Sample

Journal of Flow Visualization and Image Processing
Vol. 9 CONTENTS
1 Analysis of Symmetric Multiwavelets and Its Application Chen Jiazhong, Zhou Jingli, for Image Compression Yu Shengsheng, He Xiaocheng, and Li Jun Visualization of the Effect of Dispersed Particles on Heat J. Rveillon Transfer from an Impinging Jet and K. Cannevire A New Algorithm for Analyzing Shadowgraph Images G. B. Brassington, J. C. Patterson, and M. Lee Unusual Laser-Sheet Tomography Coupled with Backlight Imaging Configurations to Study the Diesel Jet Structure at the Nozzle Outlet for High Injection Pressures J. Yon, J.-B. Blaisot, and M. Ledoux A Mass Conservative Streamline Tracking Method for Two Dimensional CFD Velocity Fields Zhenquan Li Coherent Structure Dynamics In Turbulent Channel Flow Giancarlo Alfonsi and Leonardo Primavera
No. 1
2002
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Journal of Flow Visualization & Image Processing, vol. 9, pp. 110, 2002
Copyright 2002 Begell House, Inc.
ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRIC MULTIWAVELETS AND ITS APPLICATION FOR IMAGE COMPRESSION

Chen Jiazhong,* Zhou Jingli, Yu Shengsheng, He Xiaocheng, and Li Jun
National Storage System Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, P. R. China
Multiwavelets are the new addition to the body of wavelet theory. It is also based on the idea of multiresolution analysis (MRA). An MRA is usually generated by one scaling function. However, such wavelets cannot possess the properties of compact support, linear phase, and orthogonality simultaneously. Realized as matrix-valued filterbanks leading to wavelet bases, multiwavelets can offer these three properties simultaneously which are strongly desired in many applications, such as a fast multiresolution pyramid decomposition algorithm of image with the 2 2 matrix. To succeed using the EZW algorithms, we wish there still are some of the relationships between ancestors and their offspring. But the relationship is not very clear after the conventional iteration of multiwavelet decomposition which is similar to the scalar wavelet decomposition, and the encoding effect and efficiency are not very good. Therefore, this paper presents full new decomposition and quantization methods adapt to the symmetric property of multiwavelets. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that our techniques exhibit performance equal or superior to the conventional decomposition methods.
1. INTRODUCTION Recently, multiwavelets have been introduced as a more general context in the wavelet theory, which is led by the notion that there is more than one scaling function. Multiwavelets have several advantages in comparison to scalar wavelets. The features, such as compact support, orthogonality, symmetry, and high order vanish moments, are known to be important in signal processing. A scalar wavelet cannot possess all these properties at the same time but multiwavelets can. The study of multiwavelets was initiated by Goodman et al. in [1]. Then Goodman and Lee [2] discovered the characterization of scaling function wavelets. Generally, after presenting the prefilter technique, multiwavelets with multiplicity 2 can be applied in image compression application successfully [3, 7, 9]. If one uses the 2 2 matrix as the filterbanks to do image signal processing, the filterbanks would decompose an input signal vector into several channels. Such a subband structure closely resembles that of full wavelet packet decomposition using
*
Address all correspondence to Mr. Chen Jiazhong. chenjz70@263.net.
J. Chen et al.
scalar wavelet. In spite of the similarity in their subband structure, Tham et al. [3] show that the image compression performance using multiwavelets is more superior to that using scalar wavelet packets. This paper gives some simple formulas for matrix coefficients that produce the multiwavelets, and introduces a method to construct a new matrix filter system, which possesses the properties of compact support, linear phase, and orthogonality simultaneously. Moreover, as for the special frequency response of this type of filters, we present a new iteration algorithm of multiwavelets. In order to evaluate the performance of multiwavelets for image coding at low bit rate, efficient embedded coding of multiwavelet coefficients has been realized, accomplished with a suitable scanning strategy across scales and inside each detail subband. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that the performance of our techniques is equal to, and in several cases even is superior to that of the conventional decomposition methods. 2. SYMMETRIC CONJUGATE QUADRATURE FILTER Let 1, 2, ..., r be a multiwavelet system and compactly support L2(R) functions, z is a close Z}, j N, and suppose that V0 = span {i( j): = 1, 2, ..., r, j r space. Then V0 is called a finitely generated shift in variant space. Let (Vp)p Z be given by Vp = {(2p ): V0}. The sequence (Vp) is called an MRA generated by 1, 2, ..., r if (a) the spaces are nested V1 V0 V1 ..., and (b) the generator 1, 2, ..., r and their integer translates form a Riesz basis for V0 [4]. Because of (a) and (b), we can write Vj+1 = Vj Wj, j Z. The space W0 is called the wavelet space, and if 1, 2, ..., r generate a shift-invariant basis for W0, then these functions are called wavelet functions. Then (a) and (b) imply that = {1,2, ..., r}T satisfies the dilation equation (also be called the refinement equation)
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( x) = H k ( 2 x k )
k
(1)
The corresponding multiwavelet = {1, 2, ..., r}T is given by
( x) = G k (2 x k )
k
(2)
where Hk is an r r matrix lowpass filter and Gk is an r r matrix highpass filter. Let H() =
Hk e
k
jk 2
and G() =
Gke
k
jk 2
, then (1) and (2) can be formu-
lated in the Fourier domain ( ) = H ( / 2) ( / 2) (3)
Symmetric Multiwavelet Application for Image Compression
3 (4)
( ) = G ( / 2) ( / 2)
For scalar wavelets, Gk are determined automatically from Hk but it often fails here. The orthogonality of and no longer follows from the identities like H0H1 = H1H0, because Hk are matrices and they cannot commute. A new construction procedure is needed for multiwavelets. 2.1 Orthogonal Conditions A scaling function is stable if and only if
(
k
+ 2k)*( + 2k) is
positive definite for all , and is orthogonal if and only if
( + 2k)*( +
k
2k) = Ir, and Hk and Gk are the matrix conjugate quadrature filters (CQF). The orthogonal conditions now can be expressed as follows:
H ( ) H * ( ) + H ( + ) H * ( + ) = I r
G ( )G * ( ) + G ( + )G * ( + ) = I r H ( )G * ( ) + H ( + )G * ( + ) = 0 r
(5) (6) (7)
where ()* denotes complex conjugate transpose, whereas Ir and 0r are the r r identity and null matrices, respectively. The orthogonal conditions (5), (6), and (7) are equivalent to
H
k k
H kT+ 2 j = 2 j 0 I r
T k +2 j
(8)
G G
k
= 2 j 0 I r
(9)
H
k
T Gk +2 j = 0
(10)
The pair {H, G} is called a multiwavelet filterbank (which is often abbreviated as filterbank). The matrix filters H, G are called finite impulse response if there exists an integer N such that Hk = 0, Gk = 0, k > N.
J. Chen et al.
2.2 Converging Conditions Let (Lp(R))r (1 p ) denote the linear space of all vectors f = (f1, f2, ..., fr)T such that f1, f2, ..., fr
p j N fjNp 1p
Lp(R). The normon (Lp(R))r is defined by NfNp =
. The linear operator Qa on (Lp(R))r is given by Qa =
Hk(2
k
k). For any p such that 1 p , we say that subdivision scheme converges in
the Lp norm if the function f satisfies that limnNQn fNp = 0. a In order to solve the refinement equation (1), we employ the iteration scheme =
Hn (2n k). Let M = H(0) = 1/2 Hk. If is a solution of (1), then (0) k
k k
= M(0). In other words, either (0) = 0 or (0) is an eigenvector of M corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. 2.3 Construction of Symmetric Conjugate Quadrature Filter In this subsection, we will consider matrix filters that generate orthogonal multiscaling functions and multiwavelets with symmetry. Here we discuss the case r = 2 and consider the situation where the first components of and are symmetric, whereas the second components are antisymmetric. For the components of , if i is centrally antisymmetric supported on [0, L] for any odd number i and centrally symmetric for any even number supported on [0, L], then (x) = S(L x), where S = diag (1, 1, 1, 1, ..., (1)r+1). Using this in the refinement function (1), we obtain
= H k (2 k ) =S ( L ) = SH k (2 L 2 k )
k k
= SH k S (2 + k L)
k
= SH L k S ( 2 k )
k
If we assume L = 2N 1, N Z, then will have the desired symmetric property provided that Hk = SH2N1kS. In this paper, we consider the case of r = 2 and N = 2. We can suppose the matrix coefficients Hk of lowpass filter for scaling function are given by
H0 =
1 h01 2 h03
h02 h04
H0 =
1 h11 2 h13
h12 h14
H2, SH1S,
H3 = SH0S
There exists a unique solution of the refinement equation such that (0) = {1, 0}T. This solution is called the normalized solution. It was show in [6] that H(0) satisfies Condition E, and Hk satisfies the order of vanishing moment condition at least one, i.e., there exists a nonzero 1 r vector l0 such that l0H(0) = l0, l0H() = 0 0 0 0 0. By (5), l0H(0)T = l0, thus H(0)(l0)T = (l0)T, i.e., is a right 1-eigenvector of H(0). 0 0 0 0 By (3), (0) is also a right 1-eignvector of H(0). Therefore, up to a constant, (l0)T 0 = (0) since 1 is a simple eigenvalue of H(0). Assume is the corresponding multiwavelet with matrix highpass filter G. By (7), l0H(0)G(0)T + l0H()G()T, thus 0 0 l0G(0)T = 0, and hence G(0)(0) = 0. By (4), we have (0) = 0. From (8), we 0 have the frequency response of Hk at = 0 and = as follows:
h + h11 H (0) = 01 0
0 h04 + h14
0 H ( ) = h03 h13
h02 h12 0
It is clear that the following Hk satisfies the orthogonal conditions (8):
1+ 2 2 +2 + 2 H0 = 2 1+ 2 + 2 + 2
1+ 2 (1 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) 2 2 2 2 2 + + H = 2 + + 1 1+ 2 (1 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 2
(1 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) 2 + 2 + 2 (1 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) 2 + 2 + 2
By symmetry, we have H2 = SH1S, H3 = SH0S. Then we define Gk = (1)kH2N1k, P = antdiag (1, ..., 1)T. If HkPT 1k2i, k = 0, 1, ..., N i 1, i = 0, 1, ..., N 2N 1, i Z, are symmetric matrices, then we have
2 N 1 2 i
k =0
H k G kT+ 2i =
2 N 1 2 i
k =0
H k (( 1) k + 2i +1 P2 N 1 k 2i )
N 1i 2 N 12i T = + H k (1) k + 2i +1 H 2 N 1 k 2i k =0 k = N i
N 1 i k =0
T ( 1) k +1 H 2 N 1 k 2i +
N 1 i k =0
2 N 1 k 2 i
( 1) k H kT = 0
J. Chen et al.
It is easy to obtain that the Hk in (11) satisfies our previous hypotheses, so we can say that Hk and Gk = (1)kH2N1kP satisfy the orthogonal conditions (9) and (10). 3. NEW ITERATION ALGORITHM OF SYMMETRIC MULTIWAVELETS 3.1 Iteration of Decomposition for Symmetric Multiwavelets During a single level of decomposition using a scalar wavelets transform, a 2D-image data is replaced with four blocks corresponding to the subbands representing either lowpass or highpass filtering in each direction. The multiwavelets used here have two channels, so here will be two sets of scaling matrix coefficients and wavelets matrix coefficients. The first level multiwavelet decomposition subbands are shown in Fig. 1a. Scalar wavelet transforms give a single quarter-sized lowpass subband from the original larger one. In previous literature, multiwavelet decompositions are performed in the same way. The multiwavelet decomposition iterate on the lowpass coefficients from the previous decomposition, the LiLj subbands in Fig. 1a, as shown in Fig. 1b. In the case of scalar wavelets, the lowpass quarter image is a single subband. However, when the multiwavelet transform is used, the lowpass coefficients are actually a 2 2 block of subbands, one lowpass and three bandpasses. Figures 1b and c illustrates the traditional and proposed generalized framework for discrete multiwavelet decomposition of a 2D signal using separable transform along each dimension respectively. Conventionally, the next decomposition step will
L1L1 L2L1 H1L1
L1L2 L2L2 H1L2 H2L2
L1H1 L2H1 H1H1 H2H1
L1H2
L2H2 H1 H2
H2L1
H2H2
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1 (a) Image subbands after first decomposition of multiwavelets. (b) Conventional iteration just adapt to GHM, CL multiwavelets. (c) Proposed iteration method for the symmetric multiwavelet decomposition.
decompose the lowpass subbands L = {L1L1, L1L2, L2L1, L2L2}. In this case, N-level multiwavelet decomposition of a 2D signal will produce 4(3N + 1) subbands as illustratesd in Fig. 1b. As for GHM and CL multiscaling functions, the matrix impulse response contains many lowpass characteristics at = 0, so in this case, these four LiLj subbands should be mixed together by using the conventional iteration of multiwavelet decomposition. But for symmetric multisclaing fonction, the matrix impulse response only at the place of the first row and the first column contains many lowpass characteristics at = 0, so in this case, these four LiLj subbands need not to be mixed together by using the conventional iteration of multiwavelet decomposition. Iteration on only the L1L1 subband requires one-fourth the number of computations as iteration on the four LiLj subbands. The structure of this newly improved multiwavelet decomposition method is shown in Fig. 1c. 3.2 Generating a Full Scalar Wavelet Packets-Like Subband Structure The quantization method used to generate the result in this paper is the EZW. EZW and other types of zero-tree quantizers, such as SPIHT and SLCCA [10, 11], achieve good performance by exploiting the spatial dependency of the pixels in different subbands of a scalar wavelet transform. The assumptions that the EZW quantizer makes about the relationship between subbands hold well for scalar wavelet, but they do not hold for multiwavelets for the multiwavelet transform destroying the parentchildren relationship that EZW presumes. However, examination of the coefficients in a single-level multiwavelet transform reveals that a large amount of similarity exists in each of the 2 2 blocks that comprise the LiHj, HiLj, and HiHj subbands. The best answer for what causes this
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2 (a) A full wavelet packets. (b) Coefficients of region L1L1 after reorganization. (c) Global coefficients after reorganization.
J. Chen et al.
similarity is that Image subband structure is more like that of a full scalar wavelet packets. So we descript the relationship between ancestors and their offspring by Fig. 2a. Then we can present a new quantization method that allows multiwavelet decompositions receive most of the benefits from an EZW-like quantizer. The basic idea is to try to restore the spatial features that EZW requires for optimal performance. As a QMF-pyramid subband structure, the dependencies between ancestors and offspring are shown in Figs. 2b and c. 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The new iteration algorithm for symmetric multiwavelets is evaluated on four natural 512 512 grayscale images, i.e., Lenna, Barbara, Boat, and Goodhill. For an accu-
(a) Barbara, 16:1, PSNR 32.209dB
(b) Barbara, 32:1, PSNR 28.233dB
(c) Goodhill, 16:1, PSNR 32.466dB
(d) Goodhill, 32:1, PSNR 29.923dB
Fig. 3 Experiment of new iteration for symmetric multiwavelet compression of Barbara, Goodhill image.

Table 1 PSNR for Compression of Lenna, Barbara, Boat, and Goodhill
rate comparison, we have chosen a scalar wavelet for our experiment, an orthogonal and symmetric basis. Particularly, the following multiwavelet bases have been considered: GHM with the orthgonal approximation preserving prefilter and CL with Haar transform matrix prefilter. Thus, the performance is compared with the iteration algorithms based on one scalar wavelets Bi9/7 and two multiwavelets GHM and CL. Usually, the distortion is measured by peak signal to noise ratio. Computer simulations are presented for the four sample images in Fig. 3. Table 1 shows the PSNR comparison on Lenna and Barbara image at different bit rates. Our work consistently outperforms Bi9/7. Compared to Bi9/7, our work gains 1 dB to 2 dB in PSNR on the average. Then, we only analyze the results that come from comparing our work to GHM. For Barbara image, our work gains more than 1 dB at compression ratio (CR) 16:1, and gains 0.03 dB at compression ratio 8:1. For boat image, our work gains 0.25 dB at CR 8:1, 0.65 dB at CR 16:1, and only gains 0.23 dB at CR 32:1. However, for the Goodhill and Lenna which are relatively smooth images, the performance between our work and GHM gets closer. These preliminary results suggest that the new iteration algorithm for our work is worthy of further investigation as a technique for complex textured image compression. Issues to address include the design of multiwavelets with symmetry and higher-order approximation than the GHM and CL system. It is also noteworthy that symmetric multiwavelets can achieve good compression performance even though it have lower approximation order than both GHM and CL. So we can draw a conclusion that the approximation order and regularity are very important for some applications such as digital signal processing applications, but in image compression, the effect of approximation order and regularity is still unknown. 5. CONCLUSIONS Multiwavelets are an important development of the wavelet theory because it solved the conflict between the orthogonality and linear phase. Multiwavelets offer the advantage of combining symmetry, orthogonality, and short support, properties not mu-
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tually achievable with a scalar wavelet system. For the special frequency response of the mask of symmetric multiwavelet, we introduce a new iteration algorithm of multiwavelets and quantization methods. In order to evaluate the performance of multiwavelets for image coding at low bit rate, efficient embedded coding of multiwavelet coefficients has been realized, accomplished with a suitable scanning strategy across scales and inside each detail subimage. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that the parentchildren relationship is much natural between finer and coarser scales multiwavelets coefficients, and our techniques exhibit performance equal to, or in several cases superior to the conventional decomposition methods. The further work should analyze why there is a strong dependency between parent and its children by their statistical characteristics. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. T. N. T. Goodman and S. L. Lee, and Tang, Wavelets in Wandering Subspaces, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 338, no. 1, pp. 639654, 1993. T. N. T. Goodman and S. L. Lee, Wavelets of Multiplicity R, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 342, no. 1, pp. 307324, 1994. J. Y. Tham, L. Shen, and S. L. Lee, A General Approch for Analysis and Application of Discrete Multiwavelet Tansforms, IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 457464, 2000. G. C. Donivan, J. S. Geronimo, and D. P. Hardin, Orthogonal Polynomials and the Contruction of Piecewise Polynomial Smooth Wavelets, Siam. J. Math. Anal., vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 10291056, 1999. J. S. Geronimo, D. P. Hardin, and P. R. Massopust, Fractal Function and Wavelet Expansions Based on Several Scaling Functions, J. Approx. Theory, vol. 78, pp. 174189, 1994. Q. Jiang, Orthogonal Multiwavelets with Optium Time-Frequency Resolution, IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 830844, 1998. V. Strela and P. N. Heller, The Application of Multiwavelet Filterbanks to Image Processing, IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 548563, 1999. J. Shapiro, Embedded Image Coding Using Zerotrees of Wavelet Coefficients, IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 41(12), pp. 34453462, 1993. M. B. Martin and A. E. Bell, New Image Compression Techniques Using Multiwavelet Packet, IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 10(4), pp. 500510, 2001. A. Said and W. A. Pearlman, A New Fast and Efficient Image Codec Based on Set Partitioning in Hierachical Trees, IEEE Trans. Circuits Systems Video Technol., vol. 6(3), pp. 243250, 1996. Bing-Bing Chai, Jozsef Vass, and Xinhua Zhuang, Significance-Linked Connected Component Analysis for Wavelet Image Coding, IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 8(6), pp. 774783, 1999.
4.
5.
6. 7.
8. 9. 10.
11.
VISUALIZATION OF THE EFFECT OF DISPERSED PARTICLES ON HEAT TRANSFER FROM AN IMPINGING JET
J. Rveillon* and K. Cannevire
University of Rouen, UMR CNRS 6614 CORIA, Avenue de lUniversit - BP 8, FR-76801 Saint Etienne du Rouvray Cedex, France
The objective of this paper is to show the effect of a solid (or nonvaporizing) dipersed phase on the turbulent structures of an impinging jet. Direct numerical simulation (DNS) has been carried out to fully describe the turbulence evolution from the jet destabilization up to the breakup of the structures. A Lagrangian solver has been coupled to the DNS code to describe precisely the interactions between the particles and the gas. Two kinds of particles have been considered: (1) incident particles that are embedded in the jet at the injection level. These particles modify strongly the turbulence characteristics and increase heat transfer from the jet; (2) when incident particles are impacting on the wall, very small ejecta (particles of carbon) may be emitted and, in this case, heat fluxes decrease because of strong turbulent mixing close to the wall. Creation of small swirling structures as well as core of recirculation close to the wall could be detected thanks to numerical visualization of nonstationary flows.
1. INTRODUCTION Impinging turbulent flows are often met in aeronautical and industrial systems (thrust reversers, combustion chambers, heat exchangers, etc.). In some cases, solid particles or liquid droplets are embedded within the gas flow and may strongly modify the turbulence properties. In this case, existing models dedicated to the wall/flow interactions may be ineffective for two-phase flows because they have been developed within the framework of purely gaseous flows. It is of first importance to understand the physical phenomena taking place in such two-phase configurations to develop dedicated models. The objective of this work is to propose a preliminary study on the effect of a dispersed phase on the development of turbulent structures and impaction in an impinging jet. To this end, direct numerical simulations (DNS) are performed along with a Lagrangian solver to allow for the description of a dispersed phase. Fully compressible NavierStokes equations are solved by high-order numerical schemes. Therefore, the whole turbulent flow is resolved from the Kolmogorov to the integral-length scale. Then, vortice motion and impaction may be studied as well as dispersion of particles.
Address all correspondence to Dr. Julien Rveillon. reveillon@coria.fr.
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J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire
Many works are dedicated to two subjects very close to the studied configuration, i.e., gaseous impinging jets [1, 2, 3, 4] and dispersion of particles in turbulent flows [5, 6]. However, because of many numerical and experimental difficulties, very few works have been related to two-phase impinging jets. Kaftori et al. [7] worked on the modification of heat exchange between a wall and a jet loaded with solid particles. In this study, a purely gaseous impinging jet is used as reference flow and two simulations with a dispersed phase have been carried out. A first one with many particles dispersed in the main stream and a second one with ejecta (small particles of carbon) emitted from the wall to imitate aero-erosion. The next section is devoted to the description of the geometry of the problem. The numerical method is then described along with the impaction mode of the particles. Then, a qualitative study of the effect of particles on the turbulent structures is carried out. 2. COMPUTATIONAL CONFIGURATIONS An impinging turbulent jet configuration has been chosen such that the basic physical phenomena, we are interested in, may be studied. Indeed, this Cartesian configuration allows us to describe the turbulence/particles/wall interactions in a simple way. Thus, a first sight of the effects of the dispersion of particles in the turbulent impinging jet will be offered. Figure 1 shows a sketch of the configuration. A weak coflow is injected along with the jet, the amplitude of which follows sinusoidal anti-symmetric oscillations. Oscillation period is based on the Strouhal number which has been set to 0.4 according to the optimal destabilization frequency of the jet. This procedure makes it possible to generate quickly turbulent structures so that the flow is fully turbulent when it reaches the wall (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Fluctuating inlet velocity profile and inert scalar. Left: inlet velocity profile, streamwise component U(y, t). Right: impinging turbulent jet, inert scalar.
[AU: please give runnign head]

