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Motion detector and obstacle finder

A REPORT ON ACADAMIC PROJECT

MOTION DETECTOR AND OBSTACLE FINDER


Submitted in practical fulfillment of bachelor of Technical degree of Rajasthan Technical University, kota

SESSION 2011-2012

SUBMITTED TO: DEVENDRA AGRAWAL A.I.E.T. SITAPURA, JAIPUR.

SUBMITED BY : MADAN MALI MUKESH BHATI

DEPARTMENT OF E&C ENGINEERING APEX INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SITAPURA,JAIPUR

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successful realization of the project is an outgrowth of a consolidated effort of the people from desperate fronts. Its only with their support and guidance that the developer could meet the end. I would like to express my greatest gratitude towards my faculty members of college. I specially wish to thanks Mr. DEVENDRA AGRAWAL for their guidance and support. Finally, I would wish to thank my parents for their constant love and support and for providing me with the opportunity and the encouragement to pursue my goals.

MADAN MALI Electronics Engineering (ECE), VIIth Semester (4TH YEAR) APEX INSTITUE OE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, JAIPUR.

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CONTENT
1. Introduction 2. Components Used : IR LED&IR Sensor LM358 Comparator IC Diode bridge Rheostat 7805 Voltage Regulator IC LED Transistor Resistor Buzzer Battery

1. Working 2. Applications 3. Reference

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INTRODUCTION A motion detector is a device for motion detection. That is, it is a device that contains a physical mechanism or electronic sensor that quantifies motion that can be either integrated with or connected to other devices that alert the user of the presence of a moving object within the field of view. They form a vital component of comprehensive security systems, for both homes and businesses. An electronic motion detector contains a motion sensor that transforms the detection of motion into an electric signal. This can be achieved by measuring optical or acoustical changes in the field of view.

Most motion detectors can detect up to 1525 meter. A motion detector may be connected to a burglar alarm that is used to alert the home owner or security service after it detects motion. Such a detector may also trigger a red light camera or outdoor lighting. An occupancy sensor is a motion detector that is integrated with a timing device. It senses when motion has stopped for a specified time period in order to trigger a light extinguishing signal. These devices prevent illumination of unoccupied spaces like public toilets. They are widely used for security purposes.

COMPONENTS USED
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IR LED and IR sensor: IR LED is used as a source of infrared rays. It comes in two packages 3mm or 5mm. 3mm is better as it is requires less space. IR sensor is nothing but a diode, which is sensitive for infrared radiation. This infrared transmitter and receiver are called as IR TX-RX pair. It can be obtained from any decent electronics component shop and costs less than 10Rs. Following snap shows 3mm and 5mm IR pairs. Colour of IR transmitter and receiver is different. However you may come across pairs which appear exactly same or even has opposite colours than shown in above picture and it is not possible to distinguish between TX and RX visually. In case you will have to take help of multimeter to distinguish between them. Based on a simple basic Idea, this proximity sensor, is easy to build, easy to calibrate and still, it provides a detection range of 35 cm (range can change depending on the ambient light intensity). This sensor can be used for most indoor applications where no important ambient light is present. For simplicity, this sensor doesn't provide ambient light immunity, but a more complicated, ambient light ignoring sensor should be discussed in a coming article. However, this sensor can be used to measure the speed of object moving at a very high speed, like in industry or in tachometers. In such applications, ambient light ignoring sensor, which rely on sending 40 Khz pulsed signals cannot be used because there are time gaps between the pulses where the sensor is blind. The solution proposed doesn't contain any special components, like photodiodes, photo-transistors, or IR receiver ICs, only a couple if IR leds, an Op amp, a transistor and a couple of resistors. In need, as the title says, a standard IR led is used for the purpose of detection. Due to that fact, the circuit is extremely simple, and any novice electronics hobbyist can easily understand and build it. The solution proposed doesn't contain any special components, like photodiodes, photo-transistors, or IR receiver ICs, only a couple if IR leds, an Op amp, a transistor and a couple of resistors. In need, as the title says, a standard IR led is used for the purpose of detection. Due to that fact, the circuit is extremely simple, and any novice electronics hobbyist can easily understand and build it. Object Detection using IR light It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the sensor.

