Frontmatter

Cambridge University Press 0521849667 - Fundamentals of Signals and Systems: A Building Block Approach Philip D.
Cha and John I. Molinder Frontmatter More information
Fundamentals of Signals and Systems
This innovative textbook provides a solid foundation in both signal processing and systems modeling using a building block approach. The authors show how to construct signals from fundamental building blocks (or basis functions), and demonstrate a range of powerful design and simulation techniques in Matlab , recognizing that signal data are usually received in discrete samples, regardless of whether the underlying system is discrete or continuous in nature. The book begins with key concepts such as the orthogonality principle and the discrete Fourier transform. Using the building block approach as a unifying principle, the modeling, analysis and design of electrical and mechanical systems are then covered, using various real-world examples. The design of nite impulse response lters is also described in detail. Containing many worked examples, homework exercises, and a range of Matlab laboratory exercises, this is an ideal textbook for undergraduate students of engineering, computer science, physics, and other disciplines. Accompanying the text is a CD containing the Matlab m-les for Matlab generated gures, examples, useful utilities and some interesting demonstrations. The les can be easily modied to solve other related problems. Further resources for this title including solutions, lecture slides, additional problems and labs, are available at www.cambridge.org/9780521849661. Philip D. Cha is a Professor in the Department of Engineering at Harvey Mudd College in Claremont, California. He obtained his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Michigan. Prior to joining Harvey Mudd, he worked as a senior research engineer at the Ford Motor Company Research Laboratory. He has been a visiting Professor at the University of Michigan and Tsinghua University in China. He has also been a participating guest at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In 2000, he received the Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award from the Society of Automotive Engineers as one of the top ten mechanical engineering educators in the USA. John I. Molinder is a professor in the Department of Engineering at Harvey Mudd College in Claremont, California. He received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the California Institute of Technology and worked as a senior engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory before joining Harvey Mudd College. For more than 20 years he held a part-time position at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He has also worked as a principal engineer at Qualcomm in San Diego, California and, most recently, as a contractor for Boeing Satellite Systems in El Segundo, California. Prior to receiving his Ph.D. he served as a project ofcer in the USAF in San Bernardino, California.
Cambridge University Press
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Cambridge University Press 0521849667 - Fundamentals of Signals and Systems: A Building Block Approach Philip D. Cha and John I. Molinder Frontmatter More information
Fundamentals of Signals and Systems

A building block approach
Philip D. Cha
Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California
and
John I. Molinder
Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California
M AT L A B is a registered trademark of The MathWorks Inc. MathWorks is a registered trademark of The MathWorks Inc.
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cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S o Paulo a Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521849661
C
Cambridge University Press 2006
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2006 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN-13 978-0-521-84966-1 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-84966-7 hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
List of gures List of tables Preface Acknowledgments 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
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page x xxi xxiii xxvii 1 1 4 7 9 12 14 18 22 23 24 29 29 33 35 42 43 47 49 56 59