Table 1 Simulation Parameters.
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The B case is a one-phase simulation used as reference flow. Simulation I corresponds to numerous incident particles with single impact procedure (Er is the particle kinetic energy after the impact). The E case corresponds to the impact of few incident particles with ejecta procedure. Me and Ee are the total mass and total kinetic energy of the ejecta emitted after the impact of one incident particle. The mass and the kinetic energy of this particle are Mi and Ei. i and e are the corresponding diameters.
Fig. 2 Impact modes: (a) single reflection (specular, r = i) and (b) ejecta generation.
All the simulations are carried out with exactly the same initial fields and similar boundary conditions for the gas flow. Only the dispersed-phase parameters differ in various simulations. So, variations of results are strictly due to the solidphase dispersion. Besides the reference computation (one-phase DNS), two distinct configurations were considered (Table 1). First, many particles are injected along with the jet in the computational domain (case I). Particles are dispersed by the turbulent flow before impacting on the wall where a specular reflection boundary condition is carried out
14
(Fig. 2). The angle of reflection r is equal and symmetric to the angle of incidence i and the kinetic energy of the particle before (Ei) and after (Er) the impact differ: Er = 0.66Ei. In a second simulation (case E), few particles are injected along with the jet. They barely modify the turbulent flow before impacting the wall. Then, ejecta are issued from the impingement (Fig. 2). These new particles are smaller but numerous. Their mass (Me) and kinetic energy (Ee) are detailed in Table 1. Ejecta are emitted without any privileged direction. Thus, the angle between the direction perpendicular to the wall and the ejecta trajectory is randomly determined in the following range: ]/2, /2[. When an ejectum reaches the wall again, the process of the impact is carried out according to the first procedure. All the results presented in this work are dimensionless. The reference parameters are the following: u0 is the maximum jet velocity and t0 is the time period of jet perturbations. It was chosen to obtain an optimum Strouhal number equal to 0.4. Then, l0 = u0t0, is our reference length. Therefore, the jet width is 0.4, the inlet/wall distance is equal to 4, and the width of the computational domain is equal to 2. The computational grid (321 192 nodes) is uniform along the spanwise direction (y). Along the streamwise direction (x), the mesh spacing is strongly reduced close to the wall to take into account the turbulent boundary layer of the flow. 3. NUMERICAL FEATURES In the Lagrangian view adopted for the dispersed phase, the properties of each particle are estimated by solving a system of two equations for the position Xi and the velocity Vi dXi = Vi dt d()3Vi = ADi dt with the drag force given by Di =
2 CDU V(Ui Vi) 8

Re2 3 24 D 1 + 6 ReD
In the above equation, CD is the drag force coefficient defined by CD =
ReD =U V/ is the particle Reynolds number and A = 6/(p) is a constant parameter in which p is the solid-phase constant density. The properties of the gas
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(viscosity = , density , and velocity Ui) are obtained at the droplet position from the grid nodes using a third-order interpolation algorithm. The flow is described in the Eulerian context by the following conservation equations describing the evolution of the density , the momentum Ui, and the energy Et. The pressure P and the temperature T are linked by the equation of state T for perfect gases, qi is the heat flux defined by , and is the fluid viscosity. xi
D =0 Dt D U i P ij 1 = + Di Dt xi x j k ij 1 D Et PU j q + = i + Vi Di Dt x j xi xi k
where
D (*) Dt
and
(*) t
(*)U j x j
U U j ij = i + xi x j
2 U k ij . 3 xk
To achieve the coupling between the Eulerian and Lagrangian description, the source term of momentum and total energy of each droplet is accumulated in a volume V defined in the vicinity of the Eulerian grid point. A third-order RungeKutta scheme with a minimal data storage method [8] is used for time stepping. Spatial derivatives are estimated using a sixth-order PADE scheme [9]. NavierStokes characteristic boundary conditions have been applied following the Poinsot and Lele procedure [10]. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The main objective of this work is to study the effect of the dispersion of particles on turbulent structures and heat transfer. To begin with, a reference simulation (B) has been carried out. This purely gaseous flow allowed us to quantify heat transfer without any modification of turbulence by a dispersed phase.
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As described above, two simulations, I and E, were carried out. Within the framework of this paper, only a qualitative comparison (with or without ejecta) is carried out. It will be shown that differences are significant. 4.1 Reference Simulation The jet destabilization is due to the strong velocity gradients and to the prescribed anti-symmetrical oscillations of its amplitude. Figure 1 shows the formation and evolution of turbulent structures. Oscillations generate turbulent structures very quickly and destabilization of the jet takes place at a short distance (0.2, that is half the injection width) of the injection. The anti-symmetric profile has a repercussion on the position of the turbulent structures which hit the wall alternately (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, the evolution of the time-averaged parameters is similar around the axis (y = 1) of injection. Thus, this method enables us to gather a statistical sampling twice more significant than symmetric oscillations would have provided us. Because of quick development of the turbulent structures, the vortices close to the wall are fully developed. Therefore, significant fluctuations of temperature are present and they strongly affect heat exchange between the flow and the wall. Figure 3 shows the details of the impact of a turbulent structure on the wall. The crushing of the vortices induces a strong variation of the temperature fluctuations which, on the average, will increase.
Fig. 3 Detail of the impact of a vortex.
[AU: please give runnign head] 4.2 Development of Structures
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The three simulations (B, I, and E) begin at the same time with the same initial gaseous field. Moreover, the same time-dependent boundary conditions are used for the three simulations. Then, incident particles are injected along with the flow and turbulence is modified (cases I and E) because of their drag forces. Therefore, the generation of structures and the jet development are modified only by the dispersed phase. Figure 4 shows the vorticity fields at the same time for the three simulations B, I, and E. The same structure generation may be seen at the jet inlet in the B and E cases. Indeed, because very few incident droplets are injected, turbulence is barely modified compared to the reference B case. However, in the vicinity of the wall, ejecta have a strong effect and the vorticity field is deeply modified. If the incident particles are numerous (I simulation) a significant effect on the dynamics of the flow is detected. The drag force of each particle contributes to the generation of small structures that dissipate turbulent kinetic energy and damp the large scales of the jet. Moreover, the temperature level will increase compared to the B case where turbulent energy is contained in large structures which leave the computational domain. Examples of the droplets dispersion may be seen in Fig. 5 for both
Fig. 4 Development of structures (vorticity isolevels) at t = 23. Top: case B, center: case I, and bottom: case E.
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Fig. 5 Inert scalar gradients.
cases, I and E, along with the inert scalar dissipation. In the same figure, several times of the three simulations are represented. Again the structure breakup is visible on the inert scalar structures and large instabilities have disappeared. 4.3 Heat Fluxes The main objective of this work is to study the mean heat transfer IHw(y)J = T at the wall. Figure 6-top shows Hw(y, t) for the B case. When turbulent xi
structures are impacting, heat fluxes are strongly modified because of the temperature variations resulting from the viscous forces (Fig. 7). It is possible to notice that the amplitude variations of these fluxes are about 5. All the heat-transfer curves presented in this work have been made dimensionless by the maximum value of the mean heat transfer of the B case. One may observe the effect of a dispersed solid phase by injecting particles of ice which will undergo a specular reflection or will cause the emission of ejecta by
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Fig. 6 Instantaneous heat fluxes at the wall. Top: case B, left: case I, and right: case E.
Fig. 7 Temperature field, case B, time = 9.
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Fig. 8 Maximum value of the heat fluxes at the wall, case E. When ejecta are emitted, heat flux peaks appear.
impacting the wall. The particles cross the computational domain and modify their environment before reaching the wall. The carrying gas phase influenced by the drag forces reaches the wall around t = 11 as Fig. 6 shows it. Then, effects of the dispersed phase on heat transfer are clearly visible since a significant increase of the heat fluxes may be observed. In the I case (Fig. 6, left[AU: please confirm]) the peaks of heat transfer are very dense. They are due to the modification of the flow far upstream from the wall. In the E case (Fig. 6, right[AU: please confirm]) the peaks are sparser and come from the modification of turbulence in the boundary layer. This is confirmed by Fig. 8 which shows at the same time the number of ejecta in the vicinity of the wall and the absolute value of maximum heat transfer. As is pointed out (Fig. 8), for each impaction of ice particle, there is an increase of the number of ejecta and, at the very same moment, an increase of heat transfer. The main result of this study can be seen in Fig. 9. It shows time averaging of heat transfer for each of the three main configurations: without particle, with particles without ejectum, and finally with ejecta. As has already been demonstrated in [7], an impinging jet whose turbulence is strongly modified by the presence of particles increases heat transfer much more significantly than in the one-phase case. In our study, fluxes have increased by more than 100 percent.
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Fig. 9 Averaged heat fluxes between the turbulent flow and the wall.
Fig. 10 Case E, position of the profile lines: ys, ys/2, and ys/4.
The interesting element of this figure (Fig. 9) is the shape of heat transfer when ejecta are emitted. Indeed, one may notice a strong diminution of heat transfer around the stagnation point. In this case, there are very few ice particles and they hardly modify the flow upstream. However, when ejecta are sent counter-flow with a very strong kinetic energy, an important reduction of heat transfer takes place. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the slip velocity of the particles (differential velocity between the particles and the flow) is very significant when they leave the wall. It generates, through the drag force, a strong increase of the turbulence intensity in the area where the temperature gradients are the most signifi-
22
Fig. 11 Temperature profile along the streamwise direction in the vicinity of the wall.
cant. Turbulent mixing decreases the gradients and thus heat transfer. Figure 11 shows the temperature profile along the streamwise direction. The positions of the profile lines are pointed out in Fig. 10. The solid line (Fig. 11) is the reference temperature profile (B simulation) along the stagnation line. The line with round symbols is the mean profile, at the same position, of the temperature in the simulation E. One may notice a rise in the temperature while its gradient close to the wall diminishes. The strong mixing at the stagnation-point level is confirmed by the streamlines close to the wall. These streamlines are shown in Fig. 12. Two main points are to be noted: first, in the case I, it is confirmed than the jet is less developed because of the particles which prevent the turbulent structures from developing as in the cases B or E. Moreover, the significant point in the E case is the appearance of small vortices in the stagnation area. They are at the origin of an intense turbulent mixing and thus of the significant reduction of heat transfer seen in Fig. 9. The two last curves represent the temperature profile in the turbulent boundary layer. Their gradients are most significant and, as is shown by Fig. 9, heat fluxes are important and of the same order as in the I case. Indeed, in this area, ejecta have lost their strong slip velocity and have the same behavior as ice particles. 5. CONCLUSION It was shown in this paper that a dispersed solid phase embedded in a turbulent flow could significantly modify heat exchange between the fluid and the wall. The dispersion of the particles induces several effects. On the one hand, we observed a
23
Fig. 12 Instantaneous velocity vectors and streamlines close to the wall (t = 23). Left: case B, center: case I, and bottom: case E.
strong modification of the turbulence upstream of the impingement area. It generates significant heat transfer when the structures hit the wall. In addition, the presence of ejecta near the wall decreases heat transfer near the stagnation point because of a strong turbulent mixing generated during the emission of ejecta. Nevertheless, ejecta have very weak inertia and they follow very quickly the motion of the flow. Then, they have a more conventional behavior within the turbulent boundary layer. This is why, at a distance rather far away from the stagnation
24
point, heat transfer increases again to reach a level equivalent to the two-phase case without generation of ejecta. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the Commissariat a lenergie atomique - C.E.A. Bordeaux for its support of this work. REFERENCES 1. 2. P. R. Voke and S. Gao, Numerical Study of Heat Transfer from an Impinging Jet, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 41(45), pp. 671680, 1998. G. J. Van Fossen, R. J. Simoneau, and C. Ching, Influence of Turbulence Parameters, Reynolds Number, and Body Shape on Stagnaion-Region Heat Transfer, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 117(3), pp. 597203, 1995. D. H. Lee, Y. S. Chung, and M. G. Kim, Turbulent Heat Transfer from a Convex Hemispherical Surface to a Round Impinging Jet, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 42(6), pp. 11471156, 1999. D. H. Lee, Y. S. Chung, and S. Y. Won, The Effect of Concave Surface Curvature on Heat Transfer from a Fully Developed Round Impinging Jet, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 42(13), pp. 24892497, 1999. M. R. Wells and D. E. Stock, The Effects of Crossing Trajectories on the Dispersion of Particles in a Turbulent Flow, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 136, pp. 3162, 1983. G. Hestroni, Particle-Turbulence Interaction, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol. 15(5), pp. 735746, 1989. D. Kaftori, G. Hestroni, and S. Banerjee, The Effect of Particles on Wall Turbulence, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol. 24(3), pp. 359386, 1998. A. A. Wray, Minimal Storage Time-Advancement Schemes for Spectral Methods, Center for Turbulence Research Report, Stanford University, 1990. S. K. Lele, Compact Finite Difference Schemes with Spectral-Like Resolution, J. Comput. Phys., vol. 103, pp. 1642, 1992. T. Poinsot and S. K. Lele, Boundary Conditions for Direct Simulations of Compressible Viscous Flows, J. Comput. Phys., vol. 1(101), pp. 104129, 1992.
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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
A NEW ALGORITHM FOR ANALYZING SHADOWGRAPH IMAGES

G. B. Brassington*
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, 104 Ocean Admin. Bldg., Corvallis, OREGON 97331, USA
J. C. Patterson and M. Lee

