the spring with intermediate life ( N f

= (2.25~5.0)105circles)

such as chassis spring and vibration suppression spring etc. (Table 1). A large amount of fatigue testing results shows that under a constant stress ratio ( min / max ) the higher the cyclic loading, the shorter the life of fatigue crack initiation (Ni), the shorter the life of fatigue fracture ( N f ) and the smaller the ratio ( N i / N f ). The ratio will further decrease and the life of fatigue crack propagation ( N p ) is relatively longer, if there

r ,max

within the surface layer (Fig.5). It is, therefore, the secondary strengthening technology.

+200 0 -200 -400 -600 -800 -1000 -1200 r,max SP secondary rs primary SP 0.1 zc 0.2 0.3 z0 0.4

exists stress concentration at the surface. On the contrary, the lower the cyclic loading, the longer the life ( N i ) of crack initiation and the longer total fatigue fracture life ( N f ). For spring with long life, the fatigue crack initiation ( N i ) occupies predominantly great portion of fracture

Fig.5 Schematic diagram of treated by primary and

r -Z

profiles SP:

life

( Ni

0.8 N f ); for spring with

secondary

intermediate life, the fatigue crack propagation occupies predominately great portion of fracture life ( N p

rs

-surface CRS;

r ,max

-maximum CRS;

Zc-depth of

r ,max

0.8 N f ). According to the total

position from surface;

service life specified in Table 1, the approximate value of N i and N f can be evaluated as

Zc-depth of CRS field There are two categories of springs

follows: for valve spring:

represented by valve spring and chassis spring, differ in wire diameter and survival condition make them to be used with different material, surface integrity, in different service condition and subjected to different loading , thus to have quite different fatigue fracture life. One category is spring with long life (

N i =1.84 107circles,

N p =0.46107circles, N f =2.3107circles
for chassis spring: N i =0.75 105circles,

N f 2.3

N p =3.0105circles, N f =3.75105circles

According to what is stated above owing to the differences in material, surface integrity, service condition and requirement to the fatigue fracture life, for these two spring categories the mechanisms control the fatigue fracture are different. For long life spring, the dominate fatigue facture mechanism is controlled by the fatigue crack initiation (nucleation). While for intermediate life spring, the dominate fatigue fracture mechanism is controlled by the fatigue crack propagation (Table 1). In order to increase the fatigue fracture resistance of spring, CRS field by SP should be treated differently respective to the different fatigue fracture mechanism. 4.1 CRS field in long life spring by SP technology Cold formed spring with 3~6 mm diameters, represented by the valve spring which is listed in Table 1. The main function of the CRS in the inner circle surface by SP is to restrain the fatigue crack nucleation at the inner circle surface, and makes it penetrate into the subsurface. For this purpose, the stress profile introduced by SP should distribute with the stress profile as shown in Fig.6 . The lower limit of the distribution band in Fig.6 is the
[2]

r -Z

profile obtained by SP only but without

nitriding. The upper limit of the distribution band is the

-Z profile obtained by a

combined strengthening technology of nitriding and SP. Based upon data collected from the theoretical computation and fatigue testing resulted in a summary the fluctuating range for the four characteristic parameters, which represent CRS profile, have been simultaneously shown in Fig.6.

rMPa

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of CRS distribution band in the inner circle surface of cold formed spring with 3~6 mm wire diameters

Table 1 Comparison of various technical requirements specified for valve, pressure and chassis springs
0 Microstructure, property, dimension and surface strengthening technology 1 Priginal grain size (m ) and nonmetallic inclusion in steel Grain size: d=11.2~2.8 Grade number of grain: G10~14 Inclusion: amount-small Size-small Oil quenched-tempered steel G: 7(d=31.8) Induction heated G>9 (d=15.9) Inclusion: Amount-relatively high Size-relatively large 2 3 4 Diameter of steel wire (mm) Tensile Strength of steel ( b MPa) Decarbonise depth (mm) Roughness Ra (m) intensity of Surface 3~6 2000~2200 ~0 <0.5 11~17 1800~2050 0.03~0.05 <10.0 for cold forming >10.0 for hot forming Value and pressure spring Chassis spring