Introduction to signals and systems Signals and systems Examples of signals Mathematical foundations Phasors Time-varying frequency and instantaneous frequency Transformations Discrete-time signals Sampling Downsampling and upsampling Problems Constructing signals from building blocks Basic building blocks The orthogonality principle Orthogonal basis functions Fourier series Alternative forms of the Fourier series Approximating signals numerically The spectrum of a signal The discrete Fourier transform Variations on the DFT and IDFT
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2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7
Relationship between X [k] and ck Examples Proof of the continuous-time orthogonality principle A note on vector spaces Problems Sampling and data acquisition Sampling theorem Discrete-time spectra Aliasing, folding and reconstruction Continuous- and discrete-time spectra Aliasing and folding (time domain perspective) Windowing Aliasing and folding (frequency domain perspective) Handling data with the FFT Problems Lumped element modeling of mechanical systems Introduction Building blocks for lumped mechanical systems Inputs to mechanical systems Governing equations Parallel combination Series combination Combination of masses Examples of parallel and series combinations Division of force in parallel combination Division of displacement in series combination Problems Lumped element modeling of electrical systems Building blocks for lumped electrical systems Summary Inputs to electrical systems Governing equations Parallel combination Series combination Division of current in parallel combination
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5.8 5.9 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7
Division of voltage in series combination Problems Solution to differential equations First-order ordinary differential equations Second-order ordinary differential equations Transient response Transient specications State space formulation Problems Inputoutput relationship using frequency response Frequency response of linear, time-invariant systems Frequency response to a periodic input and any arbitrary input Bode plots Impedance Combination and division rules using impedance Problems Digital signal processing More frequency response Notation clarication Utilities DSP example and discrete-time FRF Frequency response of discrete-time systems Relating continuous-time and discrete-time frequency response Finite impulse response lters The mixer Problems Applications Communication systems Modulation AM radio Vibration measuring instruments Undamped vibration absorbers JPEG compression Problems
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10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8
Summary Continuous-time signals Discrete-time signals Lumped element modeling of mechanical and electrical systems Transient response Frequency response Impedance Digital signal processing Transition to more advanced texts (or, whats next?) Laboratory exercises Laboratory exercise 1 Introduction to MATLAB Objective Guided introduction to M A T L A B Vector and matrix manipulation Variables Plotting M-les Housekeeping Summary of M A T L A B commands Exercises Laboratory exercise 2 Synthesize music Objective Playing sinusoids Generating musical notes F r Elise project u Extra credit Exercises Laboratory exercise 3 DFT and IDFT Objective The discrete Fourier transform The inverse discrete Fourier transform The fast Fourier transform Exercises Laboratory exercise 4 FFT and IFFT Objective Frequency response of a parallel RLC circuit
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L1.1 L1.2 L1.3 L1.4 L1.5 L1.6 L1.7 L1.8 L1.9
L2.1 L2.2 L2.3 L2.4 L2.5 L2.6
L3.1 L3.2 L3.3 L3.4 L3.5
L4.1 L4.2
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L4.3 L4.4
Time response of a parallel RLC circuit to a sweep input Exercises Laboratory exercise 5 Frequency response Objective Automobile suspension Frequency response Time response to sinusoidal input Numerical solution with the Fourier transform Time response to step input Optimizing the suspension Exercises Laboratory exercise 6 Objective DTMF dialing fdomain and tdomain Band-pass lters DTMF decoding Forensic engineering Exercises Laboratory exercise 7 Objective Amplitude modulation Demodulation Pirate radio Exercises DTMF
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L5.1 L5.2 L5.3 L5.4 L5.5 L5.6 L5.7 L5.8
L6.1 L6.2 L6.3 L6.4 L6.5 L6.6 L6.7
AM radio
L7.1 L7.2 L7.3 L7.4 L7.5
Appendix A Complex arithmetic Appendix B Constructing discrete-time signals from building blocks least squares Appendix C Discrete-time upsampling, sampling and downsampling Index