School of Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
A new algorithm for constructing shadowgraph images from approximate density fields is presented with the primary motivation of performing accurate laboratory shadowgraph analysis. Available image construction algorithms are noisy and produce discontinuous errors even for small gradient density fields. Discontinuity errors are serious, being indistinguishable from real optical focusing which occurs frequently. The new algorithm completely eliminates these errors. Image improvements are demonstrated for realistic synthetic refractive index fields. Favorable comparisons of the new algorithm are also demonstrated with laboratory shadowgraph of natural convection flows in a cavity which feature large density gradients. A second motivation of the paper is to accurately analyze approximate shadowgraph images derived from a linearized analytical model for refraction. The linearized shadowgraph images are correlated with the artificial shadowgraph images of the new algorithm. Preliminary results indicate that quantitative information from shadowgraph images of larger gradient density fields could be obtained by iterating about the linear solution.
1. INTRODUCTION The shadowgraph method remains a useful flow visualization technique for many reasons including: (1) the ease of implementation, (2) the quality of the images obtained, and (3) because it is a noninvasive method (neglecting absorption). This technique exploits the dependency of refractive index on fluid density and can be applied to several classes of fluid flows that exhibit nonuniform density fields. A typical experimental setup is described in [1] and involves the illumination of a medium with a collimated light beam and the subsequent recapturing of the transmitted beam onto a recording device, e.g., a CCD camera. When a uniform intensity, collimated light beam transmits through a transparent fluid that has a nonuniform refractive index field it will, in general, undergo nonuniform refraction resulting in convergences and divergences of intensity (i.e., light and dark shadows) being observed by the recording device.
*
Address all correspondence to G. B. Brassington. gbrassin@coas.oregonstate.edu.
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G. B. Brassington et al.
The physics for refraction in a continuous medium is described by Fermats extremum principle [2]. Despite the physics for forward transmission being well defined, extracting quantitative information of the refractive index field from shadowgraph images has been obtained in only a few limited configurations (e.g., [3, 4]). The limitations of these methods have been discussed in detail by Schopf et al. [5]. The three most serious restrictions of these quantitative methods are the requirements of small refractive index (density) variations, unique (nonfocused) images, and zero transverse variability. These limitations motivated [5, 6] to develop a way of analyzing shadowgraph images through comparisons with numerically determined artificial shadowgraphs. This method numerically approximates the physical system of light refraction through a known refractive index field. The refractive index fields may be obtained by a numerical model simulation, specified analytically or by other means, e.g., inverse solutions. The artificial shadowgraph images are determined through two calculations: transmission and image construction. Transmission calculates the paths taken by an initially uniformly distributed matrix of light rays of known initial positions and initial gradients to the observation screen. The image construction decomposes the observed image domain into a matrix of pixel areas and the relative distribution of light rays is used to provide pixel intensity values. The artificial shadowgraph strategy was first used by Schopf et al. [5, 6] who reported favorable comparisons for the specific case of natural convection in a sideheated cavity. It is found here that the algorithm as described by the authors, in general, results in poor-quality artificial shadowgraph images. At one extreme, if the resolution of the pixels and light rays used is low, the method can result in no variations in intensity as no light rays traverse across pixel interfaces. When the resolution becomes sufficient for light rays to traverse pixel interfaces, the images produced contain discontinuities in the image intensity even for fields with weak refractive index gradients. These features can be misinterpreted as a real signal as the shadowgraph technique can generate discontinuous intensity images through focusing (i.e., multiple light rays refracting to the same screen position). The discontinuous errors in the artificial image produced by Schopf et al. [5, 6] require smoothing, filtering or other data processing that degrade the quantitative and even qualitative usefulness of the images for analysis. A new image construction algorithm is described that generates artificial shadowgraph images for fluids with continuous refractive index fields. For cases that would result in nonfocused real images appropriately continuous artificial shadowgraph images are obtained. An advantage of the new algorithm is that it can be easily extended to cases that result in focused real images where a comparable artificial shadowgraph image is obtained and a focused pixel detected.
Analyzing Shadowgraph Images
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An omission from previous studies has been the specification of suitable boundary conditions for either the transmission or image construction algorithms. Since the examples of real images in this study, and in previous studies, involve boundary-layer flows, suitable boundary conditions for this system are specified. An analytical expression can be derived for the transformation of initial light intensity to screen intensity for the experimental shadowgraph setup defined in Section 2. The opportunity to obtain quantitative information has been realized for configurations and conditions that satisfy the linear approximations as mentioned above. The suitability of the linear approximation for a given experimental system can be evaluated by the technique described in this paper and [5] by comparing the shadowgraph images of the two methods for a common refractive index field. The comparison performed for natural convection by Schopf [6] using the algorithm given in [5] led to the conclusion that recovery of the temperature field by the linearized inverse method was impossible. The new technique will be used to soften this conclusion and point to a potential solution for natural convection flows. In this paper, the errors in the previous algorithm for constructing artificial shadowgraph images are discussed and two improved algorithms are described and demonstrated. The methods are applied to physically realizable refractive index fields described in Subsection 3.2 and also compared with real images. Section 2 defines the experimental shadowgraph system considered and the system of equations that govern the transmission of light rays through the system. Section 3 describes the numerical algorithms used for the transmission and image construction and demonstrates the results for some analytical refractive index fields. Also specified are transmission and image construction boundary conditions and algorithm conditions for light ray convergence and focusing. Section 4 compares real experimentally observed shadowgraph images with artificial images from the improved technique and re-examines the performance of the linear approximation method as performed in [6]. 2. SHADOWGRAPH SYSTEM AND EQUATIONS The system considered in this paper is that commonly used for experiments where the initial conditions are controlled and are consistent with that described in [7, 5]. The transparent fluid medium (e.g., water) is constrained to a rectangular prism cavity constructed from transparent material (e.g., perspex) as shown in Fig. 1 in cross section. The incident light source is controlled to be collimated, normal to the vessel walls and of a uniform intensity I0. The distance between opposing walls is D, the thickness of the walls is and the observation screen is located a distance l from the apparatus. Let the normal axis be denoted by z, such that the light ray entry point, the exit point from the fluid medium, the exit point from the rectangular cav-
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Fig. 1 Experimental rectangular cavity containing a transparent fluid of refractive index n(x, y, z). The cavity is illuminated by a collimated light beam of uniform intensity I0. The shadowgraph image is obtained at the observation screen positioned a distance l from the cavity.
ity and the position on the observation screen are given by zi, ze, zE, and zs, respectively. Both the cavity wall and the fluid medium outside the cavity are assumed to be homogeneous. At position zi the incident light is normal to the refractive index interface and will pass undeflected. Light at ze and zE, however, will not be normal to the interfaces in general, and will obey Snells law. For our purposes the thickness of is negligible and without loss of generality it is ignored in Section 3. The effects are trivial to include and are used in Section 4 for comparison with real images. We can parameterize the light path by the coordinate z so that the trajectory can be described by two dependent coordinates x(z) and y(z). Using a variational principle this system can be expressed as a coupled pair of EulerLagrange equations derived by Born [2] as x (z) = y (z) = n n 1 x 1 + x2 + y2 x n z (1)
n n 1 (2) y 1 + x2 + y2 y n z where n(x, y, z) is the refractive index field and the prime and double prime denote first and second derivatives with respect to z. In order to obtain a unique solution to this system of equations, we require four conditions, which are given by the initial ray positions xi * x(zi) and yi * y(zi) and initial gradients xi * x(zi) and yi * y(zi). An incident light ray entering the fluid medium at position (xi, yi) * (x(zi), y(zi)) will transmit through the medium according to Fermats principle arriving at position (xe, ye) * (x(ze), y(ze)) with exit gradient (xe, ye). Accounting for Snells
29
law at the refractive index interface light will proceed to the screen at a position given by
x s = xe + l~e x y s = y e + l~e y
(3) (4)
where xe, ye, xe, and ye are determined by solving Eqs. (1) and (2) and ~e and ~e x y and y due to refraction as light exits the cavity interrepresent the deviations to xe e face governed by Snells law. Again, in Section 3 without loss of generality this effect is ignored and l = 0 is used. 3. NUMERICAL PROCEDURE FOR ARTIFICIAL SHADOWGRAPH The algorithm developed by Schopf et al. [5, 6] for generating artificial shadowgraphs is composed of two independent methods: transmission and image construction. The transmission algorithm solves Eqs. (1)(4) using a specified refractive index field to find the screen position obtained by an incident light ray. This calculation is performed for a uniformly distributed set of initial light ray positions (xi, yi) to obtain a corresponding set of screen positions (xs, ys). The image construction algorithm uses the distribution of screen positions relative to the initial incident positions to define intensity values for a matrix of pixels that are used to define the artificial shadowgraph image. 3.1 Transmission The transmission system of equations, Eqs. (1)(4), is solved using an explicit initial value problem method where the distance D across the cavity is divided into D and is expressed as M discrete elements of length z = M
xm+1 = xm +
y m +1 = y m +
z n 2 2 1 + xm + y m n( xm , y m ) x ( xm , ym )
z n 2 2 1 + xm + y m n( xm , y m ) y ( xm , ym )
(5)
(6)
x m +1 = xm + zxm +1 y m +1 = y m + zy m +1
(7) (8)
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where (xm, ym)
* (x(zi + mz), y(zi + mz)), and m =
0, 1, 2, ..., M 1. The trans-
* 0. This is a reasonable assumption for z low-Rayleigh number natural convection. Including the transverse variability into the transmission calculation is trivial, however it also requires a three dimensional numerical approximation to the refractive index field. This system of equations is solved at a mixture of first and second order and each iteration requires the interpolated refractive index and refractive index gradient values at arbitrary positions (xm, ym). The level of accuracy of the integration can be improved by increasing the resolution of the z axis (i.e., increasing M) or more efficiently by increasing the order of accuracy of the integration by using, e.g., N-Cycle, [8]. The N-Cycle solver has a number of favorable properties but the most important is that it can solve autonomous systems at up to fourth order accuracy. The above explicit solver is not found here to be a limitation to the overall method although the computational cost of very high resolutions can be sufficient that a more optimal method might be considered. For the remainder of this paper the transmission is solved by the same method used by Schopf et al. [5, 6] to focus on the image construction algorithm. The transmission calculation is dependent on the specification of the refractive index field. Previous studies [5, 6] focused on natural convection problems and made use of numerical simulations to specify this field. Our aim in this section is not to redemonstrate the usefulness of the method for analysis but rather to demonstrate the poor quality of the images produced by the method given in [5, 6] and describe an improved method. For our purposes, it is sufficient to specify refractive index fields analytically with the restriction that the range of refractive indices be physically realizable. In order to achieve this, the range of refractive indices is restricted to that of water operating over a temperature range of T [16, 40] corresponding to n [1.33051, 1.33348] [9]. The specific refractive index field used in Section 3 is described in detail in Subsection 3.2. In Section 4 a comparison is made with real images where the refractive index field is specified by a numerical simulation. The transmission of light through the cavity can result in light rays becoming incident to the cavity walls. Boundary conditions for the transmission algorithm are discussed in Subsection 3.3. verse gradients are assumed negligible 3.2 Image Construction The method described by Schopf et al. [5, 6] for image construction, now referred to as SPB, decomposes the illuminated region into an Px Py matrix of pixels each having a dimension x y as shown in Fig. 2. The illuminated region is uniformly distributed with (pxPx) (pyPy) light rays so that each pixel contains in-
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Fig. 2 A representation of the Px Py matrix of pixels for the artificial shadowgraph image. Each pixel of dimension x y is initially composed of a uniformly distributed 5 5 matrix of light ray points.
itially px py light rays. Throughout the remainder of this paper we arbitrarily assign (px, py) * (5, 5) to remain consistent with the values used by Schopf et al. [5, 6]. Following the transmission calculation the initially uniform light rays are redistributed to the screen positions. The illuminated screen region is composed of the same Px Py matrix of pixels. The pixel intensity at the screen is then obtained by counting the number of ray points lying within each x y pixel area. An analytically specified refractive index field is used to compare and evaluate the image construction algorithms. The refractive index field is constructed to be first order differentiable and to span the refractive indices of water over the temperature range T [14, 40]. The refractive index field and corresponding gradients are given by
n( x. y ) = sin( k x xk y y + ) +
(9) (10) (11)
n = k x k y y cos( k x xk y y + ) x
n = k x k y x cos(k x xk y y + ) y
where = 0.5nT=14 nT=40 , = 0.5nT=14 + nT=40 , kx and ky are the wavenumbers in each coordinate direction respectively, and is the phase. The values used are specified throughout the paper. The refractive index field and gradient are shown as surfaces in Figs. 3ac for kx = and ky = and = 19 17 domain and range typically implemented in the paper is x . The 91
2([1 : Px]
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Fig. 3 The surface plot of the linear refractive index field. (a) refractive index field Eq. (9), n n (b) refractive index field gradient , and (c) refractive index field gradient . x y
0.5)/(10Px) and y
2([1 : Py] 0.5)/(10Py). Note that the transverse variability is
neglected. The image construction method SPB is applied to the refractive index field [Eq. (9)] for four different cases that vary in resolution and cavity width according to: (a) (Px, Py) * (25, 25) and D = 1 unit; (b) (Px, Py) * (25, 25) and D = 2 units; (c) (Px, Py) * (100, 100) and D = 1 unit, and (d) (Px, Py) * (100, 100) and D = 2 units. The gradients of the refractive index field are such that the maximum light ray deviation is 7.8 103 units and 3.14 102 units for D = 1 unit and D = 2 units, respectively. The pixel widths for the two resolutions are given by (x, y)25 * (2.5
102, 2.5 102) and (x, y)100 * (x, y)25/4 where the domain spanned is 0, 5 units and the subscripts correspond to the values of P. The maximum devia tions represent 31% and 125% of the pixel width for the resolution (Px, Py) * (25, 25). The artificial shadowgraph images are shown in Figs. 4ad, respectively, in plan view. Despite the refractive index field being continuous the artificial shadowgraph images obtained by the method given in [5, 6] are highly discontinuous. This feature becomes more evident, though awkward to exhibit, when presented in perspective view, e.g., Fig. 5a which is discussed below. The extent of discontinuities is further exaggerated by increasing the resolution (and thereby increasing the deviation of the light rays relative to the pixel width) as seen in Figs. 4c and d. The striking pattern that emerges in plan view appears like contours, however, the lines are composed of discontinuities. Discontinuities can occur in shadowgraph images as a result of focusing and there is no means of distinguishing these features from a real signal. It will be shown, however, that the discontinuities appearing in
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Fig. 3 Artificial shadowgraph images obtained from the image construction method [5, 6] applied to the refractive index defined in Subsection 3.2. (a) A (Px, Py) * (25 25) pixel matrix and a maximum ray deviation of 31% of x. (b) A (Px, Py) * (25 25) pixel matrix and a maximum ray deviation of 125% of x. (c) A (Px, Py) * (100 100) pixel matrix and a maximum ray deviation of 125% of x. (d) A (Px, Py) * (100 100) pixel matrix and a maximum ray deviation of 500% of x.
Fig. 5 The artificial shadowgraph image obtained by the image construction method [5, 6] applied to the refractive index field, Eq. (9). The image is composed of a (Px, Py) * (100 100) pixel matrix and the maximum light ray deviation is 20% of x. (a) Surface plot of the image in perspective view, (b) surface plot of the image with error spikes removed, in plan view.
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Fig. 6 Diagrammatic representation of the discontinuous properties of the image construction algorithm, [5]. (a) The light ray screen position for a convergent refractive index field; despite the nonuniform distribution no intensity variation is calculated. (b) The light ray positions for a field exhibiting slightly greater convergence; the convergence is sufficient for the 5 light rays to traverse each pixel interface resulting in the sharp change in intensity distribution.
these images are errors which result from the image construction algorithm and unrelated to focusing. As a prelude these images might be compared with the artificial shadowgraph in Fig. 11b obtained by the new algorithm. The term "impulse error" will now be used to refer to these discontinuities. The remaining image signal between the impulse errors retains the initial intensity of 5 5 light rays and reveals no continuous refraction structure which will also be shown to be in error. A further notable feature of these images is the large intensity values near the boundary. Initially the focus of the algorithm development is to obtain more continuous images away from the boundaries so the examples are deliberately chosen to reduce the maximum ray deviation and will be displayed without the pixels adjacent to the boundary. Appropriate boundary conditions will be specified in Subsections 3.3 and 3.4 only for the final algorithm. The internal impulsive features are more clearly shown in Fig. 5a for the case (Px, Py) * (100, 100) and D = 0.4 units. The majority of the impulse errors are easily detected from the remaining signal and can be removed. The shadowgraph image that remains after the impulse errors are removed is shown in Fig. 5b and demonstrates that there is no residual structure from this method. The image presented in Fig. 4d does show that in some cases where the refraction of light relative to the pixel width is large the density of impulse errors is such that a structure begins to emerge. The image remains discontinuous and could be improved by applying a smoother, however the crude images obtained are considered unsatisfactory for use in analysis. The impulse errors in the image are diagnosed to be due to the discontinuous transition in pixel intensity when light rays transmit across pixel interfaces. To illustrate the behavior of the SPB image construction algorithm we need to consider the change in image intensity that occurs for the two cases when light rays lie close to but either side of a pixel interface. The small change in position would physically result in a minor change in the real
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image. However, the transition in intensity for the SPB algorithm is discontinuous. The transition is shown diagrammatically by comparing Figs. 6a and b where the light rays near the interface traverse the interface. The impulse errors of intensity arise because the SPB algorithm does not provide a good approximation for the continuous intensity changes as rays approach pixel interfaces. 3.2.1 Uniformly distributed intensity, constant area The first improvement to the image construction algorithm is to consider the ray points as centers of sub-pixel areas of dimension (x y) * (x y)/5 as shown in Fig. 7. The intensity of the total pixel is then considered distributed over this area so that each sub-pixel area contains (1/25) of the pixel illumination. Using this interpretation sub-pixel centers that lie sufficiently close to a pixel interface can contribute a portion of intensity to all pixels overlapped by the sub-pixel area (x y). The modified algorithm can be defined by the following steps: 1. Determine the transmitted position of the center of the sub-pixel area at (xs, ys). 2. Determine the pixel in which each (xs, ys) center position lies. 3. (a) If the center position is not within 2 of any pixel interface, add the full intensity of the sub-pixel to the pixel where represents the appropriate value (x, y). (b) If the center lies within 2 of any pixel interface, the intensity of the sub-pixel is distributed according to the relative area in each overlapped pixel. The relative area is calculated under the assumption that the area associated with the sub-pixel is uniform (x y). The image obtained by this method applied to the case (Px, Py) * (100, 100) and D = 0.4 units, which is the same case as in Fig. 5, is shown in Fig. 8a. There
Fig. 7 A representation of the Px Py matrix of pixels for the artificial shadowgraph image. Each pixel of dimensions x y is initially composed of a uniformly distributed 5 5 matrix of sub-pixels. Each sub-pixel has an initial area of x y.
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Fig. 8 The artificial shadowgraph image using the image construction algorithm in Subsection 3.2.1. The image is derived for the refractive index field case and resolutions shown in Fig. 5. (a) The surface plot of the image in perspective view. (b) A surface plot of the image with the error spikes removed, in plan view. (c) A contour plot of the spline interpolated image in (b).
is substantial improvement in the image. Firstly, the extent of impulse errors is limited to regions of large gradient eliminating the majority of the impulse errors shown in Fig. 5b. Secondly, the image away from the impulse errors exhibits structure where the contours of Fig. 8c are comparable to Fig. 11c. The data for the remaining impulse errors can be replaced by spline interpolation which is contour plotted in Fig. 8c. Errors, however, can persist when the discontinuities are not sufficiently detected prior to interpolation. The images are clearly an improvement and the interpolated image would be suitable in many cases for analysis. The persistence of the impulse errors however indicates that a sophisticated error detection method would be required for the interpolation of arbitrary fields. Instead a further improved algorithm is sort by postulating that the source of this persistent error is due to distortions of the sub-pixel area through refraction that are not accounted for by this method. 3.2.2 Uniformly distributed intensity, nonconstant area The source of the persistent errors in the previous algorithm is postulated to be due to the use of a constant area of illumination associated with each ray. During the refraction we can expect that in addition to redistributing light ray positions the area is also distorted and requires approximation. Using the same centered ray definition as in the previous method the distorted positions of the sub-pixel interfaces at the screen might be approximated by linear interpolation using the positions for the adjacent ray centers. Alternatively the sub-pixel distortions can be more accurately approximated by locating the initial light rays on the sub-pixel interfaces. One of the
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Fig. 9 A representation of the Px Py matrix of pixels for the artificial shadowgraph image. Each pixel is initially composed of a uniformly distributed 5 5 matrix of sub-pixels with an associated area x y. The sub-pixel area is defined by locating light ray points at the center of each sub-pixel interface.
Fig. 10 Diagrammatic representation of the image construction algorithm, Subsection 3.2.2, which accounts for sub-pixel distortion. (a) Shows a single initially undeformed sub-pixel defined by the initial light ray positions (ai, bi, ci, di) located at the center of each interface; in (b) the solid line represents a possible sub-pixel distortion at the screen, and the broken line represents the rectangular approximation of the distorted sub-pixel passing through the corresponding light ray screen positions (as, bs, cs, ds).
simplest algorithms places these initial light rays at the center of each sub-pixel interface as shown in Fig. 9. Transmitting these light ray positions to the observation screen the corresponding screen positions can be used to approximate the distortion by a stretched rectangular area. The approximation is shown diagrammatically for a single sub-pixel in Figs. 10a and b. The rectangular area is defined by the x coordinates of points as and cs and by the y coordinates of points bs and ds. For the general array of sub-pixels the positions of the "north-south" interfaces (i.e., constant x) are given by x [1 : I 1] and y [1 : J] 0.5 and the positions of the "east-west" interfaces (i.e., constant y) are defined as x [1 : I]
38
0.5 and y [1 : J 1], where [I, J] * [pxPx, pyPy]. These definitions exclude all boundary interfaces located at x = 0, x = I, y = 0, and y = J. The boundary interfaces are treated in this section as fixed unless internal interface positions cross the image boundaries in which case they are not required. The algorithm can be defined by the following steps: 1. Determine the transmitted position of the interface positions (x, y) and (x, y). 2. Determine the pixel in which each interface lies. 3. (a) If all interfaces of a sub-pixel lie within the same pixel, add the full intensity of the sub-pixel to the pixel. (b) If the interface points overlap adjacent pixels the relative proportion of intensity is determined by the relative portion of rectangular area. The proportion of intensity is normalized by the initial number of sub-pixels per pixel and added to the corresponding pixels
Ij = Ij + 1 px p y
A
i
Aj
(12)
where Ij is the pixel intensity and Aj is the area of the sub-pixel overlapping pixel j. Note initially Ij = 1, which represents uniform intensity. 4. (a) If the first interface in from the boundary lies within the domain, the boundary interface remains fixed and the illumination is proportionally distributed over the rectangular region. (b) If the first interface is refracted outside the domain, the boundary interface is considered to be refracted outside the domain also and the illumination of the boundary sub-pixel lost.
Fig. 11 The artificial shadowgraph image using the image construction algorithm in Subsection 3.2.2. The image is derived for the refractive index field case and resolution shown in Fig. 5. (a) A surface plot of the image in perspective view, (b) a surface plot of the same image in plan view, and (c) a contour plot of the same image.
39
Fig. 12 The artificial shadowgraph images using the image construction algorithm in Subsection 3.2.2. The images are derived for the refractive index field [Eq. (9)], D = 0.4 units and the resolutions: (a) (Px, Py) * (25 25), (b) (Px, Py) * (50 50), and (c) (Px, Py) * (200 200).
Fig. 13 The RMS error between consecutive resolution pairs of the artificial shadowgraph images in Fig. 12. The higher resolution image is reduced to the same lower resolution through simple averaging prior to error calculation.
Only cases where the interface positions retain a positive rectangular area x(i + 1) > x(i) and y(j + 1) > y(j) (i.e., nonfocused images) are considered in this section. Applying the algorithm to cases with focusing is examined in Subsection 3.5. If the fields are such that all interfaces remain within the original domain the algorithm also has the favorable property of conserving the total intensity. The results of this method applied to the refractive index field [Eq. (9)] for the same resolution (Px, Py) * (100, 100) and parameters D = 0.4 units, as in Fig. 4a, are shown in Fig. 11a. This image is continuous over the full domain and does not require filtering or interpolation. The artificial shadowgraph image and contour plot
40
are represented in Figs. 11b and c, respectively, and are considered satisfactory for analysis with shadowgraph images. The convergence of the image using this method for the refractive index field [Eq. (9)] and units is demonstrated by repeating the calculation for different resolutions of pixels. The resolutions (Px, Py) * (25, 25), (Px, Py) * (50, 50), (Px, Py) * (100, 100), and (Px, Py) * (200, 200) are shown in Figs. 12a and b, 11c, and 12c respectively. The similarity of the images is clearly apparent and discrepancies emerge where the extrema of the artificial image are better resolved. The convergence of these solutions is demonstrated in Fig. 13 by calculating the rms error between consecutive resolution pairs, for corresponding points. The higher resolution image is spline interpolated down to the required resolution for this calculation. It should be recognized that the distorted rectangular regions defined for each sub-pixel are in general not unique. Results above indicate that this is not an impediment to accurate and continuous images. The nonuniqueness of the distorted areas could be easily overcome by defining light ray pixels at the corners of the sub-pixel areas. The distorted sub-pixels would then form unique quadrilaterals. Additional algebraic complexity would be involved when calculating the sub-pixel areas overlapping multiple pixel regions. This definition would also make the identification of focused pixels more difficult as will be discussed in Subsection 3.5. Additionally, the accuracy of the sub-pixel areas might be further improved by including additional points along the sub-pixel interfaces; however, the fields considered in this paper do not indicate any need to add further algorithmic complexity. 3.3 Transmission Boundary Conditions The transmission of light through a nonuniform density fluid can lead to light paths becoming incident with the cavity walls. The cavity walls in shadowgraph experiments might consist of: a transparent material (i.e., perspex, glass), a metallic plate (e.g., copper), or nonreflective material. In the case of a transparent material, the incident light will decompose into reflected and refracted components with intensities dependent on the refractive indices and the angle of incidence [10]. Initially, the light is collimated and normal to the cavity side walls resulting in 100% transmission. Subsequent refraction of the light toward the cavity walls can be expected to produce large angles of incidence so that the reflected intensity Ir can be obtained by
1 n tan sin 1 sin n 2 = n tan + sin 1 sin n 2
I r = r I 0
(13)
41
where
= tan 1
( x
+ y2
In the case of a metallic surface, the reflectance of visible light is dependent on the smoothness of the surface. Scattering of the surface is ignored and total reflection is assumed. No other materials are considered in this paper. Regardless of the material, provided reflection does occur at the plane wall surface the boundary conditions of the reflected light ray will be performed after each integration of Eqs. (5) and (6) according to
WHERE
xm < 0 xm = xm xm = xm
(14)
END WHERE
x m > Lx x m = L x ( x m Lx ) xm = xm
END
where 0 and Lx (* Pxx) specify the boundary positions. Similar conditions can be given for the variables yn and yn with 0 and Ly (* Pyy) specifying the corresponding boundary positions. An advantage of using these boundary conditions is that the light-ray coordinates are guaranteed to be within the original domain while transmitting through the cavity where the refractive index field is known. In some cases for real shadowgraph images where only a fraction of the cavity domain is observed, one or more of the image boundaries may not represent a physical boundary. For artificial shadowgraph images we can typically approximate the refractive index field of the entire cavity and need only consider physical boundaries. For nonphysical boundaries, if required, the conditions used are that the sub-pixel intensity is omitted from the image construction. Following the transmission calculation through the cavity the light rays have known positions and gradients at ze. The transmission to the screen position is performed using Eqs. (5) and (6), assuming the cavity walls and subsequent fluid medium are homogeneous.
42
G. B. Brassington et al. 3.4 Image Construction Boundary Conditions
Image construction boundary conditions are specified for the final algorithm (Subsection 3.2.2). The screen positions for the initial matrix of sub-pixel interfaces can lie outside the image domain boundaries for this laboratory system. The extent to which this occurs is dependent on the light-ray position and gradients at zE and the distance l from the cavity to the observation screen. A larger image construction domain could be used to capture this information; however, this is not considered. Instead, the domain of the initial light beam is used to define the domain for the screen image, which would represent the image obtained from a homogeneous fluid medium. The boundary conditions for a sub-pixel need only consider the pair of interfaces that are parallel to the respective image domain boundary. In this respect, the boundaries at position x = 0, Lx require comparison of the x coordinates and boundaries at position y = 0, Ly require comparison of the y coordinates. Considering the former boundary x = 0 we have the following cases: I x(i) 0 IIx(i) < 0 IIIx(i) < 0 IV x(i) 0 and and and and x(i + 1) 0 x(i + 1) < 0 x(i + 1) 0 x(i + 1) < 0 inside the domain outside the domain overlapping the boundary, unfocused overlapping the boundary, focused
(15)
Only cases III and IV require boundary conditions and are obtained by determining the relative area remaining within the domain and distributing this over the overlapped internal pixels. For example, for case III Ax = x (i + 1) xb x (i + 1) x (i) (16)
The use of this distribution of intensity in the x direction would also need to be adjusted for the distribution in the orthogonal direction. This would follow the same calculation as outlined in Subsection 3.2.2. 3.5 Focusing (nonunique images) The image construction algorithm (Subsection 3.2.2) assigns positive area to each sub-pixel over which the initial intensity is uniformly distributed. Previous examples of artificial shadowgraph images have retained a positive sub-pixel area, i.e., x(i + 1) > x(i) and y(j + 1) > y(j). It is possible for the light paths of the interface positions to violate these conditions. These violations can be interpreted as
43
image focusing (although other complexities of topology are possible) which can lead to shadowgraph image pixels with nonunique initial positions. Image focusing for the algorithm in Subsection 3.2.2 can be accounted for by forming the rectangular region defined by the face positions at the screen but permitting the positions to coalesce or cross over. Again the light intensity of the sub-pixel would be distributed according to the relative area overlapping the image pixels. In the instance of opposing interface positions coalescing the sub-pixel area can be reduced to a line or point. In the latter case, by uniquely defining the image pixel areas the point will lie in a single pixel which is then attributed with the light intensity for that sub-pixel. In the former case, the focused line can overlap image pixels in the orthogonal direction and light intensity is then distributed according to the relative proportion of line within an image pixel. The presentation of artificial shadowgraph images can be distorted by the amplified pixel intensities where focusing occurs. Image pixels that contain focused sub-pixels can be easily identified so one option is to display the image omitting these values. Alternatively the range of image values over which the gray scale is distributed can be controlled to highlight the nonfocused structures. This latter option highlights the arbitrary assignment of gray scale when matching color images. 4. SHADOWGRAPH IMAGE COMPARISON The algorithm outlined in Subsection 3.2.2 has demonstrated favorable properties for the artificial shadowgraph as applied to synthetic refractive index fields. The use of synthetic fields is sufficient to compare and demonstrate the properties of the algorithms; however, it remains to demonstrate how these artificial shadowgraph images compare with shadowgraph images obtained from the laboratory experiments. In addition, the improved image construction algorithm permits us to re-examine the comparison [6] of the shadowgraph image obtained by a linear approximation to an analytical model for light refraction. 4.1 Natural Convection in a Differentially Heated Rectangular Cavity Natural convection in a cavity is a standard engineering problem that can be reproduced accurately in a laboratory and by a numerical model [11]. The specific problem of interest is that of a water-filled rectangular cavity with two opposing isothermal vertical walls differentially heated from the initial water temperature. The symmetry of the boundary conditions and the geometry can be well described by a two-dimensional incompressible Boussinesq system of equations. This system can be nondimensionalized to obtain three nondimensional parameters given by Patterson
44
and Imberger [12] as Rayleigh number, Prandtl number, and tank aspect ratio, respectively, Ra = gTh3 h , Pr = , A = D
where g is the gravitational field strength, the coefficient of thermal expansion, T the temperature difference across the cavity, h the height of the cavity, D the length between the vertical walls, the kinematic viscosity, and the thermal diffusivity. 4.1.1 Laboratory shadowgraphs The natural convection heat transfer problem of a differentially heated rectangular cavity is approximated in the laboratory by a perspex cavity with conducting copper plates at opposing vertical walls. The perspex is used for its transparency for the shadowgraph rather than its thermal properties. The thermal diffusivity of perspex is the same order of magnitude as that of water; however, the timescale of conduction is such that transient features are comparable with numerical simulations. The idealized Dirichlet boundary conditions for temperature at the copper plates are a more difficult task to reproduce in a laboratory tank and the method used follows [13]. Two reservoirs of water are temperature controlled with cooling baths and the reservoirs are held 2 cm away from the plate before startup by two insulated gates. At startup the gates are released pneumatically to provide near instantaneously a uniform temperature at the copper plate. The maintenance of the temperature at the copper plate is achieved through vigorous circulation in the reservoir. The flow visualization uses a similar optical setup as in [7, 14] which is defined in Section 2. A point light source positioned at the focal point of a spherical mirror of focal length 2.4 m and diameter 30 cm produces a collimated beam. The collimated beam is positioned to be horizontal and normal to the perspex side and adjacent to the copper plate. The collimated beam passes through the tank and is collected by an identical spherical mirror and focused down to a CCD camera and recorded on videotape. The case examined is defined by Ra = 1.89 10 , Pr = 6.50, A = 0.24 4.1.2 Numerical model The refractive index field for natural convection in a cavity is approximated by a two-dimensional control-volume model. The model uses fourth- and fifth-order methods and is adapted from nonhydrostatic ocean models [15, 16]. A description of the algorithm is presented in [14]. Briefly, the model uses a 4-Cycle time integration
9
45
Fig. 14 Transient Nusselt numbers for a benchmark natural convection test problem, [11] for Ra = 106. The Nusselt numbers shown are Nu0 and Nu1 2 representing the wall and half cavity positions, respectively. The numerical solutions are obtained for a resolution of (191 191) and a nondimensional time step 106.
scheme [8], a fifth-order modified QUICK scheme for advection [17, 18], and fourth-order explicit conduction and viscosity [15]. Pressure gradients are solved using a DieCAST strategy [19] with fourth-order explicit pressure gradients followed by a second-order projection for the perturbation pressure solved implicitly by a fullmulti-grid solver [20]. The numerical model is applied to the benchmark problem defined in [11] for verification. A solution is obtained to the case Ra = 106 for the resolution (191, 191) and a nondimensional time step t = 106. The transient Nusselt numbers Nu0 and Nu1 2 are plotted in Fig. 14 and lead to a steady value of 8.799. 4.1.3 Linear approximation to screen intensity The trajectory of a light ray through a fluid medium is well described by Fermats extremum in time principle. In relation to the shadowgraph setup described above we parameterized the transverse direction to express the system as a coupled pair of EulerLagrange equations, Section 2. The shadowgraph image is well known to provide excellent qualitative representations of flow structures; however, inverting the EulerLagrange equations to provide quantitative information poses a significant challenge. Quantitative information has been obtained for only limited configurations. Taking the geometry of the rectangular cavity into account, SPB derived the linearized system for the relative screen intensity as
2 I0 IS = lD 2 + 2 ln n( x, y) x IS y
(17)
46
where I0 and IS are the initial and screen intensities, l and D are the tank to screen distance and tank width, respectively, and n is the refractive index. Giving a numerical approximation to the refractive index field, we can use this formula to approximate the shadowgraph images. 4.1.4 Results The laboratory shadowgraph is obtained by frame capturing from superVHS videotape. A single image for the laminar intrusion is shown in Fig. 15A for Ra = 1.89 109 and Pr = 6.50. The image is displayed using a common gray scale but with a modification of the limits over which the gray scale is applied. The approximate nondimensional temperature field is obtained for a resolution of (383, 383) grid points for a square cavity as shown in Fig. 16. The refractive index field is then obtained by converting to a Celsius scale TC = T0 + TT, where
Fig. 15 Shadowgraph images of a laminar intrusion in a rectangular cavity: (A) Shadowgraph directly observed in the laboratory, (B) an artificial shadowgraph using the algorithm of Subsection 3.2.2, and (C) an image from a linear approximation of the intensity transformation.
47
T0 = 22.5 and T = 8.2 and interpolated according to [9]. Only one quarter of the domain is used in the approximate shadowgraph calculations presented. The artificial shadowgraph is calculated for a transmission with parameters N = 5, D = 0.5 m, and l = 2.4 m. The shadowgraph image is composed of (Px, Py) * (200, 200) pixels with a sub-pixel resolution of (px, py) * (5, 5). The resulting image is surface plotted in Matlab using a common gray scale in Fig. 15B. The linear approximation has been applied to the same refractive index field using a rearrangement of Eq. (17) as
IS =
I0 1 + lD 2 ln n( x, y )
(18)
where I0 is nominally chosen to be of unit value, l and D are given above. The approximate shadowgraph image is given in Fig. 15C. The structural similarities of the three images are apparent. The orientations of light and dark pairings at the nose, tail of the head, and of the interior are also consistent though there is clear variations in the relative intensities. Both derived images provide good approximations however, though there is a certain lack of precision in the choice of gray-scale selection, the artificial shadowgraph image does represent a better approximation. This is in respect to the relative intensities and also the relative extent of the light and dark regions. In spite of the vastly different algorithms (and vastly different costs) used for the two approximate shadowgraph images the results are very similar. The similarities of structure are predicated upon the use of a common refractive index field (Fig. 16). However, contrary to previous conclusions the phase of the two approximations, as shown in Fig. 17, is very similar. The artificial shadowgraph image contains all the nonlinearities of refraction and there are clearly differences of intensity and distribution. However, the result suggests that the linear
Fig. 16 The numerically generated nondimensional temperature field for Ra = 1.89 109 and Pr = 6.5 at nondimensional time t = 1.18 104 units. The contour values are T = (0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45).
48
Fig. 17 The contour for the value 1.0001 from the images in Fig. 15B (solid line) and Fig. 15C (broken line).