For characteristic parameters of CRS and intensity of CRS field (ISF) by SP

rs 600 ;
rs 800 ~ 1200 ;
Zo=0.2~0.4; ISF=140~300

rs = 800 ~ 1200
r , max = 900 ~ 1200
Zo=0.2~0.4 ISF=300~500

strengthening

(stress-MPa;

Depth-mm; ISF-MPa.mm) 5 Adopted method of SP 1. 2. 3. Traditional (free) SP multi free SP Nitriding +SP 1. 2. 3. Traditional (free) SP multi free SP Hot SP

6 i 7 8 9

Maximum

shear

stress

max = 990 ~ 1000

max = 990 ~ 1000 max = 990 ~ 1000

Requirement to fatigue life

Mechanism fracture

Role of surface CRS in improving the fatigue strength

By means of combined adjustment of the technical parameters of all steps for entire process from cold forming to SP, the CRS of spring manufactured exists in a optimum stress distribution band show in Fig. 6 ultimately. Comparing to the same springs without CRS of any kind, this CRS field will improve the fatigue strength limit ( N f =2.3107circles) by 35%, that is a 1.35 times
[8]

4.2 CRS field in mediate life spring by SP In combination with long life spring, the tensile strength of mediate life spring is a little lower, the surface integrity of it is a little worse but the loading level in service is heavier, the

Loading condition in service or

max (MPa)
Ratio

max b = 0.45 ~ 0.50

max b
f=14~25 f=5~11 (in air) f<6 ( in corrosion medium)

Frequency of loading f (Hz)

Loading fashion

Constant amplitude High fatigue fracture life

Constand amplitude Mediate fatigue fracture life (2.5~5) medium)

N f 2.3 107 cycles (in air)

105 cycles

(in

corrosion

106 cycles (in air)

controlling

the

fatigue

Controlled by the fatigue crack initiation

Controlled progagation

by

the

fatigue

crack

Indirect strengthening effect: push the fatigue source from the surface into the subsurface resulting a higher inner fatigue limit

Direct

strengthening

effect:

fatigue

strength is direct proportional to ESF resulting a higher surface fatigue limit

working condition is worse as well (Table 1). So spring of this kind wick usually initiates a premature fatigue crack. Once the fatigue crack is initiated (in engineering the size is generally defined as about 0.25~0.30 mm), the fatigue crack propagation ( N p ) will control the fracture life. The effective decrease of the crack propagation rate and extend the crack propagation life could only be achieved by introducing CRS field and in consequence to improve the fatigue fracture resistance of this kind of spring. The value of CRS by SP depends primarily on monotonous tensile hardening index (n) of materials. For the low hardening

index (n 0.05~0.09) superhigh strength spring steel there exist the empirical relationship of the CRS by SP and the yield strength [9]:

the relationship as shown in Fig.8. it is obvious from the correlation of

ws versus ISF in Fig.8,

rs = (0.5 ~ 0.65) 0.2

The traditional free SP technology can not introduce the necessary CRS needed, therefore, the prestress/prestrain SP and hot SP have been developed in recent years. These new technologies make it possible to introduce a higher ISF though which depress and decrease the fatigue crack propagation within the CRS crack. It can be seen from the stress profile after SP shown in Fig.7
[10, 11]

appeared to be linear and expressed as following equation:

ws = 900 + 2.37 ISF ws = 20 + 1.66 ISF

(SAE5160 Steel) (5SSiMnVB steel)

that these SP

technologies can introduce a higher CRS profile and higher ISF. The ESF values could be calculated on the basis of fatigue limit

ws

[12]

obtained from samples of all kinds for two steels and the

r -Z profiles shown in Fig.7.