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Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24
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A 200 Hz sine wave, x(t) = cos[2 (200t)]. page 4 The spectrum of a 200 Hz sine wave. 4 A 200 Hz square wave. 5 The spectrum of a 200 Hz square wave. 5 A 200 Hz triangle wave. 5 The spectrum of a 200 Hz triangle wave. 6 A graph of digitized signal. 6 Complex exponential plotted on a complex plane. 7 Graphical representation of (a) cosine and (b) sine on a complex plane. 8 Graphical representation of sinusoid on a complex plane. 8 The real part of a rotating phasor. 9 Graphical addition of sinusoids with phasors. 11 Plot of a sweep. 14 A sawtooth signal. 14 The signal of Figure 1.14 time shifted by (a) 2 and (b) +1. 15 The signal of Figure 1.14 vertically shifted by (a) 2 and (b) +1. 15 The reverse of the signal of Figure 1.14. 16 The signal of Figure 1.14 (a) compressed by a factor of 2 and (b) expanded by a factor of 2. 16 The signal of Figure 1.14 (a) amplied by a factor of 2 and (b) attenuated by a factor of 2. 17 The successive transformations of Eq. (1.44). 18 The lollipop diagram for the discrete-time signal of Eq. (1.45). 19 The discrete-time unit step function. 20 The discrete-time unit impulse function. 20 A continuous-time unit step function. 20
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1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29
Sampling of an arbitrary signal. (a) Down-sampling and (b) upsampling of an arbitrary discretetime signal. Figure for Problem 1-8. Figure for Problem 1-10. Figure for Problem 1-11. Figure for Problem 1-12. A rectangular pulse. Approximating a continuous-time signal with a series of pulses. A better approximation for the initial part of a continuous-time signal. Approximating a sawtooth wave with a single pulse. A sawtooth signal. Basis functions for the example in Figure 2.5. Product of x(t) and 0 (t). Approximation to the sawtooth signal of Figure 2.5 using the basis functions of Figure 2.6. Third basis function for the example in Figure 2.5. Example of a pair of orthogonal basis functions. A third orthogonal basis function. Multiplication of 0 (t) and 2 (t). Approximation of a pulse function using sinusoids. Sinusoidal basis functions (Fourier series). Approximation of sinusoid using Walsh functions. Walsh basis functions. Approximation of sinusoid using Haar Wavelet basis functions. Haar Wavelet basis functions. A periodic pulse train. A periodic square wave. Square wave approximation showing Gibbs phenomenon. Square wave approximation using windowed coefcients. Sawtooth approximation showing Gibbs phenomenon. Spectrum of a sinusoid. (a) Magnitude and (b) phase spectrum of a sinusoid. A periodic pulse train. The spectrum of a periodic pulse train. A periodic square wave. The spectrum of a periodic square wave.
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2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15
A periodic sawtooth. The spectrum of a periodic sawtooth. Curious signals. Magnitude spectra for the signals of Figure 2.32. An arbitrary signal x(t). Approximating the integral with a series of rectangular pulses. Sampled 1 Hz cosine for N = 10. Sample 3 Hz cosine for N = 10. (a) Pulse train and (b) Fourier coefcients for N = 1000. (a) Pulse train and (b) Fourier coefcients for N = 50. Exponential and Fourier coefcient magnitude and phase. X [k] and the spectra of a 3 Hz cosine. Figure for Problem 2-1. Figure for Problem 2-3. Figure for Problem 2-4. Figure for Problem 2-6. Figure for Problem 2-10. Figure for Problem 2-11. Figure for Problem 2-12. Continuous to discrete (C/D) converter. Switch symbol for C/D converter. Continuous-time spectrum of a complex exponential. Discrete-time spectrum of a complex exponential. (a) Continuous- and (b) discrete-time spectra of a cosine signal ( f s = 4 f 0 ). (a) Continuous- and (b) discrete-time spectra of a cosine signal ( f s = 4 f 0 /5). Discrete to continuous (D/C) converter. Continuous-time spectra of the reconstructed signals ( f s = 4 f 0 and f s = 4 f 0 /5). Continuous- and discrete-time spectra of a cosine signal ( f s = 4 f 0 /3). Continuous-time spectra of x(t). Discrete-time spectra of x[n]. A 10 Hz sinusoid sampled at 25 Hz. Aliasing: a 52 Hz sinusoid sampled at 50 Hz. Folding: a 48 Hz sinusoid sampled at 50 Hz. Spectrum for T = 0.1 s and N = 3.