approximate shadowgraph is a good first guess for the intrusion flows up to Ra = 2 109. The inversion of the intrusion shadowgraph images by the linear approximation should produce a good first guess to the refractive index field and that it may be sufficiently close for a nonlinear iterative scheme to improve this approximation. Despite the similarities there are also differences. Potential sources for differences are with the laboratory experiment, the numerical model, and the artificial shadowgraph algorithm. The Dirichlet boundary condition as mentioned previously is difficult to approximate experimentally both at startup and throughout the transient growth of the boundary layer. In addition, the approximation of zero transverse variability is weakened at these larger Rayleigh numbers even for such short timescales, as clear evidence of secondary rolls become visible to shadowgraph, soon after the image shown in Fig. 15 [21, 14]. Several other experimental vagaries such as the initial conditions of stationary isothermal fluid require large timescales to achieve and contribute to the noise level in the laboratory system. The numerical methods used are not optimal [22] due to the uniform grid; however, the resolution is sufficient to resolve the fully developed boundary layer with O(15) control-volume cells. The fourth- and fifth-order accuracy is greater than the dimensions of space and time and satisfies one of the conditions for optimal calculation [22, 23]. The model is only two-dimensional with isothermal, insulating, and no-slip boundary conditions accurate to fourth-order truncation errors. This analysis method is limited in some sense not only by the accuracy of the model, it is probably more seriously limited by accurate knowledge of the true initial conditions and the noise in the boundary conditions. Whether the onus is on the experimental procedures to approach an ideal state or rather the mathematical model to more completely account for the statistics of reality is arguable. However, such lami-
49
nar flows should lead themselves to highly accurate comparison. Many of the errors above provide opportunities for extension in order to achieve this goal. 5. CONCLUSIONS Accurate approximations for artificial shadowgraph images have two important applications. The primary application is to provide a means of interpreting the features within the shadowgraph images and examine the accuracy or deficiency of the numerical solution by quantifying the information explained. Importantly, although all * 0 the algorithm can take full advantage of three diz mensional refractive index fields to generate shadowgraph. In addition, the algorithm is not impeded by the presence of large gradients in the refractive index field. These two features represent advantages over inverse methods. The generation of artificial shadowgraph images requires two independent algorithms: transmission and image construction. The transmission algorithm calculates screen positions of light rays transmitting through the refractive medium. This transmission is found to be adequately calculated by the numerical algorithm in [5, 6]. The image construction defines the pixels of the image and assigns intensity values by using the screen positions relative to the incident positions. The algorithm in [5, 6] is found to result in discontinuous images that are inadequate for the intended purpose of analysis. The improved algorithm presented in this paper defined the image region into a matrix of sub-pixel areas over which the initial light intensity is uniformly distributed. The area definition of the sub-pixel presents two advantages over SPB: continuous distribution of light intensity and approximation of area distortion. Continuity of light intensity is achieved by apportioning intensity according to the relative portion of total area of each sub-pixel to the overlapped image pixels. The distortion in sub-pixel area by refraction is approximated by a stretched rectangular area. The rectangle is formed by tracking the screen positions of the initially centered light rays of each interface. If all sub-pixel interfaces remain within the image domain the total intensity is conserved, however the rectangular areas of the sub-pixels can be nonunique and overlap. Despite this nonuniqueness the results show that the artificial shadowgraph images are continuous and convergent and suitable for analysis. Should nonuniqueness become important in future applications the sub-pixel regions could use the corner positions rather than the interface centers to construct quadrilaterals. The approximation to the area could further be improved by increasing the number of interface points used in the area calculations. However, the convergence of the method demonstrates that such additional complexity is unnecessary for natural convection. examples presented assume
50
A secondary application is to use the artificial shadowgraph to evaluate the accuracy of refractive index fields obtained by inverse solutions to a reduced set of analytical equations for forward transmission. Schopf [6] has already performed such a comparison with the linearized approximations used by [3, 4]. Similarities are found between the artificial shadowgraph obtained by Subsection 3.2.2 and the shadowgraph obtained by a linear approximation to the forward transmission (Subsection 4.1.3) for the case of natural convection. The structural similarities are not completely surprising because the same refractive index field was used which contains much of this structure. The significant variations occur in the magnitudes of the intensity and relative spatial distribution. The results suggest that the linear approximation represents a significant portion of the total solution and may provide a useful first guess for an inverse solution. It should be noted that the inversion is an elliptic problem. Discrepancies in amplitude of intensity would distribute errors throughout the inverse solution. The inverse solution, however, might be improved through an iterative procedure about the linear solution which is currently being researched. The algorithm presented will be utilized in evaluating this development. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. W. Merzkirch, Flow Visualization, Academic Press, London, 1974. M. Born, Principles of Optics, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1964. S. Rasenat, G. Hartung, B. L. Winkler, and I. Rehberg, The Shadowgraph Method in Convection Experiments, Exp. Fluids, vol. 7, pp. 412419, 1989. W. Schopf and I. Rehberg, The Influence of the Thermal Noise on the Onset of Travelling-Wave Convection in Binary Fluid Mixtures: An Experimental Investigation, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 271, pp. 235265, 1994. W. Schopf, J. C. Patterson, and A. M. H. Brooker, Evaluation of the Shadowgraph Method for a Side-Heated Cavity, Exp. Fluids, vol. 21, pp. 331340, 1996. W. Schopf, A New Way of Analyzing the Shadowgraph Method, J. Flow Visualization Image Processing, vol. 4, pp. 179187, 1997. W. Schopf, and J. C. Patterson, Natural Convection in a Side-Heated Cavity: Visualization of the Initial Flow Features, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 295, pp. 357 379, 1995. E. N. Lorenz, An N-Cycle Time Differencing Scheme for Stepwise Numerical Integration, Mon. Wea. Rev., vol. 99, pp. 644648, 1971. R. C. Weast and S. M. Selby, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Cleveland Ohio, 47edn, 19661967. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
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8. 9. 10.
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11. 12. 13. 14.
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18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
23.
G. de Vahl Davis and I. P. Jones, Natural Convection in a Square Cavity: A Comparison Exercise, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 3, pp. 227248, 1983. J. C. Patterson and J. Imberger, Unsteady Natural Convection in a Rectangular Cavity, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 100, pp. 6586, 1980. J. C. Patterson and S. W. Armfield, Transient Feature of Natural Convection in a Cavity, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 219, pp. 469497, 1990. G. B. Brassington, M. Lee, and J. C. Patterson, Observation of a Stratified Laminar Intrusion, in G. B. Brassington and J. C. Patterson (eds.), Proc. 7th Heat and Mass Transfer Australasia Conf., Chalkface Press, pp. 4551, 2000. G. B. Brassington, Accurate Methods for a Free-Surface Nonhydrostatic Ocean Model, Ph.D. Thesis, School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, 1999. B. Sanderson and G. Brassington, Fourth- and Fifth-Order Finite Difference Methods Applied to a Control-Volume Ocean Model, J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., vol. 19, pp. 14241441, 2002. B. P. Leonard, A Stable and Accurate Convective Modelling Procedure Based on Quadratic Upstream Interpolation, Computer Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 19, pp. 5998, 1979. B. Sanderson and G. Brassington, Accuracy in the Context of a Control-Volume Model, Atmos. Ocean, vol. 36, pp. 355384, 1998. D. E. Dietrich and D.-S. Kuo, A Semi-Collocated Ocean Model Based on the SOMS Approach, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 19, pp. 11031113, 1994. W. L. Briggs, A Multigrid Tutorial, Lancaster Press, 1994. W. Schopf and O. Stiller, Three-Dimensional Patterns in a Transient, Stratified Intrusion Flow, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 79, pp. 43734376, 1997. G. B. Brassington, Optimal Numerical Strategy for Unsteady Natural Convection in Two and Three Dimensions, ANZIAM J., vol. 42(E), pp. C291C316, 2000. Sanderson, B. G., Order and Resolution for Computational Ocean Dynamics, J. Phys. Oceanogr., vol. 28, pp. 12711286, 1998.
UNUSUAL LASER-SHEET TOMOGRAPHY COUPLED WITH BACKLIGHT IMAGING CONFIGURATIONS TO STUDY THE DIESEL JET STRUCTURE AT THE NOZZLE OUTLET FOR HIGH INJECTION PRESSURES
J. Yon,* J.-B. Blaisot, and M. Ledoux
CORIA-UMR CNRS 6614, Universit de Rouen, Site du Madrillet Avenue de lUniversit, BP12 76801 Saint Etienne du Rouvray cedex, France
One of the main goals of the car manufacturer is to build less polluting Diesel engines. In order to control the combustion it is essential to understand the atomization process. It is well known that the behavior of the liquid jet at the nozzle outlet acts directly on the atomization. For high injection pressures, the density of the jet at the injector exit makes it very difficult to study. Among the several technical approaches often used to visualize this dense region of the jet, the most convincing one seems to be laser-light sheet tomography. In this paper, the tomography is used together with short duration non-coherent backlighting. The focal plane displacement effect on the imaging and the modification of the laserlight sheet orientation are the main originalities of this work. These optical configurations have been applied to a 200-m hole diameter nozzle for injection pressure up to 80 MPa. The changes in the jet structure with different injection pressures and at different injection times are reported. External and internal structures of the jet are pointed out. The visualizations, linked to a ray-tracing simulation, allowed us to design a new model for the Diesel jet structure.
1. INTRODUCTION Much progress has been made over recent years in the field of Diesel direct injection. Most of the work on this subject is motivated by an attempt to decrease the NOx and CO2 emissions and to improve engine efficiency. The airfuel mixing quality is a key parameter in reaching these goals but is greatly dependent on the atomization process. At the moment, the very incomplete knowledge of the physical processes involved in the formation of a Diesel spray limits the extent of modeling work. It is, however, generally assumed that the characteristics of the jet quite near the nozzle outlet control the nature of the spray. The present work was undertaken in order to obtain information on the internal structure of the liquid jet near the nozzle (1-mm2 field). Badock et al. [1] among others propose the existence of an intact liquid core at the outlet of the injector. Others, like Chaves et al. [2], postulate a direct and spontaneous atomization at the injector outlet. The point is that this small part of the spray is particularly dense and difficult to study. In a recent review,
*
Address all correspondence to Prof. J. Yon. jerome.yon@coria.fr.
53
54
J. Yon et al.
Smallwood et al. [3] enumerate the different simultaneous phenomena that directly influence the atomization. Droplet stripping due to the boundary layer, growing surface waves, turbulence and cavitation are the main phenomena assumed in the literature. The effect of the cavitation on the spray atomization was reviewed by Arcoumanis et al. [4] and Dumont et al. [5] referring to several other studies. In particular, Soteriou et al. [6] showed the relation between the type of cavitation and the Reynolds number. Most of the authors turned to the use of laser-light sheet tomography to study this initial part of the jet. This technique, used as soon as 1988 by Cavaliere et al. [7] seems to be one of the most convenient to bring out information from the dense part of the Diesel jet. This permitted Lee et al. [8] to observe surface waves near the injector and to assume the presence of ligaments and droplets. Smallwod et al. [9] mentioned that particular care must be taken in the treatment of tomography images, owing to the presence of multiscattered light. Even with the use of a simple laser sheet crossing the jet, the imaging process is very complex. Moreover, if there are inclusions in the liquid core, no mathematical inversion technique is available at the moment. In order to obtain some more information, different laser sheet configurations and a noncoherent spark-type source are used to explore the dense part of the Diesel jet under an unsteady state. Particular attention has been paid to the interpretation of the pictures in order to highlight the cavitation phenomenon. The results allowed us to propose a model and link it to one of the scenarios proposed in the literature as reviewed by Fath et al. [10]. 2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The dense region of the Diesel jet is visualized under pulsed injections using two types of light sources and a CCD camera. The injector is of single-axis orifice provided by Ganser. The nozzle orifice is 200 m in diameter and 800 m in length. A ratio L/D = 4 is thus found. The axis of the Diesel injector is vertical. The injection pressure Pi was varied between 10 and 80 MPa. Experiments were conducted at 100-KPa ambient pressure. The needle lift position is measured as a function of time for the different injection pressures. The result is plotted in Fig. 1. The needle lift is electrically initiated at the start injection time T0. The vertical line in this figure shows the instant T0 + 0 when the jet is illuminated. Light sources of very short duration (10 ns) are used to freeze the movement of the spray. A monochromatic coherent laser YAG ( = 532 nm) is used in a planar light sheet tomography configuration. The maximum energy provided is 30 mJ. The laser light-sheet thickness measured at half height of the Gaussian profile was about 50 m. The 90o Mie scattering tomography technique was chosen to collect information in the dense region of the Diesel jet. In addition, a white incoherent flash lamp (Nanolite) provided by High Speed Photos System is used in a backlight configuration. The flash lasts 10
Laser-Sheet Tomography with Backlight Imaging
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Fig. 1 Needle lift position vs time during an injection.
Fig. 2 The four optical configurations: A: configuration 1; B: configuration 2; C: configuration 3; D: configuration 4.
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ns. The structures of the liquidgas interface are well defined at the edge of the jet on the backlighted images, providing some additional information when interpreting the Mie scattering pictures. A Sony XC-8500 CCD camera linked to a long working distance microscope provided 763 581 pixel images with a field of view around 600 400 m. The camera is oriented vertically, the larger side of the sensor being parallel to the jet axis. The injector is moved along the optical axis with a micrometric precision table (Fig. 2). The camera is fixed on a 3D high-accuracy relative stand. To study the Diesel jet asymmetry, the injector can be rotated 90o around its vertical axis. The position of the injector and the laser sheet are defined in a (x, y, z) frame relative to the camera, where x corresponds to the optical axis of the camera, z to the vertical axis, and y is collinear to the axis of the laser beam. Different configurations of the optical setup have been used to explore the internal structures of the jet. Four different configurations are used. Under configurations from 1 to 3, both laser sheet and noncoherent backlight are employed. Under configuration 4, only the backlight is present. Configuration 1: Under configuration 1, the laser sheet is vertical. The camera is focused on the planar sheet. Two injection pressures are studied (20 and 80 MPa) in this case. An alternative configuration of the same type is obtained by moving back the camera, the focus plane being placed between the laser sheet and the camera. Ten different injection pressures from 10 MPa to 80 MPa have been used in the latter case. For each injection, the two light sources were synchronized with 0 = 2.19 ms. The injector is moved along the x axis towards the camera. This displacement allows the dense core to be studied in different planes. Configuration 2: Under configuration 2, the laser sheet is tilted 45o as indicated in Fig. 2. The focus plane is located near the vertical jet axis. It intercects the laser-light sheet along a horizontal line. Only the region of the jet crossing this line is focused. Different injector positions were studied, with the injector being rotated clockwise around its axis. Configuration 3: Under configuration 3, the laser-light sheet is perpendicular to the liquid jet axis z as shown in Fig. 2. It intersects the whole cross-section of the liquid jet. The jet is cut by displacing the focus plane. It is observed under this configuration that light propagation occurs within the Diesel spray, along the jet axis, so perpendicularly to the laser sheet.
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Configuration 4: Under this last configuration, the incoherent white source is used alone. In addition to interfacial structures, this configuration gives access, for a certain position of the camera, to internal structures. 3. RESULTS In this section, different image patterns obtained from the four configurations defined above are described and analyzed. Configuration 1 The jet flow is oriented from left to right and the laser sheet comes from the bottom of these images. The size of the field of view is 620 472 m. Images of the Mie scattering signal with focus on the laser-light sheet are presented in Fig. 3 for an injection pressure Pi = 20 MPa. The parameter X represents the nozzle position along the optical axis of the camera, X = 0 indicates that the jet is focused. For positive values of X which correspond to a position of the laser sheet between the liquid jet and the camera, the Mie scattering signal only gives us information on the external structures of the jet. When the laser sheet crosses the hidden part of the liquid jet (X = 50/100), the light is reflected behind the jet and only a weak signal is received by the CCD camera. This signal is spatially homogeneous, and no clear internal structures are seen. The edge of the jet is localized thanks to
Fig. 3 Configuration 1, injector displacement with focusing on the laser-light sheet, Pi = 20 MPa.
Fig. 4 Configuration 1, injector displacement, the focus plane is on the laser-light sheet, Pi = 80 MPa.
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Pi = 10 MPa
Pi = 15 MPa
Pi = 20 MPa
Pi = 25 MPa
Pi = 30 MPa
Fig. 5 Configuration 1, the focus plane is before the laser-light sheet.
the white light source. The variation of the background level in the images of Fig. 3 is due to the great variability of the spark light intensity. The focus plane of the CCD camera is fixed for the different X positions of the injector, so the jet does not remain focused. As a consequence, droplets and ligaments placed in front of the liquid jet can be seen for X > 0. For higher injection pressures, an important change of the internal structures can be observed (Fig. 4). Straight vertical lines appear on the Mie scattering images. At the bottom of the pictures (i.e., the left-hand side of the jet), one can observe a liquid sheet forming ligaments. This liquid sheet is present only at high injection pressures and is very reproducible. In Fig. 5, the focus plane of the camera is shifted 150 m toward the negative x direction. The laser sheet is thus located behind the focus plane. The liquid jet is placed between the laser sheet and the focus plane. The focus plane and the laser sheet both intercect the jet tangentially. The laser light scattered by liquid elements constitutes a luminous background. Thus, the objects which are placed in the focus plane are lit up by the backlight created by the scattered light sheet. These objects appear as black over white, as with a classical backlighting technique. The difference here lies in the fact that the light does not come through the entire opaque Diesel jet but only through a single interface. Line structures are visible from 25 MPa and above (see Fig. 5). These line structures are very reproducible and their thickness is in the order of 10 m. In Fig. 6 the change of the image is shown when the laser sheet is displaced from the front to the rear of the jet. In order to interpret the different images obtained in this configuration let us consider that the liquid jet consists of a central liquid core 1 and a surrounding spray with ligaments and droplets called 2. 2 is the dispersed phase. This strongly scattering phase surrounds 1. Ray-tracing was used to simulate the propagation of the laser light in the central liquid core 1. This physical model is thus focused on the single liquid core 1, 200 m in diameter and of refractive index n = 1.46. For each interaction of a light ray with a gas-liquid interface, refracted and reflected rays
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Fig. 6 Configuration 1, the injector is shifted along the X axis, the focus plane is in front of the laser light sheet, Pi = 30 MPa.
Fig. 7 Ray-tracing model of some typical configurations.
are considered. The rays that interact (by refraction or reflection) more than four times with the liquid core surface are not taken into account. Some results are presented in Fig. 7. The focal plane, whose position is spatially fixed, is indicated with a dash line in Fig. 7. In the first picture of Fig. 6 (X = 375 m), the focus plane is a long way in front of the liquid jet center, the liquid phase is not crossed by the laser sheet. Thus, the laser-light sheet only interacts with. In the second and third pictures, direct re-
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flections occur on the central phase. These images may be explained through Fig. 7a: all the rays collected by the camera come from the left part of the jet. The two white lines visible for X = 225 m are explained in Fig. 7b. A direct reflection always occurs on the left-hand side of the jet. These rays are scattered by the surrounding phase 2. At the same time, the refracted light is focused on the right part of the jet and scattered by 2. In this picture, we also distinguish shadows of large droplets located in the focus plane. The visible white lines on the right part of the jet for X = 200 and 150 m may be explained from Fig. 7c. As for the previous case, the refracted light is focused at the right of the liquid core. The left white band is lost due to the impact of the laser light at the rear of the jet. The direct reflection is opposite to the camera and reflected rays are no longer visible. The pictures for positions X = 100 to X = 25 m are illustrated from Fig. 7d. The light is no longer focused so the right white band disappears. The focal plane tangentially intercepts the front part of the liquid core. The refracted and reflected rays emerge from the liquid jet towards the camera. The structures placed in the focal plane are thus "backlighted". Then, the long straight lines visible in Fig. 6 are located on the interface between 1 and 2. On the last two pictures (X = 75 and 100 m), the focal plane crosses the dense part of the jet. The light is very low because of the weak interaction between the jet and the laser-light sheet. Consequently, no structures are seen clearly in this case. The distance between the laser sheet and the focus plane can be derived from the position of the injector when the laser sheet intercects the liquid jet (Fig. 7a) and when the peripheral structures appear in the image (Fig. 7d). A value of 175 50 m is found. It is coherent with the experimental setup. Configuration 2 This configuration shows the asymmetric shape of the jet. The backlight illumination is also used in this configuration. The rotation of the injector around its axis is referenced by the angle . The position of the injector for other configurations (1, 3, and 4) was set to = 0. The laser-light sheet, tilted 45o versus the jet axis, illuminates different parts of the jet. The evolution of the liquid-jet structures with the injection pressure is shown in Fig. 8. Different regimes of atomization are clearly seen in this figure for = 270o when the injection pressure increases: at Pi = 20 MPa liquid sheets are formed at the jet periphery. The length of these liquid sheets can be greater than twice the diameter of the nozzle. At Pi = 40 MPa, the velocity of the liquid is higher and gives rise to KelvinHelmoltz instabilities. Whereas liquid sheets are still present for Pi = 40 MPa ( = 90o), the liquid sheets are replaced by ligaments when Pi = 60 MPa, as can be seen at the angle = 180o. These ligaments are responsible for the formation of large droplets near the orifice.
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Fig. 8 Views with the 45o tilted laser sheet, for different injector angular positions, = 1.7 ms.
At a given angle , similar shapes are always visible on the left and right sides of the jet for the different injection pressures. The atomization process, evolving from liquid sheet breakup to striping breakup when the pressure increases, is always spatially localized at the same site. This is probably due to local orifice defects and to an asymmetrical internal flow in the injector. An example of liquid sheet reproducibility is visible for Pi = 40 MPa between the two angles = 90o and = 270o where the sheet is respectively at the left and the right-hand side of the jet. The intersection of the laser sheet and the jet for each abscissa z is located at a different x position due to the tilted orientation of the light sheet. It must be noted that the results for = 90o seem different from the other ones. This is probably caused by the laser sheet being too near the nozzle orifice during this experiment. On the picture for Pi = 40 MPa and = 180o, an ellipse is clearly visible, marking the intersection of the laser-light sheet with the liquid jet interface and the surrounding spray. The linear structures appear for injection pressures higher than 20 MPa as previously observed in Fig. 5. Due to the thin depth of field, a large part of the intersection between the jet and the sheet is out of focus. The further the light comes
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Fig. 9 Reconstruction of the pictures obtained with the second configuration, Pi = 80 MPa, = 2.18 ms: A: picture from the second configuration; B: reconstructed picture.
from, the more scattered it is. At the focus plane location, the image is no longer blurred. The intersection of the focus plane with the jet shows sharp bands. These bands of "well focused image" are visible along the jet axis at Pi = 80 MPa, = 270o. The elliptical aspect of the image is no longer visible when the injection pressure is higher than 40 MPa. This is partially due to an expansion of the surrounding spray. Nevertheless, a recurrent white structure is always present at each angle of the spray. Three or four light spots and luminous lines centered in the jet are visible near the injector. These elements correspond to the interaction of the jet with the light sheet at different x positions. A reconstruction of this picture is proposed by combining slices of different pictures obtained in configuration 1 for different X positions. For each injector position, a slice of the images, perpendicular to the jet axis, is placed in the reconstructed image. The position of this slice is chosen to correspond with the tilted sheet position. The result is presented in Fig. 9. The different structures are clearly recognized. The only change is in the focus location. For each slice in the reconstructed picture, the focus is shifted, so, one cannot find the focused band encountered along the jet axis in Fig. 4. Each band corresponds to a particular light trajectory as was shown with ray-tracing simulations (Fig. 7). The tilted configuration enables to show, in a single image, all the information given by the complete experiment in the first configuration. Configuration 3 In this configuration, the light sheet is horizontal. The intersection of the sheet and the jet is located below the field of view of the camera. The focus plane of the camera is moved along the x axis. Pictures for different camera position are shown in Fig. 10, where X is the distance between the focal plane and the jet center; X is negative if the focal plane is in front of the jet center, relative to the camera. The injection pressure is Pi = 40 MPa and two time-delays were used.
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Fig. 10 Configuration 3, shifting of the camera for two injection times.
Fig. 11 Configuration 3, X = 75 m, different injection pressures, = 2.17 ms.
The upper row in Fig. 10 corresponds to the beginning of the injection ( = 1,77 ms). It can be noted that the jet is not yet fully developed; however, the lower row of images taken 400 s later, shows a fully developed jet. Some ligaments are visible for = 1.77 ms. There is a strong difference between these ligaments and the structures appearing for = 2.17 ms. In the latter case, linear structures are visible when the focus is on the interface of the liquid core. These structures are only present when the needle is fully lifted. Figure 11 shows the effect of the pressure on the linear structures. It is to be noted that these linear structures are always present at the same location. Configuration 4 Only a white noncoherent light source is used in this configuration. Due to the Diesel spray density one might have thought that no light could reach the camera through the liquid jet. In fact, the camera records a very weak signal. To observe this signal, a post-treatment is needed. The image obtained during the experiment is
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A B Fig. 12 Configuration 4, Pi = 80 MPa, = 2.18 ms: A: original picture; B: after gamma, luminosity, and contrast correction.
Fig. 13 Grey level profiles.
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Fig. 14 Multi-flashes experiment, Pi = 63 MPa.
20 MPa
40 MPa
60 MPa
80 MPa
Fig. 15 Configuration 4, = 2.18 ms, visualizations after correction for different injection pressures.
shown in Fig. 12a. The focus plane is located on the jet axis. After gamma correction and a change of luminosity and contrast, some structures appear in Fig. 12b. Only the dense part of the jet remains visible after correction, the surrounding phase 2 is no longer visible. The central structures are in good agreement with those observed in the previous configuration with the Mie scattering signal. These linear structures in the images are therefore not related to the optical technique in use but really to the liquid jet itself. It could be thought that the structures appearing on the corrected image result from the background noise amplification. This was verified on the plot of gray level profiles across the jet diameter, along the lines drawn on Figs. 12a and b. The results are presented in Fig. 13. It has been verified that the same treatment applied to an image obtained with the light off but the injection on, does not show these particular structures. Such structures have also been obtained from an-
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other experiment without any post-processing. The jet is illuminated by a sequence of flashes during one injection. The first flash is emitted 1.6 ms after the start time T0. Successive flashes occur with a repetition time of 100 s. The 2-ms exposure time of the CCD camera permits the integration of the signal over 6 pulses. The result is shown in Fig. 14. No correction has been made on this picture and the field of view is larger than in the previous pictures. The good contrast shows that the structures are very reproducible during the injection. Figure 15 presents corrected pictures for different injection pressures. Once again the linear structures appear between 20 and 40 MPa as has already been shown in Figs. 5 and 8. A change of the backlight time (not presented here) has shown the same results as in Fig. 10. Strong structures appear when the needle lift is maximum. 4. ANALYSIS In Section 3, different picture patterns were shown according to the injection operating variables and the configurations of the imaging. In what follows, an attempt is made to link these picture patterns to the internal jet structures or/and atomization processes. Since no direct mathematical inversion is possible, the only method available is to assume an internal structure and check these hypotheses by use of tools such as ray-tracing simulations. For low injection pressures (20 MPa Pi 40 MPa), some liquid sheets are formed on the edge of the jet, with a remarkable temporal and spatial reproducibility. These sheets are not axisymmetric. They are probably induced by defects in the nozzle hole which determine the internal flow. Moreover, the position of the lifted needle is able to strongly disturb the external flow. Recently, Soteriou et al. [12] have shown the possibility of vortex motion of the flow field at the injector outlet due to the flow in the injectors internal hole. For an injection pressure higher than 40 MPa, the sheet structure turns into a ligament formation. At the nozzle outlet, flat sheet disintegration is the main atomization process. For Pi 60 MPa, sheets and ligaments are replaced by a dense dispersed phase where small and large droplets coexist. The droplet diameters are respectively in the order of 2 m and 10 m. At this pressure, the high liquid velocity leads to the stripping of the jet thanks to the strong boundary layer formed around the jet interface. With the different optical configurations we have shown the presence of spatially localized linear structures. These structures are surprisingly long (about four times the nozzle diameter). This length cannot be related to the convection velocity
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of small structures combined with exposure time. At the injection pressures used, the liquid speed at the orifice may be evaluated at 300 m/s. The duration of the light pulses is equal to 20 ns. This implies a displacement of 6 m during the imaging, which corresponds to 7 pixels on the picture. This displacement induces a blurry aspect of the images but cannot explain the appearance of straight lines. Figure 16 shows the gray level variation in an image perpendicular to the jet axis. The graph
B
Fig. 16 First configuration, Pi = 30 MPa focused in front of the jet: A: picture; B: vertical grey level profile.
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shows that the thickness of these longitudinal structures is only about 5% of the nozzle diameter. These structures are observed when the camera is focused on the peripheral part of the jet. This observation informs us of the spatial location of the structures. In chapter 3, configuration 1, the jet was modeled as a two phase system, associating a central liquid core 1 and a dense dispersed phase 2. The existence of 1 was assessed from a ray-tracing simulation (Fig. 7). Furthermore, in coherence with the existence of 1, the image obtained with a 45o tilted laser sheet could be reconstructed. A further remark must be made at this point. When the structures in 2, situated in front of the jet, are observed in the focus plane of the camera, they are clearly lit by the jet (Fig. 5, Pi = 20 MPa). The jet acts like a backlight, which induces the idea that 1 probably contains small scattering objects. The existence of a homogeneous emulsion of gaseous inclusions inside 1 is coherent with previous observations by Soteriou [6] in a scaled up plain orifice nozzle. Configuration 3 (with horizontal laser sheet) showed that the long structures observed conduct the light from the laser sheet before scattering it towards the camera. This implies that these structures correspond to a phase change in the medium with an interface that acts like an optical guide. Let us assume that these structures are cylindrical gas cavities present at the periphery of the liquid core 1. They could result from the evolution of gas cavities in the nozzle, a type of cavitation observed in transparent nozzles by Arcoumanis et al. [14]. In the nozzle, gas films appear at the wall. It is this phenomenon which decreases the cross-sectional area of the nozzle [2]. At the outlet of the injector, these pockets could give birth to gas ligaments surrounding the internal emulsion phase mentioned above. The tube-like shape of the gas cavities has been evoked by Fath et al. [11]. This cavitation form could explain why the structures appear for high injection pressure and at a fixed time relative to the injection time: a minimal injection pressure (related to the cavitation number) is needed so that the liquid speed in the injector induces cavitation. The quality of the internal wall of the nozzle is another factor that changes the conditions in which cavitation appears as was shown by Badock et al. [13]. From the present work the minimal injection pressure required to obtain these structures is Pimin + 25 MPa. The structures appear when the needle lift is maximum ( = 2 ms). At this time, the needle is fully lifted and the cavitation formation is fully developed and probably allows the structures to become established. The role of the needle lift and the needle eccentricity was studied by Favennec et al. [15] and more recently by Arcoumanis et al. in recent work based on a large scale transparent nozzle [14].
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Collecting angle (degree) Fig. 17 Ray-tracing simulation of a gas ligament inclusion model.
The time of collapse of a gas bubble may be evaluated through the Rayleigh equation
Ti = 0.915 Ro P Pv
(1)
where R0 is the initial radius of the germ responsible for the cavitation appearing; 5 m seems to be a good order of value for R0. The Diesel density is 840 kg/m3, P is the pressure at infinity in the liquid, here it is the atmospheric pressure. Pv is the saturated vapor pressure of Diesel fuel (0.002 MPa). The calculated time of collapse is thus 0.42 s. The penetration velocity of the liquid in the quiescent air is in
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Fig. 18 Model of the dense core. For Pi 50 MPa.
the order of 200 m/s so, considering spherical shape cavities, we can estimate the distance they cover to be around 85 m. This corresponds to the order of the structure length observed. In configuration 4, the linear structures are observed from the direct illumination of the jet with the backlight flash. The luminous and dark lines observed with this configuration can be illustrated and commented with another 2D ray-tracing simulation (Fig. 17). The liquid core 1 is assumed to contain cylindrical air cavities. The axis of these cylinders is parallel to the jet axis. The relative homogeneity of the light signal along the jet axis means that the internal structure of the jet does not significantly change along this axis. A 2D model can thus be adopted. In the upper part of Fig. 17, the scheme of cross sections of the jet is shown. From left to right, the number of cavities increases; the gas pockets are always placed in the peripheral part of the liquid phase. The light is collimated so a parallel beam of light reaches the jet. In Fig. 17, the incident light comes from the right towards the center of the jet. This direction corresponds to the angle of collection = 0o. The lower part of Fig. 17 shows the calculated profile of light intensity received on an angular sensor centered on the liquid jet. The upper row of the histogram corresponds to a unique inclusion and the number of inclusions is incremented for the profiles below. Each cylindrical inclusion is 10 m in diameter; the diameter of 1 is 200 m. The camera is placed at = 180o. The rays reaching the lens of the camera have a weak incidence around 180o. The camera can observe the strong variations of light intensity, which are shown with the ray-tracing model. Like ligaments gas cavities are very near to the liquid jet interface and their number is directly correlated to the number of dark rays observed. A scheme for the dense core of the diesel jet can be proposed, which summarizes the previous remarks (Fig. 18 for Pi + 50 MPa). This scheme, like Badocks model [1], assumes the existence of a liquid core. But Badock denies the presence of a cavitation foam. The present work is in accordance with Baumgarten et al. [16],
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who showed from both experimental and numerical approaches, the coexistence of cavitation bubbles and liquid structures at the nozzle outlet. In addition, it is inferred here that the cylindrical cavities already mentioned by the authors cited above are probably elongated (above 1 mm) and located at the periphery of the liquid core. 5. CONCLUSION The liquid jet emanating from a Diesel injector was investigated in the near field of the orifice outlet. Tomographic and backlight optical configurations were used to visualize the inner structures of the jet. The method differed from studies in the literature in several points: different orientations of the laser sheet were used at different angles relative to the jet axis (vertical, horizontal, and 45o tilted orientations have been tested); the focus plane position was strongly varied relative to the liquid jet and to the vertical plane laser sheet; an ultrashort incoherent pulsed source was used simultaneously with the laser sheet. An extending set of image patterns was shown relative to the operational variables, and for a wide range of injection pressures, from low pressure to the practical values encountered in engines. Images are interpreted with the aid of ray-tracing simulations. The jet in the very near field near the injector appears to be composed of a plain liquid core 1 surrounded by a dispersed phase 2. It is also assumed that 1 is filled by a "foam-like" cloud of very small, scattering cavitation bubbles. These bubbles generate backlight-like images when a vertical laser sheet and a defocused camera are used. In addition to these bubbles, long cylindrical gas cavities (>1 mm) with diameters in the order of 10 m are situated at the periphery of the liquid core 1. These observations have been confirmed by ray-tracing simulations. It is at the moment the only theoretical tool that can be employed to interpret the complex images recorded from the dense Diesel jet. The use of two different light sources with several unusual optical arrangements not yet encountered in the literature was the key to obtaining a better insight of what the Diesel jet is like. Some of our findings are in agreement with the observations of Soteriou, Arcoumanis or Faeth. To complete our approach, simultaneous use of other techniques such as laser induced fluorescence or the promising femtosecond pulsed sources could help to give more details of the Diesel jet structures.
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REFERENCES 1. C. Badock, R. Wirth, A. Fath, and A. Leipertz, Investigation of Cavitation in real Size Diesel Injection Nozzles, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 20, pp. 538 44, 1999. H. Chaves and F. Obermeier, Correlation between Light Absorption Signals of Cavitating Nozzle Flow within and outside of the Hole of a Transparent Diesel Injection Nozzle, ILASS-Manchester98, pp. 224229, 1998. G. J. Smallwood and O. L. Gulder, Views on the Structure of Transient Diesel Sprays, Atomization Sprays, vol. 10, pp. 355386, 2000. C. Arcoumanis and M. Gavaises, Cavitation in Diesel Injectors: Modelling and Experiments, ILASS-Europe98, pp. 248255, 1998. N. Dumont, O. Simonin, and C. Habchi, Cavitating Flow in Diesel Injectors and Atomization: A Bibliographical Review, ICLASS-Pasadena2000, 2000. C. Soteriou and R. Andrews, Diesel InjectionLaser Light Sheet Illumination of the Development of Cavitation in Orifices, IMechE C529/018/98, pp. 137 158, 1998. A. Cavaliere, R. Ragucci, A. DAlessio, and C. Noviello, Analysis of Diesel Sprays through Two-Dimensional Laser Light Scattering, 22nd Symp. of Combust. Inst., pp. 19731981, 1988. T. W. Lee and A. Mitrovic, Liquid Core Structure of Pressure-Atomized Sprays via Laser Tomographic Imaging, Atomization Sprays, vol. 6, pp. 111 126, 1996. G. J. Smallwood, O. L. Gulder, and D. R. Snelling, Tomographic Visualization of the Dense Core Region in Transient Diesel Sprays, ICLASS-Rouen94, pp. 270277, 1994. A. Fath, K. U. Munch, and A. Leipertz, Spray Break-up Process of Diesel Fuel Investigated Close to the Nozzle, ICLASS-Seoul97, pp. 513520, 1997. A. Fath, C. Fettes, and A. Leipertz, Investigation of the Diesel Spray Break-up Close to the Nozzle at Different Injection Conditions, COMODIA 98, pp. 429 434, 1998. C. Soteriou, R. Andrews, N. Torres, M. Smith, and R. Kunkulagunta, Through the Diesel Nozzle HoleA Journey of Discovery II, ILASS-Zurich2001, 2001. C. Badock, R. Wirth, and C. Tropea, The Influence of Hydro Grinding on Cavitation inside a Diesel Injection Nozzle and Primary Break-up under Unsteady Pressure Conditions, ILASS-Toulouse99, 1999. C. Arcoumanis, M. Gavaises, H. Flora, and H. Roth, Visualization of Cavitation in Diesel Engine Injectors, Mec. Ind., vol. 2, pp. 375381, 2001. A. G. Favennec and D.H. Fruman, Effect of the Needle Position on the Cavitation, Proc. 3rd ASME/JSME Joint Fluids Eng. Conf., San Francisco, July 18 23, 1999.
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C. Baumgarten, Y. Shi, R. Bush, and G. P. Merker, Numerical and Experimental Investigations of Cavitating Flow in High Pressure Diesel Nozzles, ILASSZurich2001, 2001.
A MASS CONSERVATIVE STREAMLINE TRACKING METHOD FOR TWO DIMENSIONAL CFD VELOCITY FIELDS
Zhenquan Li*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, NEw Zealand
Mass conservation is a key issue for accurate streamline visualization of flow fields. This paper presents a mass conservative streamline construction method for CFD velocity fields defined at discrete locations on plane. Linear interpolation is used to approximate velocity fields. Demonstration examples show that the method is very accurate.
1. INTRODUCTION Methods for visualization of fluid flows have attracted much attention from different areas such as computer science and engineering. Streamline visualization is an important instrument for exploring the properties of a fluid velocity field. A streamline is everywhere tangential to the velocity field V, i.e., a graph of the solution of
dx1 dx2 dx3 = = v1 v2 v3