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Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected IR light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact same type. This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a led Produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was a photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by the leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from light, It can barely be detected. The electronic Circuit : Two different designs are proposed, each one of them is more suitable for different applications. The main difference between the 2 designs is the way infra-red (IR) light is sent on the object. The receiver part of the circuit is exactly the same in both designs. Design 1: Low range, Always ON As the name implies, the sensor is always ON, meaning that the IR led is constantly emitting light. this design of the circuit is suitable for counting objects, or counting revolutions of a rotating object, that may be of the order of 15,000 rpm or much more. However this design is more power consuming and is not optimized for high ranges. in this design, range can be from 1 to 10 cm, depending on the ambient light conditions.

As you can see the schematic is divided into 2 parts the sender and the receiver. The sender is composed of an IR LED (D2) in series with a 470
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Ohm resistor, yielding a forward current of 7.5 mA. The receiver part is more complicated, the 2 resistors R5 and R6 form a voltage divider which provides 2.5V at the anode of the IR LED (here, this led will be used as a sensor). When IR light falls on the LED (D1), the voltage drop increases, the cathode's voltage of D1 may go as low as 1.4V or more, depending on the light intensity. This voltage drop can be detected using an Op-Amp (operational Amplifier LM358). You will have to adjust the variable resistor (POT.) R8 so the the voltage at the positive input of the Op-Amp (pin No. 5) would be somewhere near 1.6 Volt. if you understand the functioning of Op-Amps, you will notice that the output will go High when the volt at the cathode of D1 drops under 1.6. So the output will be High when IR light is detected, which is the purpose of the receiver. Some applications of the 'low range Always ON' Design: Notice how in both devices, the IR leds are encapsulated to protect them from ambient light. this kind of encapsulation was totally sufficient to overcome all noise due to ambient light for indoor applications. Some applications of the 'low range Always ON' Design: Notice how in both devices, the IR leds are encapsulated to protect them from ambient light. this kind of encapsulation was totally sufficient to overcome all noise due to ambient light for indoor applications. Wheel Encoder This is a simple wheel encoder based on the idea that white stripes will reflect IR light, while black ones will absorb it. this will result in a series of electrical pulses as the wheel is rotating, providing the microcontroller with precious information that can be used to calculate displacement, velocity or even acceleration. It is now clear that this kind of sensor has to be Always ON, to detect every single white stripe passing in front of it, to achieve accurate results. Contact-Less tachometer This is a tachometer, that counts the revolutions per minute of a rotating object, given that the object has a reflective stripe glued on it, that will pass in front of the IR sensor for each and every revolution, giving a pulse per revolution. Again a microcontroller will have to be used to 'understand' the data provided by the sensor and display it. Many commercial contact-less tachometers, that are sold for more than $200 rely on this simple idea! Design 2: High range, Pulsed IR In this design, which is oriented to obstacle detection in robots, our primary target is to reach high ranges, from 25 to 35 cm, depending on ambient light conditions. The range of the sensor is extended by increasing the current flowing in the led. This is a delicate task, as we need to send pulses of IR instead of constant IR emission.The duty cycle of the pulses turning the LED ON and OFF have to be calculated with precision, so that the average current flowing into the LED never exceeds the LED's maximum DC current (or 10mA as a standard safe value). The duty cycle is the ratio between the ON duration of the pulse and the total period. A low duty cycle will enable us to inject in the LED high instantaneous currents while shutting it OFF for enough time to cool down from the previous cycle.
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Those 2 graphs shows the meaning of the duty cycle, and the mathematical relations between the ON time, the Total period, and the average current. In the second graph, the average current in blue is exaggerated to be visible, but real calculations would yield a much smaller average current.

LM 358 Comparator IC: Description The LM358 consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency-compensated operational amplifiers internally frequency-compensated operational amplifiers designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from dual power supplies is also possible, and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Unique Features In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to includes ground
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and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage. The unity gain cross frequency is temperature-compensated. The input bias current is also temperature-compensated. Features Internally frequency-compensated for unity gain Large DC voltage gain: 100 dB Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature-compensated) Wide power supply range single supply: 3 VDC to 30 VDC, or dual supplies: 1.5 VDC to 15 VDC Low input biasing current: 45 nADC temperature-compensated The first Op-amp will provide voltage buffer, to enable any kind of device to control the sensor, also, it will provide the 30mA base current required to drive the base of the transistor. The calculation of the the base resistor R3 depends on the type of transistor you use, thus on how much current you need on the base to drive the required collector current. The receiver part of this schematic functions in the exact same way as in the first design, refer to the first, 'ALLWAYS ON' design for a detailed description.