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Figures
3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20
Spectrum for T = 0.5 s and N = 11. Spectrum for T = 0.5 s and N = 32. Spectrum for T = 0.55 s and N = 32. Sinusoid repeating after 5.5 periods. Tapering sinusoid with a triangular window. Spectrum of a windowed sinusoid for T = 0.55 s and N = 32. Sinusoid sampled at 2 f 0 . Spectrum of a 52 Hz sinusoid sampled at 50 Hz. Spectrum of a 48 Hz sinusoid sampled at 50 Hz. Dial tone (entire signal and zoomed section). Spectrum of dial tone (entire section and zoomed section). Spectrum of dial tone truncated before silence. Noisy signal. Spectrum of noisy signal. Data acquisition system. Figure for Problem 3-1. Figure for Problem 3-5. Figure for Problem 3-10. The inputoutput relationship for a general system. (a) A cantilever or xed-free beam and (b) its model. (a) A xed-free rod and (b) its model. (a) A xed-free shaft and (b) its model. Schematic of a spring attached to a xed wall. Free body diagram for the free end of the spring of Figure 4.5. Restoring force on the right end of a spring. Restoring force on the left end of a spring. Forcedisplacement relationship for a linear spring. A spring with a force applied at both ends. (a) A viscous damper and (b) its symbolic representation. A springmass system. Free body diagram for the springmass system of Figure 4.12. A springmass system suspended from a ceiling. Static equilibrium and the displacement from static equilibrium. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.14. A base excitation system. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.17. Propeller of a ship. A simple mathematical model for the propeller of Figure 4.19.
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Figures
4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.49 4.50 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8
Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.20. A pendulum system. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.22. Parallel combination of two springs. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.24. Equivalent spring for the spring system of Figure 4.24. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 4.26. Parallel combination of N springs. Series combination of two springs. Equivalent spring for the spring system of Figure 4.29. Springs k1 and k2 in series. Springs k1 and k2 in parallel. k and kbeam in parallel. k and kbeam in series. k1 and kbeam in parallel, and the result in series with k2 . Parallel combination of N springs. Series combination of N springs. Figure for Problem 4-1. Figure for Problem 4-2. Figure for Problem 4-3. Figure for Problem 4-4. Figure for Problem 4-5. Figure for Problem 4-6. Figure for Problem 4-7. Figure for Problem 4-8. Figure for Problem 4-9. Figure for Problem 4-10. Figure for Problem 4-11. Figure for Problem 4-12. Figure for Problem 4-13. Current ow through an element. Voltage drop and node voltages across an element. Ground symbols. Schematic of an inductor. Circuit symbol for an inductor. Voltage source and a wire. Circuit symbol for a resistor. Schematic of a capacitor.
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5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Circuit symbol for a capacitor. Voltage and current sources. Voltage drop across elements in series. Parallel LC circuit with a current input. Direction of currents for the circuit of Figure 5.12. A springmass system with a force input. Electrical circuit with current and voltage inputs. A base excitation system. N resistors in parallel. N resistors in series. Figure for Problem 5-1. Figure for Problem 5-2. Figure for Problem 5-3. Figure for Problem 5-4. Figure for Problem 5-5. Figure for Problem 5-6. A series RC circuit. Mechanical system consisting of a disk attached to a rotational damper. A springmass system. A parallel R LC circuit. Step responses of a second-order system as a function of with n = 1 rad/s. Transient response characteristics. A springmassdamper system. An electrical circuit with a switch. Figure for Problem 6-2. Figure for Problem 6-3. Figure for Problem 6-4. Figure for Problem 6-5. Figure for Problem 6-6. Figure for Problem 6-7. Figure for Problem 6-8. Figure for Problem 6-13. Inputoutput relationship using the frequency response function. A springmassdamper system under base excitation. Inputoutput relationship using the frequency response function. Bode plot axes.
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Figures
7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37
Bode plot of a positive constant factor. Log magnitude plot of a rst-order factor in the denominator. Bode plot of a rst-order factor in the denominator. Bode plot of a rst-order factor in the numerator. Log magnitude plot of the product of two rst-order factors in the denominator (see Eq. (7.38)), for 1 = 1 s and 2 = 0.1 s. Phase plot of the product of two rst-order factors in the denominator (see Eq. (7.38)) for 1 = 1 s and 2 = 0.1 s. Straight-line approximation versus the exact Bode plot for the system of Eq. (7.38) for 1 = 1 s and 2 = 0.1 s. Bode plot of an undamped or underdamped second-order factor in the denominator. Exact Bode plot of an underdamped second-order factor in the denominator. (a) Parallel and (b) series impedance combinations. Electric circuit for Example 1. Circuit of Figure 7.15 in terms of impedances. General frequency response function. Electric circuit for Example 2. Circuit of Figure 7.18 in terms of impedances. Simplied circuit of Figure 7.19. Electric circuit for Example 3. Circuit of Figure 7.21 in terms of impedances. Figure for Problem 7-1. Figure for Problem 7-3. Figure for Problem 7-4. Figure for Problem 7-5. Figure for Problem 7-6. Figure for Problem 7-7. Figure for Problem 7-10. Figure for Problem 7-11. Figure for Problem 7-12. Figure for Problem 7-13. Figure for Problem 7-14. Figure for Problem 7-15. Figure for Problem 7-16. Figure for Problem 7-17. Figure for Problem 7-18.