if vi 0 (i = 1, 2, 3) or written in a vector form as dX = V dt (1)
using a Cartesian coordinate system (x1, x2, x3), where V = (v1, v2, v3). The integration of (1) is usually solved numerically and involves schemes for both the interpolation of the velocity field and time integration [2, 4, 5, 11]. Provided fourth order RungeKutta schemes (or better) are used for time integration, the more significant source of error arises from velocity interpolation [11]. In particular, failure to conserve mass can produce errors that cannot be eliminated by reducing the integration step and which can generate artificial effects, such as false spiraling [8]. Thus, the computation is generally a complicated and inefficient process [1, 6, 11]. A CFD velocity field is defined at discrete locations in space. It is assumed that the discrete velocity field is an approximation to a continuous mass conservative ve*
Address all correspondence to Dr. Zhenquan Li. zhen.li@auckland.ac.nz.
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locity field in the same domain. Although the most appropriate interpolation scheme for visualization is dependent on the connectivity and approximations used by the CFD solver, in the majority of cases, such information is not available to the visualization system. Often quite simple interpolation strategies are used, a common one being a locally linear interpolation of the velocity. Linear interpolation of the velocity over each cell in a mesh is a mathematical approximation and the resulting field does not necessarily satisfy mass conservation. There is a number of mass conservative streamline construction methods for steady flows [1, 3, 6, 7] in three dimensions. All these methods are based on the formula given in [12]: for a steady compressible fluid, there exist two stream functions f and g such that the momentum V =
|f |g
(2)
where is the fluid density. The surfaces represented by holding f or g constant are called stream surfaces. A streamline is the intersection of two stream surfaces. The steady compressible fluid flow expressed by (2) obeys the law of mass conservation. Recently Feng et al. [3] described a technique whereby streamlines and stream surfaces are generated by linear mass conservative interpolation schemes for the CFD velocity field for incompressible flow. Even though their technique is useful for the computer visualization of three-dimensional velocity fields, there is an important issue regarding their process for generating a mass conservative velocity field from the linear interpolation of the discrete data that needs more careful handling. There are conditions that must be met for their method to generate correct results in all situations [7]. Direct numerical calculation algorithms for two stream functions from which the streamline is constructed are given in [6]. Even though the algorithms are shown to be quicker and more accurate than techniques involving numerical integration along the streamline, this paper assumes the image of the two stream functions f and g on each face of tetrahedron is triangle in fg space. Beale [1] introduces a scheme that solves two equations with two degree differential operator numerically to calculate dual stream functions but it requires that the gradients of dual stream functions are not equal to zero. This paper presents a mass conservative streamline generation method that can be used to CFD velocity fields for incompressible flows in two dimensions. The method seeks to create a mass conservative linear interpolation for CFD velocity fields within each mesh cell by subdividing the cell. The streamline within each component in the subdivided cell is generated by the exact expressions for tangent curves for two dimensional vector fields given in [9]. Examples in Section 5 show that the method is very accurate.
A Mass Conservative Streamline Tracking Method
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2. CONSTRUCTION OF MASS CONSERVATIVE LINEAR VELOCITY FIELDS OVER A TETRAGON CELL The streamline generation in this paper is carried out from cell to cell for tetragonal meshes. This section deals with the construction of a mass conservative linear approximation to CFD velocity fields over a tetragonal cell. 2.1 Linear Interpolation over a Triangular Domain A tetragon can be divided into two triangles by connecting two non-neighbouring vertexes. It is therefore sufficient to consider the construction of a linear interpolation for the velocity field over a triangle. If the vectors of a two-dimensional velocity field V at the three vertexes in a triangle are given, then we can construct a linear velocity field Vl over the triangular domain Vl = AX + B (3)
a a as a linear approximation to the velocity field. Where A = 11 12 and B = a21 a22 b1 x1 b are constant matrix and vector respectively and X = x is the coordinate vec 2 2 tor. The process of the construction is as follows. Substitute each of the three coordinate vectors and its corresponding velocity vector into (3) and get six linear equations; Solve the six equations for the six unknowns that are the elements in matrix and vector A. The coefficient matrix of the six equations is nonsingular and thus the solution is unique if the three vertexes are not on a straight line. The linear velocity field Vl is defined over the triangle if the coordinate vector X varies over it and Vl = V at the all three vertexes of the triangle. 2.2 Construction of Mass Conservative Linear Velocity Fields over a Tetragon Domain In this subsection, we introduce a method that constructs a mass conservative linear velocity field over a tetragon domain. Mass conservation for an incompressible fluid means that
|V
Trace(A) =
= 0 .
Substituting (3) into above equation leads to
| Vl
= 0,
(4)
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i.e., linear velocity fields Vl in (3) satisfies the law of mass conservation if and only if the trace of coefficient matrix A equals to zero. The construction of a mass conservative linear interpolation for a given CFD velocity field on a tetragon is now described. We take tetragon ABCD in Fig. 1 as an example. Let O be an interior point of tetragon ABCD, often taken as the centre that calculated by averaging the horizontal and vertical coordinates of the four vertexes for the horizontal and vertical coordinates respectively if the fourteen equations described below in this subsection are solvable and have a unique solution, otherwise chosen as a point close to the centre. We now construct a mass conservative linear interpolation for the given CFD velocity field on tetragon ABCO. The CFD velocity field is given at the vertexes of tetragon ABCD. We can construct a mass conservative linear interpolation as given by Eq. (3) on the triangles ABO and BCO if we can assign appropriate vector to the linear velocity field at point O such that the trace of matrix A on each of the two triangles is zero. For each triangle, we have seven equations in which two for one of three vertexes and one for mass conservation and eight unknowns in which six in Eq. (3) (four for matrix A and two for vector B) and two for the vector of velocity field at point O. Putting the two triangles together, we have fourteen equations and fourteen unknowns because the vector of velocity field at point O is the same for the two triangles. If such a linear system is not solvable, the point O must be on the straight line segment. For this case, choosing O close to the center guarantees the system is solvable and has a unique solution. Up to now, we have constructed a mass conservative linear interpolation over tetragon ABCO. Considering now the tetragon ADCO, the velocity field is known at the four vertexes after adding the calculated velocity vector at O. The tetragon ADCO can now be subdivided in the same manner as was the tetragon ABCD. Thus we can repeat the above procedure until the interpolation is obtained in any required part of the original tetragon. Although this has the potential to lead an infinite process, there is no need to construct the interpolation on the whole domain of tetragon ABCD for tracking streamlines as shown in Section 4.
A B O D C
Fig. 1 Notation used to describe the construction of mass conservative interpolations for two triangles that form a subregion of a tetragon.
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3. STREAMLINES FOR MASS CONSERVATIVE LINEAR VELOCITY FIELDS OVER A TRIANGULAR DOMAIN Nielson et al. [9] derived exact expressions for two-dimensional tangent curves within the context of piecewise linearly varying vector fields for all possible cases. These expressions are in terms of vector B, matrix A as defined in (3) and the eigenvalues of A. These expressions can be used for visualizing tangent curves for vector fields with linear interpolation of the data of the vector fields at the vertexes in each triangle. However, the linear interpolation do not necessarily satisfy mass conservation, i.e., the direct use of these expressions to flow visualization may cause inaccurate streamline constructions. In this section, we give exact expressions of streamlines for the linear velocity field Vl in (3) that satisfies (4). These expressions are the direct results by applying those in [9] to the mass conservative cases. The following classification is based on the two eignvalues r1 and r2 of the matrix A. P0 is an arbitrary 2D vertical vector denoting an initial position on the streamline. Case 1) A has two real, nonzero eigenvalues. (r1 = r, r2 = r) (r 0)
P(t ) = E1 e rt + E2 e rt + Pc A+ r I E1 = (P0 Pc ) , 2r A r I E 2 = (P0 Pc ) , 2r APc + B = 0 .
Case 2) A has only a zero eigenvalue. (r1 = r2 = 0)