Fig.8 Relationship between

ws versus

ISF for

SAE5160 and 5SSiMnVB steels It could be seen from the analysis of data in Fig.8 that the traditional SP increases the fatigue limit only by prestress/prestain SP technology,
Prestress (MPa) 1- +0.6%+SP 2- +0.3%+SP 3- SP 4- non-SP

thus improving the

CRS

ws vale

CRS

of SAE5160 and

5SSiMnVB steels on the basis of free SP by 90 percent and 48 percent respectively. From here an important point can be concluded that except for the introduction of CRS field into the spring for improving the fatigue resistance, there is not any technology including substitute material with even higher quality could offer such higher ws value than that of SP technology. The conclusion stated above is of extreme

Depth Z, mm

Depth Z, mm

Fig.7

-Z

profiles

by

traditional

and

prestress/prestrain SP for 55SiMnVB leaf spring ( b = 1430 MPa) (a) and for SAE5160 steel plate ( b = 1600 MPa) (b)

importance in engineering. It is just because of the irreplaceable important effect of CRS that has been realized by the engineering community, another hot peening technology was developed very fast in order to introduce even higher CRS.

The ws and ISF were plotted as the vertical and horizontal coordinate respectively obtaining

wsMPa(55SiMnVB)

field extending the propagation life of fatigue

wsMPa

Hot peening is to heat the spring to 150~350 oC. The yield strength at these temperatures is dropped to 20~30% and the resistance to plastic deformation is decreased also. In this case, therefore, after hot peening a higher CRS can be introduced than that by traditional SP. So even higher fatigue fracture resistance can be achieved in spring
[13]

configuration of dislocation, lattice distortion, structure of block mosaic, etc.); (2) the stability of introduced RS. The stability of RS, of course, does depend on the stability of substructure. In the final analysis, all the mechanical properties of materials including stress relax resistance are dependent on micro structure [15]. The proper PT technologies, however, can be evaluated and selected through the relax of the CRS of spring in the process of PT. For this reason, first of all we need to know the relax regularity of CRS under various conditions of applied stress and temperature. RS and deformed substructure introduced by nonuniform plastic deformation are in an

. It is know from these

newly developed technologies, whatever a single or a combined surface strengthening technology which introduces higher ISF in the surface layer, unless the spring surface damaged, may raise the resistance to fatigue fracture of spring up to a higher level. 5. Prestressed (setting) The technology connected to SP is the prestressed treatment (PT) which can be processed at room temperature or in heating temperature. The term of this technology is direct related to the application of stress to the spring. The main reasons of PT are: (1) stablization of the resistance of stress relaxation; (2) stabilization of geometric dimensions of spring (prevention of excessive permeate deformation). It is considered in some works that PT is a strengthening technology and loading capability and fatigue life span of all springs will be increased once received the PT. But it is conditions-confined. For some springs it can be strengthened to a certain degree after PT only in very limited condition. There has been sufficient discussing in literature
[14]

treatment

technology

unstable static, and it tends to change into a stable or metastable state under the individual or combined effect of operating stress and environment temperature in the service. The mechanical behavior of this transition process shows the decrease of RS because of relax and leading to the stabilization of stress relax resistance gradually. To accelerate this change making the stress relax to reach a stable or metastable state as fact as possible, or in other words, to increase the stability of stress relax resistance of spring in the serving, the PT is applied to operating stress, which may be little higher than the serving stress of spring at room or proper higher temperature, and then loading-unloading for one or several times or to keep a constant stress level with hold time (Fig.9). at present it is the widely applied PT technology which has the capability to reach the high stability of the stress relax resistance. To summarized what were formulated above is known that the optimum PT process suitable for a specific concrete spring could be worked out only when the general regularity of the stress relax under the respective or joint affect of applied stress (including constant and alternate) and temperature is fully understood and well mastered. Reference [15] is the only monograph dedicated to the systematic discussion on the

. It should be noted,

PT technology may lower the CRS by SP due to the stress relaxation, but the relaxed value of CRS due to PT does not seriously affect the resistance to fatigue fracture induced by the normal stress. There are two factors affecting the resistance to relax for springs subjected to single or combined surface treatment: (1) the stability of substructure of steel wires (including density and

10

stress relax of spring in recent China.