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Diode Bridge : A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a centre-tapped secondary winding.

Rheostat:
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Rheostat adjustable resistor used in applications that require the adjustment of current or the varying of resistance in an electric circuit. The rheostat can adjust generator characteristics, dim lights, and start or control the speed of motors. Its resistance element can be a metal wire or ribbon, carbon, or a conducting liquid, depending on the application. For average currents, the metallic type is most common; for very small currents, the carbon type is used; and for large currents the electrolytic type, in which electrodes are placed in a conducting fluid, is most suitable. A special type of rheostat is the potentiometer, an instrument that measures an unknown voltage or potential difference by balancing it, wholly or in part, by a known potential difference. A more common potentiometer is simply a resistor with two fixed terminals and a third terminal connected to a variable contact arm; it is used for such purposes as a volume control in audio equipment. Rheostat Construction Most rheostats are the wire-wound type that have a long length of conductive wire coiled into a tight spiral. The linear type has a straight coil, while the rotary type has the coil curved into a torus to save space. The coil and contacts are sealed inside the case to protect them from dirt, which can cause an open circuit, and from moisture, which can cause a short circuit. Rheostats can be made from other materials such as carbon disks, metal ribbons, and even certain fluids. As long as a material has a significant resistance change over a short length, it can probably be used to make a rheostat. How Rheostats Work The basic principle that rheostats use is Ohms law, which states that current is inversely proportional to resistance for a given voltage. This means the current decreases as the resistance increases or it increases as the resistance decreases. Current enters the rheostat through one of its terminals, flows through the wire coil and contact, and exits through the other terminal. Rheostats do not have polarity and operate the same when the terminals are reversed. Three-terminal potentiometers can be used as rheostats by connecting the unused third terminal to the contact terminal. Applications Some light dimmers use rheostats to limit the current passing through the light bulbs in order to change their brightness. The greater the rheostats resistance, the lower the light bulbs brightness. Some lights cannot use dimmers, such as fluorescents and gas discharge lamps. These lights have large resistance loads called ballasts, that maintain a constant current through them. Rheostats have no effect on their brightness and can even damage them. Motor controllers also use rheostats to control a motors speed by limiting the flow of current through them. They are used in many small appliances such as blenders, mixers, fans, and power tools. Rheostats are also used as test instruments to provide an accurate resistance value. While rheostats can be used to control electric ovens and cooktops, thermostats are preferred because they have additional parts that automatically adjust the current flow to maintain a constant temperature.
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The rheostat is still a common and fundamental electronic component used to control the flow of current in a circuit. However, it has largely been replaced by the triac, a solid-state device also known as a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). A triac does not waste as much power as a rheostat and is more reliable due to the absence of mechanical parts. Rheostats commonly fail because their contacts become dirty or the coil wire corrodes and breaks.

7805 Voltage Regulator IC: 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels. Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:

Pin No 1

Function Input voltage (5V-18V)

Name Input
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2 3

Ground (0V) Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

Ground Output

Theory of op amp Part 1: Noninverting Amplifier (a) DC measurements: (1) Build up the noninverting amplifier as shown in Fig 1. Use +25V channel and -25V channel of the DC power supply for the VDD and VSS, the +25V should be set up to +6V and -25V channel should be set up to -4V. Use 6V channel of the DC power supply for Vin, and measure both input and output using oscilloscope. R1 is 5k and R2 is 5k. Change Vin from -2V to 3V to verify the proper amplification range of DC inputs. (2) Fix the DC input 0.5V, measure the amplifier gain (Vout/Vin) for R2= 2 k, 5k, 10k (turn R2 ) and compare with the calculated gain. (You need to take out the pot from the circuit to measure its value.) (b) AC measurement: (1) Now, set the input signal to a 1 kHz, 0.5 VPP, 0 VDC offset (on the function generator display) Sine wave from the function generator. Use a 10k potentiometer as R2. Adjust R2 to see the gain change. Can you get a gain less than unity by turning R2? Why? (2) Turn the potentiometer R2 until the gain is 2 and then adjust the Vpp and DC offset to the input signal. Observe the input and output waveforms as you vary the DC offset for large Vpp (say 2.5V). Draw the input and output for a case that gives clipping, label all the axes and indicate the amplitude, and DC offset value.