P(t ) = E1 t + E 2 t 2 + P0
E1 = AP0 + B , E2 = AB . 2
Case 3) A has complex eigenvalues. (r1 = i, r2 = i) ( 0)
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P (t ) = E1 cos ( t ) + E 2 sin ( t ) + Pc
E1 = P0 Pc , A E 2 = (P0 Pc ) , APc + B = 0 .
4. MASS CONSERVATIVE STREAMLINE TRACKING METHOD In Section 3, we showed how to determine a streamline locally. In this section we describe how to track a streamline in the whole domain of the velocity field. Since we draw streamline cell by cell, it is enough to show the streamline tracking method for a single cell. Figure 1 is used to explain Step 1 and Fig. 2 to explain other steps. The streamlines described in the following steps mean that they are drawn using one of the expressions given in Section 3 according to the eigenvalue classification of matrix A. The steps are as follows: 1. Find the tetragon that contains the seed point and divide the tetragon into two triangles such as ABC and ADC by connecting points A and C with a straight line segment. If the linear interpolations of the velocity field given in (3) on both triangles are mass conservative, draw the exact streamline segment that goes through the seed point in one triangle, e.g., ABC; otherwise go to Step 2. If the intersection of the streamline segment with the boundary of the triangle ABC lies on AC, take the intersection as the end point or seed point and draw the streamline segment in triangle ACD and return to Step 1; otherwise take the intersection as seed point and go to Step 1 (for a new tetragon).
A1
B1
C1
D1
A2
B2 O1
C2
D2
A3
B3
O2
C3 D3
A4
B4
C4
D4
Fig. 2 Tracking streamline explanation.
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2.
3.
Assuming that the seed point is in tetragon B2B3C3C2 in Fig. 2, calculate the coordinates of the centre point O1 of tetragon B2B3C3C2 and if the fourteen equations described in Subsection 2.2 are not solvable choose any point close to the center as O1, and then go to Step 3. Construct a mass conservative linear velocity field by the method given in Subsection 2.2 and draw the streamline segment in tetragon B2B3C3C2 by the following process. Assuming that the seed point is in triangle B2B3O1, we can construct a mass conservative linear velocity field by the method given in Subsection 2.2 in tetragon B2B3O1C2 and draw the streamline segment that goes through the seed point in triangle B2B3O1 . a) If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2B3O1 on segment B2B3, take the intersection as the end point or seed point in tetragon A2A3B3B2 and go to Step 1. b) If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2B3O1 on segment B3O1, take the intersection as the end point or seed point in tetragon B3C3C2O1 and go to Step 1. In this case, since B3C3C2O1 is still a tetragon, we can continue tracking streamline from Step 1 again. O2 in Fig. 2 is O1 in the next step when B3C3C2O1 cannot be divided into two triangles on which the linear interpolation of the velocity field given by (3) is not mass conservative for at least one of the triangles. c) If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2B3O1 on segment B2O1, take the intersection as the end point or seed point in triangle B2O1C2 and draw the streamline segment that goes through the seed point. i If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2O1C2 on segment B2C2, take the intersection as the end point or seed point in tetragon B1B2C2C1 and go to Step 1. ii If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2O1C2 on segment C2O1, take the intersection as the end point or seed point in tetragon B3C3C2O1 and go to Step 1. iii If the streamline crosses the boundary of triangle B2O1C2 on segment B2O1, take the intersection as the seed point in triangle B2B3O1, draw the streamline using the linear velocity field that drew the streamline segment in B2B3O1 in Step 3 and then go to one of substeps a, b, and c according to the intersection of the streamline with the boundary. 5. EXAMPLES
In this section, we show two examples that demonstrate the performance of the method given in Section 4. In each example, we first examine the condition of mass conservation and then give the exact stream functions from which the exact streamlines are drawn.
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The streamline drawn in each triangle in this section is a sequence of points on the exact streamline corresponding to a sequence of t. The seed or end point is chosen in each triangle as an interior point when the distance of it with the triangle boundary is in the range of one step, the biggest of which is less than 0.001 units. For both examples, the mass conservative streamlines are constructed using the method given in Section 4. Non mass conservative streamline is drawn by the following steps: a) Find the tetragon which contains the seed point and divide the tetragon into two triangles by connecting two diagonal points, e.g., A and C in Fig. 1. b) Calculate matrix A and vector B in (3) for the triangle that contains the seed point. c) Draw the exact tangent curve segment in the triangle using one of five expressions given in [9] according to the eigenvalue classification of matrix A. d) Take the intersection of the streamline segment with the boundary of the triangle as the end point or seed point and return to Step a). Nielson et al. [9] show that the non mass conservative streamline (tangent curve in [9]) constructed by the above steps is the most accurate when compared with the conventional methods such as Eulers method and fourth-order RungeKutta method. Example 1
dx = y + x 2 y, dt
i. Mass conservation
dy = x xy 2 . dt
V =
ii. Stream function
v1 v2 + = 2 xy 2 xy = 0 x y
(x
1 2 y2 1 2 = C
)(
1
for x > 1 and y > 1
In this example we cannot choose point O as the center of each tetragon since the fourteen equations for matrix A and vector B described in Subsection 2.2 are not always solvable. In Fig. 3, we choose O as the point whose x coordinate is 0.01 bigger than that of the center, and y coordinate is the same as that of the center of tetragon. Figure 3 shows the differences among the exact streamline as stars, mass conservative streamline as a solid line, and non mass conservative streamline as dots for C = 1 and the seed point (1.021, 4.956). The mass conservative streamline is nearly identical to the exact streamline. Figure 4 shows the difference between the exact and mass conservative streamlines. It also shows the triangles as dash-dot lines constructed in the process of tracking the streamline. Figure 5 shows the mass con-
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Fig. 3 Exact, mass conservative and non mass conservative streamlines for Example 1.
servative streamline drawn by choosing O as the point whose x coordinate is 0.1 bigger in the first division, and 0.05 less in the second division of tetragon than that of the center, and y coordinate is the same as that of the center of tetragon. By comparing Fig. 3 with Fig. 5, we conclude that the closer the point O to the center of tetragon, the more accurate the mass conservative streamline is near to singular point for this case. Example 2
dx = y 26 x 2 , dt
i. Mass conservation
dy = x 16 y 2 . dt
V =
ii. Stream function
v1 v 2 + = 2 xy 2 xy = 0 x y
(26 x )(16 y ) = C
2 2
for x < 26 and y < 4
Figure 6 shows the exact streamline as a dashed line and mass conservative streamline as a solid line, where C = 16 and the seed point (5, 0). The mass conservative
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Fig. 4 Tracking streamline process using mass conservative method for Example 1 where the points O are chosen closer to the centers in the tetragons than those in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Exact streamline and mass conservative streamline with different positions of point O from those in Fig. 4 in the process of tracking streamline.
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Fig. 6 Exact and mass conservative streamlines, and tracking streamline process using mass conservative method for Example 2. The part with negative y coordinate is drawn using the symmetry of the velocity field. Some parts of the exact and mass conservative streamlines have overlapped.
Fig. 7 Exact streamline from seed point (5, 0) and non mass conservative streamline segments from seed point (4.5, 0) and (5, 0) for Example 2.
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streamline approximates the exact streamline very well. Figure 6 also shows the streamline tracking process where the point O in Fig. 1 is chosen as the center of each tetragon in the mesh (note that the linear system discussed in Subsection 2.2 is solvable for this velocity field). Figure 7 shows the non mass conservative streamlines as dots for seed points (5, 0) and (4.5, 0) and the exact streamline as a dashed line. It demonstrates that the non mass conservative method gives a quite inaccurate streamline for this case. 6. DISCUSSION From the stream function in Example 2, streamlines of the velocity field are closed 26 in region: x < , y < 4. Thus, the streamline as dots in Fig. 7 drawn by non mass conservative method does not approximate any trajectory of the velocity field in the region. Therefore, mass conservation is a key issue for accurate streamline construction. This paper assumes that the CFD velocity field is given (e.g., the CFD velocity field is measured data by a device) before the streamline tracking method in Section 4 is used; and the tetragonal mesh does not contain concave cells whose centre may be located outside the tetragon. Consider point O1 as the center of tetragon B2B3C3C2 in Fig. 2, if the fourteen equations described in Subsection 2.2 are not solvable for O1 in Step 2 of the streamline tracking method, how close we choose a point to O1 depends on the computer capacity available. If we decide to use the streamline tracking method before choosing a tetragonal mesh, we can choose a mesh such that the point O is not on the line segment AC in Fig. 1 for all the tetragons in the mesh, i.e., the fourteen equations described in Subsection 2.2 are solvable for the center as O1 of tetragon B2B3C3C2 in Step 2 for all tetragons in the mesh. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Author wishes to thank the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology for financial support. REFERENCES 1. S. B. Beale, Visualization of Three-Dimensional Flow Fields Using Two Stream Functions, Proc. 10th Int. Symp. on Transport Phenomena ISTP-10, vol. 1, pp. 221225, Kyoto, 1997. P. Buning, Sources of Error in the Graphical Analysis of CFD Results, J. Sci. Comput., vol. 3(2), pp. 149164, 1988. D. Feng, X. Wang, W. Cai, and J. Shi, A Mass Conservative Flow Field Visualization Method, Computers Graphics, vol. 21(6), pp. 749756, 1997.
2. 3.
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4. 5.
6.
7. 8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
D. C. Handscomb, Spline Representation of Incompressible Flow, IMA J. Numer. Anal., vol. 4, pp. 491502, 1984. D. C. Handscomb, Interpolation and Differentiation of Multivariate Functions and Interpolation of Divergence-Free Vector Fields Using Surfaces Splines, Technical Report 91/5, Oxford Univ. Computing Laboratory, 1991. D. Knight and G. D. Mallinson, Visualising Unstructured Flow Data Using Dual Stream Functions, IEEE Trans. Visualiz. Computer Graphics, vol. 2(4), pp. 355363, 1996. Z. Li and G. D. Mallinson, Mass Conservative Fluid Flow Visualization for CFD Velocity fields, KSME Int. J., vol. 15(12), pp. 17941800, 2001. G. D. Mallinson, The Calculation of the Lines of a Three-Dimensional Vector Fields, in G. de Vahl Davies and C. Fletcher (eds.), Computer Fluid Mechanics, North Holland, pp. 525534, 1988. G. M. Nielson, I.-H. Jung, N. Srinivasan, J. Sung, and J. B. Yoon, Tools for Computing Tangent Curves and Topological Graphs for Visualizing Piecewise Linearly Varying Vector Fields over Triangulated Domains, in G. M. Nielson, H. Hagen, and H. Mueller (eds.), Scientific Visualization: Overviews, Methodologies, and Techniques, IEEE CS Press, pp. 527562, 1997. G. M. Nielson and I.-H. Jung, Tools for Computing Tangent Curves for Linearly Varying Vector Fields over Tetrahedral Domains, IEEE Trans. Visualiz. Computer & Graphics, vol. 5(4), pp. 360372, 1999. P. K. Yeung and S. B. Pope, An Algorithm for Tracking Fluid Particles in Numerical Simulations of Homogeneous Turbulence, J. Comput. Phys., vol. 79, pp. 373416, 1988. C. S. Yih, Stream Functions in Three-Dimensional Flows, La Houlle Blanche, vol. 3, pp. 445450, 1957.
COHERENT STRUCTURE DYNAMICS IN TURBULENT CHANNEL FLOW