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Figures
7.38 7.39 7.40 7.41 7.42 7.43 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25
Figure for Problem 7-19. Figure for Problem 7-20. Figure for Problem 7-22. Figure for Problem 7-23. Figure for Problem 7-25. Figure for Problem 7-26. (a) Input spectrum, (b) frequency response function and (c) output spectrum. Computing response using Fourier series and FRF. Computing response using FFT. Second-order electrical system. Pulse train input. Pulse train response for the underdamped second-order system of Figure 8.4. Pulse train response found with Fourier technique. Pulse train response obtained with Fourier technique (solid line) overlaid with the exact step response. Pulse train response and exact step response for (a) T0 = 20 s and (b) T0 = 3 s. Spectrum of music with annoying 1500 Hz tone. Filtered audio signal. Sampling a complex exponential. (a) Gain and (b) phase of discrete-time frequency response function of Eq. (8.37). System rejecting high frequencies. Digital signal processing system. (a) Gain and phase of the discrete-time frequency response function of Eq. (8.48) vs ; (b) gain vs. f in kHz. Spectrum of the signal a) before and b) after ltering. Frequency response of the modied lter. Continuous- and discrete-time systems for comparison. Continuous-time input spectrum. (a) Continuous-time frequency response and (b) output spectrum. Discrete-time input spectrum. (a) Discrete-time frequency response and (b) output spectrum. RC circuit: a rst-order low-pass lter. Bode plot for a low-pass RC lter.
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Figures
8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23
Frequency responses of continuous-time and discrete-time systems (linear scale). Frequency responses of continuous-time and discrete-time systems (log scale). Step responses of continuous-time and discrete-time systems. Desired frequency response function. Frequency response of discrete-time low-pass lter. Frequency response of discrete-time high-pass lter. Low-pass lter with 25 coefcients. Frequency response of world-famous M lter. Mixer: multiplication of signals. (a) Input and (b) output spectrum of a mixer. (a) Generic input spectrum for x(t) and (b) the spectrum for its associated output y(t). Figure for Problem 8-4. Mixing input with carrier wave. Spectrum of x(t). Spectrum of y(t). (a) The demodulation process and (b) the resulting spectrum. AM radio band. Receiving AM station. Spectrum of AM signal. Time domain plots of (a) x(t) and (b) y(t). Crystal radio receiver. Amplitude modulation with envelope detection. Systems representation of crystal radio receiver. Time-domain view of AM radio receiver. Frequency-domain view of AM radio receiver. Time-domain view of AM radio receiver with overmodulation. Vibration measuring device. Free body diagram of seismic mass. Gain of Eq. (9.11) as a function of /n . Model of a vibration absorber attached to an optical table. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 9.18. Free body diagram for the system of Figure 9.18 when x = 0. Basis functions for the discrete cosine transform (DCT). Approximating a slowly changing signal; x[n] vs n. Approximating an abruptly changing signal; x[n] vs n.