Part 2: Inverting Amplifier Using the unused op-amp of the chip, build the inverting amplifier as shown in Fig 2 (please use the unused op-amp now). R1 is 5k and R2 is the 10k pot. While you are building a circuit, it is safer for the circuits if you turn the DC power supply OUTPUT OFF. Let the input signal be a 1 kHz, 2.5VPP sine wave, 0 VDC offset, turn R2 to max. Whats happening to the output signal as you change R2? Adjust the input offset to make the output more complete. Now adjust the potentiometer and observe the resulting change in the amplitude and offset of the output. Adjust these two parameters until the gain is at its maximum and theres no clipping. What range of output voltage do you have in this circuit? Verify the correct amplification (range of A.I.E.T,JAIPUR(E&C) Page 13

Motion detector and obstacle finder the output signal) of both AC and DC signals. What is the phase difference between Vout and Vin and where is it from?

Fig 2 Inverting Amplifier

Part 3: Cascaded connection Now we will study a cascade connection of two amplifiers. Connect the output of the inverting amp to act as the input voltage for the non-inverting amp. Use R2 = 10k in the inverting circuit and R2=5k in the noninverting circuit. The input signal should be a 1 kHz, 50mVPP (on the function generator display) sine wave and you have to pick the correct offset for the circuit to amplify linearly. Adjust the input signal to make sure there is no clipping in the circuit. Measure the gain of each stage separately and then the overall gain of this cascaded circuit.
R2 =5k R1=5k + VSS Vin + VSS Vout VDD R1'=5k -

R2 '=10k VDD

Fig 3 Cascade amplifier structure

Part 4: Integrator Put a 0.1 uF capacitor instead of R2 in a new inverting amplifier (Fig 3) and measure the time constant. Use a 60 Hz, 500mVPP square wave as input. After getting the waveforms and triggering correct, measure time constant RC (how will you measure it? Hint: your prelab question 4). Compare measured time constant with theory. Now change the function generator back to a sine wave input, sweep frequency from 1Hz to 100kHz and observe the change of the gain with frequency.

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C=0.1uF R1=5k Vin + VSS

VDD Vout

Fig 4 Integrator Note on op-amp integrator The circuit in figure 4 violates one of the cardinal rules of op-amp circuit design ``there must always be a DC feedback path to the inverting input or the op-amp output will go to the rail.'' The general problem with this integrator circuit is that a small error current, input offset current, will be integrated by the capacitor to be large output voltages, and eventually drive the op-amp output into saturation. The LMC 6482 op-amp you are using has remarkably low input offset currents, so that you may not see this effect in a short time. If you want to see this effect, ask your TA for another pin-compatible op-amp such as the LM6142, substitute in the integrator circuit, and see if you observe any difference in the average DC level of the output. (Typically, a real integrator is made with a zero-reset, or a large resistor in parallel with the integrator capacitor). Part 5: Differentiator Build the inverting amplifier but put 0.1 uF capacitor in stead of R1 as shown in Fig 4. Use R2=5k Input a 500 Hz 500 mVpp triangle wave. Zoom into the waveform to measure time constant RC (Hint: prelab question 5). Compare measured time constant with theory. Add DC offset to the input signal, is there any change on the output signal? Why?
R2=5k C=0.1uF Vin + VSS VDD Vout