Giancarlo Alfonsi*
Dipartimento di Difesa del Suolo, Universit della Calabria, 87036 Rende (Cosenza), Italy
Leonardo Primavera
Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit della Calabria 87036, Rende (Cosenza), Italy
The dynamics of coherent structures in the near-wall region of a turbulent channel flow at Reynolds number Re = 40,000 (based on bulk velocity and channel half-width) is investigated. The technique of the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is applied to extract the coherent structures of the flow from a turbulent flow database obtained with the use of a finite volume computational code for the numerical integration of the three-dimensional time-dependent incompressible NavierStokes equations; for turbulence modeling the LES (Large Eddy Simulation) approach is followed and the RNG (Renormalization Group technique) Sub Grid-Scale closure is used. The three-dimensional time-dependent velocity field is computed and 100 non-dimensional time steps of the turbulent statistically steady state are considered for the decomposition of the flow field. Results are presented in terms of numerical visualizations of streamwise vorticity, showing the temporal dynamics of structures and the different phases of the turbulent activity near the wall.
INTRODUCTION Wall-bounded turbulent flows and the turbulent channel flow in particular (the flow between two parallel plates driven by constant pressure gradient) have been often considered by researchers with the aim of investigating the fundamental physical mechanisms characterizing this category of flow cases. In the computational field, an issue of remarkable relevance to be considered is that of the approach to be followed when the numerical simulation of a turbulent flow is attempted. A possible approach is that of the DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation of turbulence); in the DNS technique, the attitude of calculating all turbulent scales is followed and the NavierStokes equations are numerically integrated without modifications of any kind. The critical aspect of this method is the accuracy of the calculations, that in theory has to be as high as to resolve the Kolmogorov microscales in space and time (or at most limited multiples of them); DNS results for the case of the plane channel have been reported, among others, in [14]. Due to the accuracy requirements and the consequent remarkable computational resources involved in a DNS simulation, the DNS results are mostly limited to relatively low values of the Reynolds number.
*
Address all correspondence to Prof. Giancarlo Alfonsi. alfonsi@dds.unical.it.
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A widely used approach to turbulence calculation is the Large Eddy Simulation (LES), that permits to reach remarkably high Reynolds numbers through modeling; within this approach, only the large scales of the flow are directly simulated in the calculations and a model is used for the small turbulent scales. In order to implement the separation of scales, a filter usually a convolution integral is applied to the NavierStokes equations; a model is then sought (the Sub Grid-Scale model, SGS) for the subgrid stress term, the term of the momentum equation that, after the application of the filter to the convective term, results not being a function of the resolved variables. Several SGS models have been devised for LES calculations of turbulence; among others the Smagorinskys model [5], the Scale Similarity model [6], the Spectral Eddy Viscosity group of models [7], the Structure Function model [8], the RNG model, based on the Renormalization Group technique [9], the Dynamic model [10]. Whether following the DNS or the LES approach, modern techniques for the numerical integration of the NavierStokes equations have the ability of greatly increasing the amount of data gathered during a research of computational nature; the effort of studying turbulence in its full complexity (three-dimensionality and unsteadiness) has brought to the condition of managing large amount of data. A tipical turbulent flow database includes all three components of the velocity at all points of a three-dimensional domain, gathered for an adequate number of time steps of the statistically steady state. Such databases contain a considerable amount of information about the physics of the turbulent flow, but in the formation of the instantaneous value of each variable, all turbulent scales have contributed and the effect of each scale is nonlinearly combined with all others. It is also recognized that not all turbulent scales contribute to the same degree in determining the physical properties of a turbulent flow; methods have to be devised in order to extract only the relevant information from a turbulent database, that has to be meant as to separate the effects of appropriately defined modes of the flow from the background flow, or, finally, to extract the coherent structures of the flow. There exists more than one definition of coherent structure in turbulence research (see among others [11, 12]); in this work the technique of the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is used for the the extraction of the coherent turbulent motions in the case of the fully developed turbulent channel flow. PROPER ORTHOGONAL DECOMPOSITION The Proper Orthogonal Decomposition is a technique that allows the extraction of coherent structures from a turbulent flow field; it operates through the selection of an appropriate basis for modal decomposition of the ensemble of signals with the use of the spectral theory of compact self-adjoint operators. The method has been
Coherent Structure Dynamics in Turbulent Channel Flow
91
first introduced in turbulent flow analysis by Lumley [13] and is extensively presented in [14, 15]. By considering an ensemble of temporal realizations of a nonhomogeneous, square integrable (with finite kinetic energy), three-dimensional velocity field vi(xj, t) on a finite domain D (i, j = 1, 2, 3), one wants to find the most similar function to the elements of the ensemble on the average, i.e., to determine the highest-mean-square correlated structure with all the elements of the ensemble. This corresponds to find a deterministic vector function i(xj) which maximizes the normalized inner product of the candidate structure with the field:
max
(v (x , t ), (x )) ( (x ), (x ))
i j i j i j i j
(v (x , t ), (x )) ( (x ), (x ))
i j i j i j i j
(1)
A necessary condition for this problem is that i(xj) is an eigenfunction, solution of the eigenvalue problem, and Fredholm integral equation of second kind (i, j, l, k = 1, 2, 3):
R (x , x )
ij l k
( xk )dxk = i ( xl )
(2)
t)J is the two-point velocity correlation tensor: the maxiwhere Rij = mum i(xj) corresponds to the largest eigenvalue of (1). When D is bounded, there exists a denumerable infinity of solutions of (2) (HilbertSchmidt theory) and these solutions are called the empirical eigenfunctions (n)(xj) (normalized N(n)(xj)N = 1); i i the orthonormality of the empirical eigenfunctions implies that structures of different order do not interact with each other in their contribution to the second-order statistics. To each eigenfunction is associated a real positive eigenvalue (n) (Rij is nonnegative by construction) and the eigenfunctions form a complete set; every member of the ensemble can be reconstructed by means of a modal decomposition in the eigenfunctions themselves:
svi(xl, t)vj(x , k
vi ( x j , t ) = a n (t )i( n ) ( x j )
n
(3)
which can be seen as a decomposition of the originary random field into deterministic structures (n)(xj) with random coefficients. The modal amplitudes, the time series i of the coefficients an(t) when related to velocity fields varying with time, are uncorrelated and their mean square values are the eigenvalues themselves:
a n (t )a m (t ) = nm ( n )
where nm is the Kronekers delta. A diagonal decomposition of Rij holds:
(4)
92
Rij ( xl , x k ) = ( n ) i( n ) ( xl ) j( n ) ( x k )
n
(5)
which implies that the contribution of each different structure to the turbulent kinetic energy of the flow can be separately calculated:
E = vi (x j , t )vi (x j , t ) dx j = ( n )
D n
(6)
where E is the total turbulent kinetic energy in the domain D; thus, each eigenvalue represents the contribution of each correspondent structure (n) to the total amount of kinetic energy. The POD technique is optimal for modeling or reconstructing a signal vi(xj, t) in the sense that, for a given number of modes, the projection on the subspace used for modeling contains the most kinetic energy possible on the average, or, equivalently, the decay of the tail of the empirical eigenspectrum will always be faster (or at most as fast) than the tail of the spectrum based on any other possible basis, Fourier spectrum included (see [15], among others). The Proper Orthogonal Decomposition has been applied to the case of the channel flow by Moin and Moser [16], Sirovich et al. [17], Ball et al. [18], and Webber et al. [19]. All these works report results related to the plane channel at low Reynolds number; in [19], in particular, the calculations are executed following the DNS approach and the application of the POD to the database shows with clarity that the most energetic modes of the flow are streamwise rollers followed by outward tilted quasi-streamwise vortices, very similar to structures already observed in different scientific contests. Moreover, the existing results demonstrate that the POD is a powerful tool for the description of turbulent flows in terms of dynamics of a limited number of degrees of freedom. In this work, the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition is applied to the case of the channel flow at a Reynolds number much higher with respect to the aforementioned works. In the present work, turbulence has been modeled following the LES approach to the numerical integration of the NavierStokes equations and the RNG closure [9] has been used for the subgrid scale term of the momentum equation; the Reynolds number considered is 40,000 (based on bulk velocity and channel halfwidth). A computational code for the execution of POD calculations has been developed for this research; the code is general and can be used in all kinds of problems since it does not request particular symmetries; this means that all three directions x, y, z are treated as being non-homogeneous and the two-point correlation tensor is evaluated in its complete form and the optimal representation of the velocity field outlined above is calculated in all three directions x, y, z. Besides time-averaged quantities, the decomposition properties have been used to compute a time-depentent quantity, the kinetic energy of the velocity fluctuations E(t):
E (t ) = vi (x , y , z, t )vi (x , y , z, t )dxi
D
(7)
93
to be used to monitor the temporal dynamics of the coherent structures of the flow, that, in this context, are the empirical eigenfunctions (n)(xj) of (2). CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATABASE The case of the plane channel, the flow between two parallel plates driven by _ _ Uh constant pressure gradient, has been considered at Reynolds number Re = = v _ _ 40,000, where U is the bulk velocity of the channel, h the channel half-width, and v the fluid kinematic viscosity (x is the streamwise direction, y is the direction or_ _ thogonal to the solid wall, and z is the spanwise direction); the bulk velocity U and the half channel width h have been used to nondimesionalize velocities and lengths _ _ tdU respectively (the nondimensional time is t = ). For the numerical integration of h the incompressible three-dimensional time-dependent NavierStokes equations, a finite volume computational code has been used; for turbulence simulation the LES approach has been followed, in conjunction with the RNG closure for the evaluation of the subgrid scale stress term. The size of the computational domain is that reported in [20]: streamwise length 10h, spanwise length 7h, and y length 2h, where h is the channel half-width. Overall, the three-dimensional time-dependent (nondimensional) velocity field in 236,643 grid points (101 33 71 grid points along x, y, and z, respectively) has been calculated and 100 nondimensional time steps of the turbulent statistically steady state have been considered (t = 103); along the y direction the grid points have been stretched while approaching the solid walls. Comparisons have been performed between computed velocities of the database and U0 _ experimental values. Among other results, in the present work _ = 1.09 has been U _ _ obtained (U0 is the centerline velocity, U is the bulk velocity), in good agreement U0 _ with _ = 1.12 obtained with the use of the empirical expression of [21]: U
U0 = 1.28 Re 0.0116 U
(8)
(in expression (8), the Reynolds number is based on bulk velocity and channel width). Of the whole database, because of computational resources, a subdomain of 21 11 11 (= 2541) grid points (x, y, z directions, respectively) has been selected in the central part of the channel, starting for what the y direction is concerned from the bottom wall; the velocity field in the subdomain has been averaged in time and the averaged values have been subtracted to the instantaneous values; thus,
94
the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition has been performed onto the fluctuating portions of the velocities only. RESULTS As a result of the decomposition, a total of 7623 eigenfunctions and correspondent eigenvalues have been determined (2541 grid points 3). Figure 1 shows the energy content of the first 1000 eigenfunctions of the decomposition. The three-dimensional time-dependent velocity field is reconstructed Eq. 3 by taking into account only the first three eigenfunctions of the decomposition. In Fig. 2 the plot of the fluctuating turbulent kinetic energy E(t) Eq. 7 for the 100 nondimensional times based on the first three modes, is reported; several sharp peaks at times t = 7, t = 30, t = 68, t = 82 can be noticed, besides a number of small spikes. The turbulent events occurring at these times indicate a sharp rise and subsequent fall of turbulent activity occurring across t = 6, 7, 8; t = 29, 30, 31, 32, and so on. Some of the events are examined in greater detail; Figs. 3ac show surfaces of constant streamwise vorticity in the computational domain (the flow goes from left to right) at t = 6 (immediately before), t = 7 (the event), and t = 8 (immediately after the event), respectively. At t = 6, a series of rather ordered structures aligned longitudi-
1.E+00
1.E -01
1.E -02
1.E -03
1.E -04
en er gy f ractio n
1.E -05
1.E -06
1.E -07
1.E -08
1.E -09
1.E -10 1 10
eig enf u nct ion s
100
1000
Fig. 1 Kinetic energy content of the first 1000 eigenfunctions of the decomposition.
95
Fig. 2 Plot of the fluctuating kinetic energy E(t) (8) with time.
Fig. 3 Surfaces of costant streamwise vorticity near the bottom wall of the channel from reconstruction of the first three eigenfunctions: a) t = 6; b) t = 7; c) t = 8.
96
Fig. 4 Surfaces of constant streamwise vorticity near the bottom wall of the channel from reconstruction of the first three eigenfunctions; a) t = 29; b) t = 30; c) t = 31; d) t = 32.
97
nally in the streamwise direction are present, in conjunction with the incipient manifestation of a different structure at the beginning of the domain; at t = 7 the ordered structures are no more distinguishable, denoting that the sudden increase of the turbulent activity corresponds to the destruction of the coherency of the structures; at t = 8, ordered coherent structures are evident again, while the former incipient structure is assuming more clearly the shape of an arch vortex. A second series of instants is examined (t = 29, 30, 31, 32), Figs. 4ad. At t = 29 (low turbulent activity) the arch vortex is evident on the left side of the domain and again a rather ordered series of longitudinal structures appear in the remaining part of the domain; at t = 30 (high turbulent activity) the former order is rather less evident and coherency is broken in most part of the domain; at t = 31 (the turbulence activity is rapidly decreasing but has not reached the minimum yet) the arch vortex undergoes a process of reconstruction, while the longitudinal coherent structures are again occupying the domain; at t = 32 (lowest turbulent activity of this sequence) coherency is restored almost everywhere, the arch vortex is more definite than in the preceding instants and has elongated in the streamwise direction. CONCLUDING REMARKS Overall, the numerical visualizations have shown with remarkable detail the temporal dynamics of the coherent structures of the velocity field in the wall region of the turbulent channel flow; the region of the computational domain that has been explored has revealed the presence of definite coherent structures during the time intervals characterized by the lowest turbulent activity, while showing the break-up of this coherency during the turbulent events characterized by the highest turbulent activity (eventually reaching the peak levels). The phenomena that have been described constitute a manifestation of intermittency in the wall region of a turbulent shear flow, that in this context has to be meant as the development of temporal evolution processes of the coherent structures of the flow field near the wall, as calculated with the POD method. REFERENCES 1. J. Kim, P. Moin, and R. D. Moser, Turbulence Statistics in Fully Developed Channel Flow at Low Reynolds Number, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 177, pp. 133 166, 1987. S. L. Lyons, T. J. Hanratty, and J. B. McLaughlin, Large-Scale Computer Simulation of Fully-Developed Turbulent Channel Flow with Heat Transfer, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 13, pp. 9991022, 1991. J. Rutledge and C. A. Sleicher, Direct Simulation of Turbulent Flow and Heat Transfer in a Channel. Part I: Smooth Walls, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 16, pp. 10511067, 1993.
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R. D. Moser, J. Kim, and N. N. Mansour, Direct Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Channel Flow up to Re = 590, Phys. Fluids, vol. 11, pp. 943945, 1999. J. Smagorinsky, General Circulation Experiment with the Primitive Equations, Mon. Wea. Rev., vol. 91, pp. 99164, 1963. J. Bardina, J. H. Ferziger, and W. C. Reynolds, Improved Subgrid Models for Large Eddy Simulation, AIAA Paper, 801357, 1980. R. H. Kraichnan, Eddy Viscosity in Two and Three Dimensions, J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 33, pp. 15211536, 1976. O. Metais and M. Lesieur, Statistical Predictability of Decaying Turbulence, J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 43, pp. 857870, 1986. A. Yakhot, S. A. Orszag, V. Yakhot, and M. Israeli, Renormalization Group Formulation of Large Eddy Simulation, J. Sci. Comput., vol. 4, pp. 139158, 1989. M. Germano, Turbulence, the Filtering Approach, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 238, pp. 325336, 1992. B. J. Cantwell, Organized Motions in Turbulent Flow, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 13, pp. 457515, 1981. S. K. Robinson, Coherent Motions in the Turbulent Boundary Layer, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 23, pp. 601639, 1991. J. L. Lumley, Stochastic Tools in Turbulence, Academic Press, 1971. L. Sirovich, Turbulence and the Dynamics of Coherent Structures. Part I: Coherent Structures. Part II: Symmetries and Trasformations. Part III: Dynamics and Scaling, Quart. Appl. Math., vol. 45, pp. 561590, 1987. G. Berkooz, P. Holmes, and J. L. Lumley, The Proper Orthogonal Decomposition in the Analysis of Turbulent Flows, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 25, pp. 539575, 1993. P. Moin and R. D. Moser, Characteristic Eddy Decomposition of Turbulence in a Channel, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 200, pp. 471509, 1989. L. Sirovich, K. S. Ball, and L. R. Keefe, Plane Waves and Structures in Turbulent Channel Flow, Phys. Fluids, vol. A2, pp. 22172226, 1990. K. S. Ball, L. Sirovich, and L. R. Keefe, Dynamical Eigenfunction Decomposition of Turbulent Channel Flow, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 12, pp. 585604, 1991. G. A. Webber, R. A. Handler, and L. Sirovich, The KarhunenLoeve Decomposition of Minimal Channel Flow, Phys. Fluids, vol. 9, pp. 10541066, 1997. K. B. Shah and J. H. Ferziger, A Fluid Mechanicians View of Wind Engineering: Large Eddy Simulation of Flow Past a Cubic Obstacle, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., vols. 6768, pp. 11224, 1997. R. P. Dean, Reynolds Number Dependence of Skin Friction and Other Bulk Flow Variables in Two-Dimensional Rectangular Duct Flow, J. Fluids Eng., vol. 100, pp. 215223, 1978.