This is the first stage of stress relax and is called static relaxation (SR). After SR, CRS relaxation entered into the second stage which is called dynamic relaxation (DR). In this stage there is a linear relationship between CRS after relax

Limiting stress of spring ap max PT2 stress of PT2 Fatigue limit of spring w

loading stress

Stress in service

r , dyn
th

and logarithm of stress cycle lgN

[16]

as

Holding time
th

follows:
ten r , dyn = rs b lg N com r , dyn = rs b lg N

min

Load cycles N and holding time t Nt

Fig.9 Schematic diagram of applied stress adopted in the TP and the loading pattern Residual stress relaxation regularity in the applied stress field The influence of metastable substructure (fragmented subgrain and lattice distortion) formed in the process of cold forming on the mechanical properties of cold-drawing carbon steel wires, piano steel wires, stainless steel wires and oil tempering wires has been basically resolved in the early stage of tempering treatment. The SP and various surface deformed strengthening processes, however, will introduce again even higher level unstable CRS and unstable substructure former of which is the primary factor cohile the latter of which is the secondary factor affecting the stability of stress relax for spring. In this case, the best way to resolve the stress relax stability is to force the spring under different loading conditions (Fig.10), turning to unstable RS, that is existing in the spring, into CRS. The relax regularities of CRS in the alternate (1) Static relaxation and dynamic relaxation of CRS Both SP and the combined strengthening technology can introduce CRS in spring. So, this paper mainly discusses the relaxation regularity of CRS in an alternate stress field. CRS relaxes a large extent rapidly in primal 1~3 times loading.
CRS

There rs and
ten

com rs is

CRS relaxation after push-push loading

pull-pull

loading

and

respectively; b is the slop of the line. It can be seen from above that the total amount of relax of CRS in alternate stress field is constituted by static relax and dynamic relax. (2) SR and DR of CRS is more easily to occur under the push-push alternating stress field The relaxation values of CRS

r or

r / r also relies on the way of loading. It

can be seen from Fig.10 that push-push alternating stress is always much easier to cause higher SR and DR than that of the pull-pull alternating stress in the condition of the absolute value of the same mean residual stress and the same amplitude.
Cycle index N, cycles

the metastable or stable

stress field show as follows:

Press-press fluctuating load

Pull-pull fluctuating load

Dynamic relax (DR) Static relax (SR)

Fig.10 Schematic diagram of CRS relaxation in the applied alternate stress field: the first stage-

11

static relax; the second stage dynamic relax (3) In the condition of the same mean stress
CRS r, MPa

untested

both SR and DR increase as the

a or

max increases as shown in fig.11 [16].

(4) There will be only be little SR and DR of the surface CRS (Fig.12) when the maximum alternate stress

max (or max ) w( N 5

Depth (m)

is equal to a bit higher than

Fig.12 Residual stress profile

r Z of

coil

106 circles) of the material under the condition of applied rotation bending test, an obvious SR of CRS by shot peening is to occur, while only a little DR will happen subsequently(Fig.13) [17]. (5)
Cycle index N, cycles

spring (Si-Mn steel) before and after fatigue test in the outer circle surface: 1- before fatigue test; 2- fatigue test

max =1200 MPa, =504 MPa, max

=1300 MPa,

N=5.65 105 cycles; 3-

=817 MPa, N=51.15105 cycles

Depth Z, mm

Compressed surface

CRS r, MPa

Compressed surface tension surface

CRS r, MPa

fatigue fatigue

tension surface

Fig.11 the SR and DR in the tension and compressed surface for the superhigh strength steel sheet 30CrMnSiNi2A ( b =1700 MPa) during repeating bending fatigue test with stress ratio R=0.1 (surface residual stress MPa).