Fig 5 Differentiator

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LED: LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Like a common diode, the LED (Light Emitting Diode) consists of a P-N contact. When a P-N junction is forward biased, current flows within it. This current flow will cause electrons and holes to move is a manner that an electron will move to fill a hole. When this happens, the electron will fall to a lower energy level and this will release an amount of energy in the form of photons. In a larger scale, those photons will produce light. A LED will emit a colored light not because of it's package color as many people used to believe, but because of the emitting wavelength. The wavelength that an LED will produce depends on the material used to form the p-n junction. The materials and the colors they produce are shown in the following table LEDs are diodes and to light an LED, it must be forward connected. This means that the anode of the LED must be connected to the positive pole of a
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battery, and the cathode must be connected to the negative pole. Determining the anode and the cathode of a new LED is not very hard. The first way is from the length of it's leads. The anode lead is longer than the cathode lead of the led. Another way that is only possible if the LED package is round, is to find the sliced side of the LED. If you look it from the bottom side, you will notice that it is not completely round. There is one position where the circle is 'sliced' a little bit. The lead that is close to this slice is the cathode. Another possible way is to see inside the LED. If this is possible, the inside pins can be seen. The small one is the anode and the large one is the cathode. The leads could also be distinguished from its color (when available). The red is the anode and the black is the cathode. If the LED is used, then you should apply voltage to its leads to determine the anode and the cathode. The simplest way to light an LED, is to connect it through a resistor to a power supply as follows: Extra care should be taken when connecting the LED. If it is connected with the cathode to the positive side of the power source, then it will not light and it will behave as an open circuit , as any normal diode would do. LED protective resistor calculation As you may notice above, the LED was not directly connected across the power source. Instead, a protective resistor reduces the current-flow in the circuit. This is because LEDs are very sensitive to overcurrent. 10% current above the nominal, will significantly decrease the lifetime of the device. Greater current will destroy the LED within seconds. In order to calculate the protective resistor, we need to know the specifications of the LED. The most common LEDs comes with a rating of 3.6Volts 30mA (for white LEDs) but this can significantly change for special LEDs like high brightness LEDs. In this case the ratings should be known from the supplier. For our convenience we will suppose that the LED operates at less than 3.6Volts and draws 30mA current. We suppose also that the power supply is 9volts. The resistor can be calculated using ohm's law as follows: R= V - VLED I In our example: R = (9 - 3.6)/0.03 => R = 180 Ohms. The value 0.03 that we used for current is the 30mA converted into Amperes (10-3). You may find a unit converter here.

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LED protective resistor calculation for more LEDs But what if we have more LEDs connected? First of all we have to distinguish two types of LED connection. The first LED connection type is the series connection and the second is the parallel connection. There is also a hybrid of those two types called mixed connection. One by one, those types are explained below. LEDs connected in series When the anode of one LED is connected to the cathode of another LED and so on, this is called a connection in series. Three LEDs connected in series are shown in the following schematic:

The following rules applies to this connection type: 1. The total voltage drop is the sum of each LED's voltage drop. In other words, if each LED has 3.6V voltage drop, the total voltage drop should be 3.6 x 3 = 10.8Volts. Technically this would mean that a voltage bigger or equal to 10.8V should be applied in order to have those LEDs efficiently light. 2. The current that flows within the LEDs is equal. This means that if those LEDs require 30mA to operate, the limiting resistor should be calculated for operation under 30mA.An example: Suppose that we want to light the three LEDs above and the voltage is 24V. Each LED requires 3.6V @ 30mA power to operate. First we calculate the total voltage drop: VTOTAL = 3 x 3.6 = 10.8V The current for our calculation is 30mA, that is 0.03 Amperes. By applying those data to the formula given before, we can calculate the resistor: R = (V-VTOTAL) / I => R = (24 - 10.8) / 0.03 => R = 440 Ohms LEDs connected on AC voltage Because an LED is a diode, when it is connected to an AC voltage, it will pass only half the waveform. This means that only half of the power supplied will be used to illuminate the LEDs. Therefore, a bridge rectifier should be connected before the LEDs in order to have better results.
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Moreover, LEDs are designed to work with smooth DC voltage. If they are supplied with a sinewave, even if this is rectified, it still remains a sinewave. It is highly recommended that large capacitors should be connected across the power source so that the waveform is as smooth as possible and the LEDs operate under the best conditions.

Of course the bridge and the capacitors could be omitted but with this circuit the LEDs will operate more efficiently and for longer time.

Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

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Types of transistor There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of Transistor circuit symbols semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first. The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels! A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page. Transistor currents The diagram shows the two current paths through a transistor. You can build this circuit with two standard 5mm red LEDs and any general purpose low power NPN transistor (BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example). The small base current controls the larger collector current. When the switch is closed a small current flows into the base (B) of the transistor. It is just enough to make LED B glow dimly. The transistor amplifies this small current to allow a larger current to flow through from its collector (C) to its emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C light brightly. When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches off the collector current. Both LEDs are off.
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A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch. This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the controlled circuit (collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely used arrangement for transistors so it is the one to learn first. Using a transistor as a switch When a transistor is used as a switch it must be either OFF or fully ON. In the fully ON state the voltage VCE across the transistor is almost zero and the transistor is said to be saturated because it cannot pass any more collector current Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually called the 'load'. The power developed in a switching transistor is very small: In the OFF state: power = Ic VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero. In the full ON state: power = Ic VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the power is very small. This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not need to consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching circuits are the maximum collector current Ic(max) and the minimum current gain hFE(min). The transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page. For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional model above. Protection diode If the load is a motor, relay or solenoid (or any other device with a coil) a diode must be connected across the load to protect the transistor from the brief high voltage produced when the load is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the load, in this case a relay coil. Current flowing through a coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

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Resistor: A linear resistor is a two-terminal, linear, passive electronic component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the resistor is called resistance.