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Journal of Flow Visualization and Image Processing

Copyright 2002 Begell House, Inc.

ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRIC MULTIWAVELETS AND ITS APPLICATION FOR IMAGE COMPRESSION

Address all correspondence to Mr. Chen Jiazhong. chenjz70@263.net.

The corresponding multiwavelet = {1, 2, ..., r}T is given by

, then (1) and (2) can be formu-

lated in the Fourier domain ( ) = H ( / 2) ( / 2) (3)

Symmetric Multiwavelet Application for Image Compression

positive definite for all , and is orthogonal if and only if

(5) (6) (7)

Lp(R). The normon (Lp(R))r is defined by NfNp =

. The linear operator Qa on (Lp(R))r is given by Qa =

Symmetric Multiwavelet Application for Image Compression

It is clear that the following Hk satisfies the orthogonal conditions (8):

L1L1 L2L1 H1L1

L1L2 L2L2 H1L2 H2L2

L1H1 L2H1 H1H1 H2H1

Symmetric Multiwavelet Application for Image Compression

(a) Barbara, 16:1, PSNR 32.209dB

(b) Barbara, 32:1, PSNR 28.233dB

(c) Goodhill, 16:1, PSNR 32.466dB

(d) Goodhill, 32:1, PSNR 29.923dB

Symmetric Multiwavelet Application for Image Compression

Copyright 2002 Begell House, Inc.

Address all correspondence to Dr. Julien Rveillon. reveillon@coria.fr.

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

[AU: please give runnign head]

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

2 CDU V(Ui Vi) 8

In the above equation, CD is the drag force coefficient defined by CD =

[AU: please give runnign head]

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

Fig. 3 Detail of the impact of a vortex.

[AU: please give runnign head] 4.2 Development of Structures

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

Fig. 5 Inert scalar gradients.

[AU: please give runnign head]

Fig. 7 Temperature field, case B, time = 9.

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

[AU: please give runnign head]

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

[AU: please give runnign head]

J. Rveillon and K. Cannevire

Copyright 2002 Begell House, Inc.

A NEW ALGORITHM FOR ANALYZING SHADOWGRAPH IMAGES

J. C. Patterson and M. Lee

Address all correspondence to G. B. Brassington. gbrassin@coas.oregonstate.edu.

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

where (xm, ym)

* (x(zi + mz), y(zi + mz)), and m =

0, 1, 2, ..., M 1. The trans-

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

(9) (10) (11)

2([1 : Py] 0.5)/(10Py). Note that the transverse variability is

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

G. B. Brassington et al. 3.4 Image Construction Boundary Conditions

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images

Analyzing Shadowgraph Images