Fig.13 Shot peening

r Z

profile before

and after rotating bending fatigue test (R=-1) of the superhigh strength steel GC4 ( b =1900 MPa). Compare the cold formed coil compression (tension, torsion) springs (including even leaf spring) with years, shafts and after components which are subjected to reversed stresses during operation, the former only subjects tension tension (pull-pull) or shear-shear alternate stresses, on the other hand, there is only positive stress ratio R>0. the relaxation characteristic of CRS is sensitive to the compressive component

rs = -1000

12

of the reverse stress only, but is not sensitive to the tensile stress component of the reversed stress. It means that the stress relax resistance of CRS of springs in the reversed stress field is higher than that of gear, shaft parts, etc. under the same fatigue condition. Several of the relaxation regularity of the CRS of spring in the specific pull-pull alternating stress field listed below is of importance to the selection of PT process for obtaining a stable CRS: (1) When the

r is a function of temperature (T) and hold

time (t). The results of stress relax of some low-alloy high strength steels and heat-resistant steels indicate that the RS by SP in the temperature field shows the following relaxation regularities: (1) The higher temperature is heated the faster is the CRS relaxed and the value of CRS is the lowest whenever the stable (or metastable) state after relax is reached. (2) At the temperature of 200~400 oC the fastest relaxation rate of CRS will happen within 0~8 h, and then tend to slow down. CRS will reach a stable (or metastable) stage soon after primal 1~3 times cyclic loading in the applied pull-pull reversed stress field. At first the RS has the highest relax rate in the 200~400 oC and it need longer time (t 8 h) to reach the stable (or metastable) state. Based upon the knowledge of the regularities stated above, various PT processes and standards of practical importance in engineering could be formulated to increase the stress relax resistance in spring. 6. Conclusion It is the residual stress state introduced into the spring that the only physical parameter through the course of manufacture technique for the cold formed spring. In a sense, to control the residual stress state after each processing step of spring means to control the fatigue resistance, the stress relax resistance and the permanent deformation resistance. A spring manufacture processing system with strictly controlled and optimum coordinated between processing steps of spring has been established. The RS profile after processing step remains in the spring ought to be as shown in Fig.14. (1) Cold formed: the value of CRS introduced

max (or max ) of applied fatigue w ( N 5106

stress is under or close to the fatigue limit of the spring circles), a bit

SR of CRS will happern, while DR is basically not occurred. (2) The higher is the max (or max ) in the applied pull-pull stress field, or in more close to the limit stress of spring

e ,

the

larger the SP of CRS. The CRS will be more stable by using this SR as the PT process. (3) When applied

max

(or

max

) in the

pull-pull fatigue test is lower than the fatigue limit of spring w ( N >107 circles), most of CRS relaxed (>99%) in the SR stage. It is because of having these characteristics described above for the CRS of spring subjected to the specific pull-pull alternating stress field, in the last step of spring processing, forced pressing (tension, torsion, bending) 1~3 times is taken to force SR of CRS to happen, through which to raise the stability of the geometric shape and the size dimensions of spring. The relaxation regulation of residual stress in the temperature field The CRS by SP in spring can relax gradually in the temperature field/the relaxation value

13

into the inner circle surface layer of spring depends on 1) state of steel wire; 2) the tensile strength of steel wire; 3) spring index C, etc. (2) Tempering: The TRS introduced by cold formed is relieved partially or completely after tempering treatment. Besides, it is only by means of the high temperature tempering formed the (3) in the entire plastic manufacture deformation fine processing that the unstable microstructure during stable (or processing of springs could transform into metastable) microstructure. Surface nitriding: CRS is introduced by the penetrating of the interstitial nitrogen atom into the surface layer of spring. The stress relax of CRS introduced by nitriding is much lower than that by nonuniform plastic deformation. (5)

CRS

field

characterized

by

rs , r ,max ,
optimum

Zc, Zo or to gain the field intensity

CRS

characterized by

IRF = r ( z )dZ .