History The Resistance was discovered by the year 1827 from Georg Simon Ohm, a German electrician. Ohm was born in Germany, in the city of Erlangen at 1787 and died at 1854. Georg Simon Ohm noticed that different materials that are considered as electrically conductive, will not allow the current to flow within their body with the same ease. The difficulty that each material had, had to do with some parameters such as the type of the material and some external factors such as the temperature or the humidity of the atmosphere. G.S.Ohm described this behavior and gave the name "Resistance". He then announced the Ohm's law that connects the resistance with the voltage and the current af follows: R= V I

The resistor is measured with Ohms as a memorial to it's inventor. Electrical resistance A material having 1 Ohm resistance, will allow 1 ampere of current to flow within this material, when a voltage difference of 1 Volt is applied to it's terminals.
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Motion detector and obstacle finder

As defined by the International Electrical Congress in 1893, and by United States Statute, it is a resistance substantially equal to 10 9 units of resistance of the C. G. S. system of electro-magnetic units, and is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of the length of 106.3 centimeters. As thus defined it is called the international ohm.

What is a resistor As far as the electrical part is concerned, resistor is a very simple but basic electronic component designed to do exactly what the Ohms law is about, produce a voltage drop between its terminals (commonly just two). Resistors are used as parts in electronic circuits. They are extremely commonplace in most electronic designs and circuits. Resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as wire as you can imagine there are many categories of resistors in the market depending on your needs such as Carbon film resistors, Metal film resistors, Variable resistors (potentiometer), Power resistors, Wire wound resistors etc. When you want to use resistors in a circuit you need to know the primary characteristics which are their resistance (Ohms) and the power (Watt) they can dissipate. The electrical symbols of different kind of resistors are shown bellow:

Resistor marking There are many different systems for resistor marking (basically depending on the type). the simplest way is the direct value indication system. This system can be easily applied to large-wattage resistors, as they may have larger housing. According to this system, the value is written as follows: 330 = 330 Ohms 3.3 = 3.3 Ohms 3K3 = 3.3 KOhms 3K = 3 KOhms Resistor Types PRECISION WIREWOUND

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Motion detector and obstacle finder

The Precision Wirewound is a highly accurate resistor with a very low TCR and can be accurate within .005%. A temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of as little a 3 part per million per degree Celsius (3ppm/oC) can be achieved. However these components are too expensive for general use and are normally used in highly accurate DC applications. The frequency response of this type is not good. When used in an rf application all Precision Wirewound Resistors will have a low Q resonant frequency. The power handling capability is very small. These are generally used in highly accurate DC measuring equipment, and reference resistors for voltage regulators and decoding networks. The accuracy is maintained at 25oC(degrees Celsius) and will change with temperature. The maximum value available is dependent upon physical size and is much lower than most other types of resistor. Their power rating is approximately 1/10 of a similar physical size in a carbon composition. They are rated for operation at +85oC or +125oC with maximum operating temperature not to exceed +145oC. This means that full rated power can be applied at +85 ( 125) oC with no degradation in performance. It may be operated above +125 (85) oC if the load is reduced. The derating is linear, rated load at +125(85) oC and no load at +145oC. Life is generally rated for 10,000 hours at rated temperature and rated load. The allowable change in resistance under these conditions is 0.10%. Extended life can be achieved if operated at lower temperatures and reduced power levels. End of life requirements are generally defined by the manufacturer or in some case by user specification. Some degradation in performance can be expected. In some cases, particularly if the tolerance is very low and the TC is low, the rated power is reduced to improve resistor stability through life. Precision Resistors regardless of type, are designed for maximum accuracy and not to carry power. The materials used in these resistors are highly stable heat treated materials that do change under extended heat and mechanical stress. The manufacturing processes are designed to remove any stresses induced during manufacture. There is little detectable noise in this type of resistor. The stability and reliability of these resistors is very good and their accuracy can be enhanced by matching the absolute value and the temperature coefficient over their operating range to achieve very accurate voltage division.

The NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Standard can be as accurate as .001% with roughly the same TCR as Precision Wirewound Resistors and are very stable. These are used as a standard in verifying the accuracy of resistive measuring devices. They are normally the Primary Standards of a company's test lab. They are returned to the NIST for measurement and their accuracy is tracked through out the standards life to determine the Standard's stability. Most companies will have two sets of standards so that they can continue to measure while one set of standards are being measured by the NIST . They will alternate returning these NIST Standards to the NIST , one set one year and the other set the next year. For extremely accurate measurements, the Standard with the longest history and the best stability will be used. If erratic readings are received from the NIST over a period of years, the Standard is retired. Also, if the reading has significantly changed since the last NIST reading, the standard is suspect and all measurements made using that standard must be checked.
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Motion detector and obstacle finder

Normally, a standard will take about 3 years to stabilize and becomes more stable with time unless it has had excessive power applied or has been dropped. During measurement, a thermometer is placed in a cavity in the top of the Standard, called the oil well, and the temperature is recorded for each measurement so that the exact value can be determined. That is the value at +25oC plus or minus the change in value caused by the temperature coefficient. Each standard will have a temperature correction chart for exact values. Being stored in the oil bath prevents the Standard from being stressed by changes in room temperature. These are highly precision devices and are expensive to buy and expensive to maintain, but they are the primary resistor reference for any test lab. These resistors are furnished in a totally enclosed metal case and for values above 1 ohm, this enclosure is filled with mineral oil (other type of oil may contain additives that can cause corrosion in later life). The values below 1 ohm may be built in an enclosure that is perforated and these must be submersed in oil. If power is applied without it being submersed, the Standard will be ruined. All NIST Type Standards are equipped with provisions for two, three, or four terminal measurements. The applied power is calculated and the temperature of the Standard is monitored during test. The lowest power level consistent with sufficient resolution to get the desired measurement is used (in the area of 0.01 watts) and any appreciable rise in temperature will dictate that the measurement should be suspended and the test set-up reviewed for ways to reduce the power level. These Standards are rated for operation at room temperature only but their other characteristics are the same as Precision Wirewound Resistors.

Buzzer: A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

Battery: It provides the current to the circuit to flow the current through it.

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Motion detector and obstacle finder

Working: Detection of object is accomplished by IR sensor. When any object passes through device infrared ray is get disturbed and reflected by the obstacle. These reflected rays are come back to the IR module on which photo diode is already placed, which detects these rays. Due to this process voltage is generated to the photo diode. Further these signals are sent to the comparator IC. This voltage signal is compared with reference signal. Difference between both signal results activation of buzzer. A long beep is generated by the buzzer.

Applications:

Security: At deep night, you do not need a security guard to guard your house, just use the motion sensor alarm in your house. For example a thief enters your house and then motion sensor detected the motion of the thief and then the alarm will ring. If you are away from your home it will be protected because the lights come on bright all over your yard and anywhere they are pointed. You can feel safer knowing everyone can be seen. It is proven fact that homes with motion sensors have less crime than those that do not. Save Time: You may not touch, push, pull, press anything you just have to move and then sensor will detect your motion and do something for you. If you need to find an intruder on your security camera tape, the motion detector will save you from hours of viewing uneventful tape. The camera is only turned on when it detects motion in the area. This allows you to view just the action without having to weed through an entire tape consisting of hours of filming an empty area, which is what a traditional continuous-filming security camera would offer. Save Energy: because it can automatically turn off the light and appliances when no one is in the room. Without a motion detector, your security camera will tape continuously, which wastes energy when there
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Motion detector and obstacle finder

is nothing to film. The motion detector turns the camera on when it is needed and allows it to stay off when nothing is happening.

Element of Surprise: The lights need to be on so you can see what images appear on the security camera, but with a motion detector camera, the lights can be set to go on when the camera detects the motion. This offers the element of surprise to the person of interest appearing in the security film. A thief will scope out the area for cameras and avoid them, but if they enter a room with the lights off they will not see the camera until it is too late: The motion detector has turned on the lights and started filming before the intruder realizes he has been caught in the act.

Reference Motion Detection Algorithms In Image Processing Motion Detection and Recognition Research all datasheet

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