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Figures
9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 L1.1 L1.2 L1.3 L1.4 L2.1
L2.2
L2.3
Basis functions for two-dimensional DCT as a function of m, n. Compressed photographs. Figure for Problem 9-1. Figure for Problem 9-2. Figure for Problem 9-3. Figure for Problem 9-4. Figure for Problem 9-5. Figure for Problem 9-6. Figure for Problem 9-7. Spectrum of sum of sunusoids. Spectrum of pulse train. Discrete-time spectrum showing folding and aliasing. (a) An electrical and (b) a mechanical system. Transient response characteristics. Bode plot of a rst-order system in the denominator using straight-line approximation. Bode plot of an underdamped second-order system in the denominator using straight-line approximation. Series and parallel combinations, and voltage dividers. DSP with FFT. DSP with FIR. Example M A T L A B plot of 5 Hz sinusoidal waveform. Examples of M A T L A B multiple data-sets and multiple separate plots in one window. Example M A T L A B plot for the sinc 5.m script le. Example M AT L A B plot for an echoed waveform. Layout of a piano keyboard. Key numbers are shaded. The notation C4 means the C key in the fourth octave. (Source: McClellan, J. H., Schafer, R. W. and Yoder, M. A. DSP First, C 1998. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.) Musical notation is a timefrequency diagram where vertical position indicates the frequency of the note to be played. (Source: McClellan, J. H., Schafer, R. W. and Yoder, M. A. DSP First, C 1998. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.) The rst few bars of Beethovens F r Elise. (Source: McClellan, u J. H., Schafer, R. W. and Yoder, M. A. DSP First, C 1998. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
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385
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L2.4 L3.1 L3.2 L3.3 L3.4 L3.5 L4.1 L4.2 L4.3 L4.4 L5.1 L6.1 L7.1 A1.1 A1.2 C1.1 C1.2 C1.3 C1.4 C1.5
Example ADSR envelope to produce fading. One period of cosine waveform with four samples. Continuous-time spectrum for Figure L3.1. Discrete-time Fourier transform spectrum for Figure L3.1. DFT spectrum for Figure L3.1. Example spectrum for exercise. Example RLC circuit. Magnitude and phase plots for the circuit of Figure L4.1. Example sweep spectrum. Frequency response function of the circuit of Figure L4.1. A simple model of an automobile suspension system. Continuous-time frequency response of an ideal band-pass lter. The magnitude spectrum of y1 in the Lab 7 example. Cartesian representation of a complex number. Polar representation of a complex number. Discrete-time upsampling with M = 4. Discrete-time sampling with N = 24 and M = 2. Discrete-time sampling with N = 24 and M = 3. Discrete-time sampling with N = 24 and M = 4. Discrete-time sampling with N = 24 and M = 6.
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Tables
1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
3.1 3.2 4.1 5.1 6.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 L
Touch-tone telephone tones. Discrete-time signal values. Coefcients of the pulse function of Figure 2.13 using sinusoids. Coefcients of the sinusoid of Figure 2.15 using Walsh functions. Coefcients of the sinusoid of Figure 2.17 using Haar Wavelet basis functions. Periodic square wave coefcients. Relation of X [k] to ck for N = 4. General relation of X [k] to ck . M AT L A B relation of X [k] to ck . Impact of the number of samples N on the quality of the approximation (ck and X [k] are given by Eqs. (2.59) and (2.66), respectively). The effects of sampling frequency on the reconstructed signal. Touch-tone telephone tones. Constitutive equations for ideal translational mechanical elements. Analogy between electrical and mechanical elements. Homogeneous solutions of Eq. (6.40) as a function of . Coefcients for slowly changing signal. Coefcients for abruptly changing signal. File sizes of photographs shown in Figure 9.25. Analogy between electrical and mechanical elements. Laboratory exercises and relevant chapters.
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Preface
This text results from a new approach to teaching the sophomore engineering course entitled Introduction to Engineering Systems at Harvey Mudd College. Since the course is required of all students regardless of major, the goal is to provide a clear understanding of concepts, tools, and techniques that will be benecial in engineering, physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, and computer science. Cha, Rosenberg, and Dyms Fundamentals of Modeling and Analyzing Engineering Systems,1 written specically for this course and providing an excellent introduction to the modeling and analysis of systems from a wide variety of disciplines, was used for several years. This text complements that texts focus on modeling with a strong emphasis on representation of continuous-time and discrete-time signals in both the time and frequency domains, modeling of mechanical and electrical systems, and the design of nite impulse response (FIR) discrete lters. Fundamentals of Modeling and Analyzing Engineering Systems and this text can be used together in a two-semester sequence to provide a thorough introduction to both signal processing and modeling, or selected topics from both can be used as the basis for a one-semester course. The sampling theorem, continuous-to-discrete and discrete-to-continuous converters, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and its computation with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) are explained in detail. Students are introduced to M AT L A B and get hands-on experience with a series of laboratory assignments that illustrate and apply the theory. Single variable calculus is the only essential background although some knowledge of differential equations, linear algebra, and vector spaces is helpful. The materials covered in this text have
1
Fundamentals of Modeling and Analyzing Engineering Systems by P. D. Cha, J. J. Rosenberg and C. L. Dym, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2000.