Prestressing: prestressing on spring at room or intermediate temperature, the static relaxation of XRS can be rapidly relieved resulting in the increase of the stress relax resistance of spring.

References [1] Renzhi Wang, Ru Jilai. On the Same Problems In the Surface Strengthening Treatment Automobile (in Chinese) [2] Wuyan Chu, et al. Stress Corrosion Cracking Compressive in Mild Stress Steel [J]. Under Scripta of Valve Sping [J]. for the Combustion China

Surface Engineering, 2000, 13(2):38-41

Metalurgica, 1984,18:579-582 [3] Renzhi Wang. Residual Stress and Fatigue Properties of Spring [J]. Physical Testing and Chemical Analysis Part A: Physical Testing. 2005,41 (11) [4] M.T.Todinov. Proceedings of 10th National Spring Scientific Report, 8th National Spring Failure Analysis and Symposium of Spring Specialities Across Fig.14 Schematic diagram of

r Z

the

Taiwan

Straits,

Gueiling

China.

2004:94-104 [5] Zhang Yinghuai, et al. Spring Handbook [M]. Mechanical Industrial Press.1997:87 [6] Margerel 1988, 12: 88 Omolley BSC. Stress Relaxation of Spring [J]. Wire Industry. [7] Su Deda, Low Temperature Heat

profile in the inner surface layer of cold-formed spring after each step rocessing:1- cold formed; 2-tempering;3-nitirding; 5-prestressing (4) Shot peening: No matter what kind of the surface strengthening processes it is, whether the traditional the stress/stain shot peening or the hot peening, the purposes of it is to achieve the optimum 4shot peening;

Treatment and Stabilized Treatment of Springs [J]. Spring Engineering, 2002, 3: 4-10

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[8]

Renzhi

Wang.

Yao

Mei,

et

al.

[14] Zhu Yan. The discussion about Some Contents Illustrated Spring in Mechanical Design [15] Su Handbook. Deda. Stress The same with and [4]:158-161 Relaxation Prevention of Springs (Materials) [M]. Tian Jin University Press, 2002 [16] Qiu Qiong, Renzhi Wang. Static Roading Relaxation of Residual Stress and the Optimum Residual Stress Field Induced by Shot Peening [J]. Metal Science and Technology 1988, 7(1):1-7 [17] Qiu Qiong. Investigation on the Relationship Between Characteristics of Shot Peening Strain Layer and the Fatigue Behaviour [D]. Masters thesis. Beijing Institute 1984:72 of Aeronautical Materials.

Micro-Meso-Process Theory of Fatigue Crack Initiation and Theory of Internal Fatigue Limit [J]. Transactions of Metals and Heat Treatment, 1995,16(4):26 [9] Liu Suo (Renzhi Wang). Fatigue Property of Metals and Shot Peening Strengthening Technology [M]. Defence Industry Press, 1977: 79 [10] Xu Jiazhi, et al. The Fatigue Strength and Fracture Morfbology of Leaf Spring Steel After Prestressed Shot Peening [C]. Proceedings 1981. [11] R.L.Mattson, J.G.Roberts. Internal Stress and Fatigue of Mterials [M]. 1959 [12] Renzhi Wang. Shot Peening of Leaf Spring and Its Stress Strengthening Mechanism [C]. the same with [4]:80-84 [13] Japan Association of Shot Peening. Shot Peening Method and Its Effect (metal fatigue, residual stress) [M]. Nikang Industry Press. Japan:106 of 1th International Conference on Shot Peening, Paris, France,

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