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Preface
grown out of lectures given primarily to sophomores at Harvey Mudd College. These notes have been classroom-tested over a period of six semesters. Engineers, scientists, and mathematicians are increasingly faced with acquiring, processing, interpreting, and extracting information from data, which are usually provided as a series of discrete samples, independent of whether the original underlying signals and systems were continuous or discrete in nature. Discrete-time techniques are used almost exclusively for simulating both continuous-time and discrete-time systems. Effective use of modern analysis, design, and simulation tools such as M AT L A B require a clear understanding of the underlying theory as well as a good bit of practice with applications. We begin by developing representations of continuous-time signals as functions and discrete-time signals as sequences (Chapter 1). We then explore various transformations such as shifts, reversal, compression, and expansion for continuous-time signals. We also cover upsampling and downsampling for discrete-time signals. Next, the construction of complicated signals from basic building blocks is introduced using the orthogonality principle (Chapter 2). This provides the foundation and context for the later focus on complex exponentials and the Fourier series. By starting with the generally applicable approach of minimizing the integrated squared error through the use of the orthogonality principle, the student is given a much deeper understanding and appreciation for a broad class of applications, including the use of Walsh functions in cellular phones to various series expansions using a variety of building blocks or basis functions. The difference between the orthogonality principle and orthogonal basis functions is carefully explained. An appendix provides a natural development of basis functions starting with the familiar three-dimensional vectors. Complex exponentials as building blocks provide the foundation for the development of the spectrum of a continuous-time signal. Its importance in characterizing and extracting information from signals leads naturally to the need for numerical techniques to compute the spectrum of complicated signals produced by phenomena such as earthquakes, space photographs or communication systems. This, in turn, leads to the discrete Fourier transform and its efcient computation using the fast Fourier transform algorithm. While we do not derive the fast Fourier transform algorithm, the text describes its use in considerable detail and laboratory exercises provide the opportunity for students to explore practical applications.
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Continuous-time and discrete-time signals are connected via the sampling theorem (Chapter 3). The spectrum of a discrete-time signal provides the basis for exploring the phenomena of aliasing and folding, which must be fully understood in order to correctly acquire, process, analyze and interpret data. The behavior of continuous-to-discrete (analog-to-digital) and discrete-to-continuous (digital-to-analog) converters is explored as the culmination of the rst part of the text. The next major division of the text is devoted to the lumped element modeling of mechanical and electrical systems (Chapters 4 and 5). We start with the basic elements (building blocks) for mechanical systems consisting of springs, dampers, and masses. First-order and second-order governing equations are developed and canonical forms are dened for both the translational and rotational systems. Parallel and series combinations of elements as well as the division of force and displacement are covered. A parallel development for electrical systems leads naturally to the forcecurrent and velocityvoltage analogs. Solution of rst-order and second-order differential governing equations is introduced, transient response specications are dened that are used in system design, and a state space approach is formulated as an alternative means to analyze the free and forced responses of a system (Chapter 6). Frequency response builds on the concept of the complex exponential building blocks that are covered in the rst part of the text (Chapter 7). The complex exponentials also serve as the eigenfunctions of linear timeinvariant systems, and the concept of frequency response provides the bridge between signals and systems. Bode plots of rst-order and second-order factors are developed. The complex exponential building blocks and the concept of frequency response are then used to dene impedance and its application in combining various elements of mechanical and electrical systems. An introduction to the analysis and design of nite-impulse response lters forms the nal major part of the text (Chapter 8). The ease with which arbitrary frequency response functions can be implemented is developed as another application of the Fourier series and demonstrated with a whimsical example. A series of applications from a variety of disciplines then follows, providing the student with an appreciation of the power and scope of the concepts, tools, and techniques developed throughout the text (Chapter 9). The text concludes with a short transition section designed to relate the fundamentals to concepts covered in more advanced texts (Chapter 10).
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This text offers numerous special features that distinguish itself from other texts on signals and systems, and they are summarized in the following:
r A rigorous development of the construction of signals from building r The building block approach to develop a clear understanding of the spec-
blocks (basis functions) via the orthogonality principle is given.
tra of both continuous-time and discrete-time signals as well as the frequency responses of continuous-time and discrete-time systems all without the use of the continuous-time impulse, Fourier transform, or Laplace transform is used. r A solid understanding of the use of the FFT in extracting information from signals and determining the response of electrical and mechanical systems to realistic inputs is provided. r Signal processing and systems modeling are treated on equal footing. Electrical engineering departments usually teach systems with primary emphasis on signal processing while mechanical engineering departments put the primary emphasis on dynamic modeling and control. In order to cover all of the desired topics, this text does not include the control of dynamical systems. This is a conscious decision the authors made in order to present a complete end-to-end analysis from characterizing the input signal, to modeling the physical system, to determining the response or output of the system to arbitrary inputs. r A thorough treatment of the modeling of complicated mechanical and electrical systems is provided. The analogy between lumped mechanical and electrical systems is introduced in detail. r Detailed examples of characterizing both simple and realistic (complicated) input signals, modeling physical systems, and determining their response to these inputs are provided. Most modeling texts focus extensively on how to describe the physical system and determine its response to classical inputs such as impulse, step, and sinusoid. In addition to these standard inputs, this text shows how complicated inputs can be represented using simple building blocks, thus allowing the determination of the response of systems to realistic inputs. Finally, seven M AT L A B laboratory exercises are included at the end of the text to allow students to gain a deeper understanding and mastery of the topics covered in the text. We hope that the use of computational software will enhance the learning experience and stimulate the students interest in signals and systems.
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Acknowledgments
The creation of this text was truly a team effort. As part of the teaching team Professor David Harris diligently took notes on his laptop during the authors lectures and carefully edited them. Without these notes as a basis or building blocks, the writing of the text may never have gotten off the ground. In addition, David wrote the M AT L A B-based laboratory exercises and created the review that is part of Chapter 10. Professors Lori Bassman, Mary Cardenas, David Harris, Elizabeth Orwin, Jennifer Rossmann, and Qimin Yang have all taught parts of the course over the past three years and contributed signicantly to the nal form and content of the text. Professor Anthony Bright, our department chair, gave us unwavering support and encouragement and allowed us to use his introduction to M AT L A B that is the basis of Laboratory Exercise 1. Paul Nahin, a former colleague and long-time friend of the second author gave inspiration through his wideranging books from science ction to a truly innovative blend of science technology, and history, as well as encouragement when this text was just an idea. During his senior year, student Warren Katzenstein provided support in developing the initial drafts of the text and gures. We also want to acknowledge the hundreds of students who have contributed through their questions, evaluations, and comments. Finally, we want to acknowledge the moral support of our families, who have all shared the joy and pain of the writing of this text. In particular, the rst author would like to thank his Dad, Mom, brother Paul and sister Pauline, the second author his wife Janet, son Tim, and daughter Karen who always encouraged him but wondered if he would ever actually write a book.
Philip D. Cha John I. Molinder
Harvey Mudd College Claremont, California
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Cambridge University Press 0521849667 - Fundamentals of Signals and Systems: A Building Block Approach Philip D.

Cha and John I. Molinder Frontmatter More information

Fundamentals of Signals and Systems

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Fundamentals of Signals and Systems

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Cambridge University Press 2006

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blocks (basis functions) via the orthogonality principle is given.

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