STEPS IN WRITING A GOOD RESEARCH PROPOSAL A Narrow Success in Thesis Writing Depends on Several Factors: 1.

Determination and Persistence in Seeing the Proposal the proponent should not only be determined and persistent, but he must also have patience and belief in his capability to bring the study to its proper conclusion. 2. Time it is necessary to take a leave to have time to make the proposal, conduct the study, analyze the results, make necessary recommendations, and proofread the manuscript several times before submission and defense. 3. Adequate Resources to be Used include materials, references, access to libraries, and a quiet study room with a computer to access information. 4. A Good Background in Research and Statistics the proponent must have a good background in statistics to organize and interpret his data. 5. Mastery of the English Language the proponent should be able to express his logical data clearly and precisely in medium language. Research Proposal Contains: 1. Title Page all reports, research, and thesis start with the title page that tells the reader what the research is about besides establishing such facts presented. 2. Abstract brief and consice summary and contains the statement of purpose, the research design and the findings. 3. Narrative states the problem and purpose of the study, the procedure followed in conducting the studyand the specific design. 4. Selection of Personnel, Budget, Facilities, and Resources the people who participated in the study, the estimated expenses and the facilities and equipment to be used in the proposal. 5. Enclosures enclosed in the proposal are related literature, aggreement with the agencies concerned and data gathering instruments. 10 Steps Writing a Research Proposal: I. Formulation of the Problem A. Definition of Source of Topic includes the conceptualization of the topic one desires to study. a. Characteristics of a Good Research Problem 1. The Research Question is Feasible means the probability for the study to be accomplished is great. This is determined by:  Availability of the Study Subjects the type and number of the study subjects must be defined and their consent and willingness to participate in the study must be secured.  Funding for possible expenses such as salaries, transportation, cost of materials and etc.

B. C.

D.

E.

 Cooperation of Others cooperation within the study setting can be easily gained if they view the study as important to them.  Approval from Higher Authorities permission must be sought from the highest authority within that agency to conduct a certain study.  Adequate Time the amount of time needed to finish the study should be estimated. 2. The Research Question is Important most studies deal with solving problems in health, the frequency of the problem and cost of health services. 3. The Concept to be Studied must Relate to Observable Events overt behavior, which not only the researcher can verify but others, too; or covert behavior. 4. The Findings of a Good Researchable Problem may be Generalized in other Areas the problem is derived from a sound conceptual framework or models to confirm, support, modify or reject the existing framework. 5. The Purpose of the Study is Clearly Defined the study may possibly add to the field of nursing knowledge. 6. The Researcher must be Interested and Qualified to do the Study the researcher must not only be competent in the research area, but should also possess technical skills in research methods, and sound judgment in coping. Statement of the Tentative Problem an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling condition to solve the problem or to contribute to its solution. Review of Related Literature an organized written presentation that covers previous studies in the identified problem, background studies, significance of the study, and related theories. a. Theoretical Literature consists of concept analyses, models, theories, and conceptual frameworks that support a research problem and purpose. b. Empirical Literature comprises relevant studies in journals and books including unpublished studies. Development of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework a. Theoretical Framework a one or more theories through the processes of induction and deduction that postulates relationships among concepts and empirical testing that encompasses phenomena. b. Conceptual Framework represents a less formal attempt at organizing phenomena that serves as springboard for the formulation of research hypothesis. Definition of the Specific Problem when the problem area is identified, the review of literature is completed and the population delineated, the researcher then defines what will be studied.

F. Definition of the Purpose or the Objectives of the Research the purpose is the reason or justification why the study is being carried out. And the objectives relate to realistic short-term goals. G. Formulation of the Hypothesis a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide further investigation. a. Types of Hypothesis: 1. Associative identifies the variables that occur or exist together in practice. 2. Causal specifies the cause and effect between two or more variables. 3. Simple predicts the relationship bet. dependent and indepent variable. 4. Complex predicts the relationship bet. two or more independent and dependent variables. 5. Null assumption that there is no difference bet. the studied varibles, and can be simple or complex, associative or causal. H. Statement of Assumptions describing a fact or condition that is accepted to be true on the basis of logic and reason. I. Definition of the Scope, Limitations, and Delimitations a. Scope deals with the extend to which the study will be made b. Limitations perceived weaknesses that are discussed and reported. c. Delimitations restrictions that the researcher places on the study prior to data gathering. J. Definition of the Terms to be Used this will delineate the phenomena about which information may be sought, along with the subjects to be studied including the setting of the study. II. Determining the Research Design or the Approach and Setting Appropriate for the Study a research design is a blueprint that delineates the factors that would interfere with a study s desired outcome. A. Determine the Research Setting a. Natural Setting where the studies are conducted, uncontrolled, real-life environments. This includes the descriptive and correlational studies. b. Partially-Controlled Setting the environment is modified in some way by the researcher. This is used in quasi-experimental studies where the effectiveness of nursing interventions is studied. c. Highly-Controlled Setting researchers conducted within an agency or institution should always have the permission of the head of the agency.

III.

Delineation of the Population(s) to be Studied the researcher proceeds to delineate the population(s) from which the sample subjects are selected. A. Factors that Determine Sample Size a. Accessibility of Sample Participants a sample is taken when it is not feasible to study the whole population. b. Cost only a limited number may be studied if no funds are available. c. Amount of Time Available a small sample size may be gathered if the time is limited. B. Types of Sampling and Selection Techniques a. Probability Sampling this was developed to ensure some degree of precision to estimations of the population parameters. 1. Simple Random Sampling the selection of the sample is done by chance. 2. Stratified Random Sampling the population is subdivided into area, and/or section. 3. Systematic Sampling done by taking every (n)th person in certain setting. 4. Cluster Sampling small sample is taken from various sections of the total population. b. Non-Probability Sampling Non-Random Sampling purposely chosen for an in-depth understanding of a particular experience, situation, or misconduct. 1. Convenience or Accidental Sampling a weakest form of sampling and is subject to bias. 2. Snowball or Network Sampling involves subjects suggesting or referring other subjects who meet the researcher s eligibility criteria. 3. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling selects and studies specific number of a special group that represents the target population with regards to certain characteristics. 4. Cross-Cultural Sampling the study is conducted in a variety of cultural settings. 5. Longitudinal Sampling a given group of subjects is studied for an extended period of time, which can either be retrospective or prospective. 6. Cross-Sectional Sampling the subjects are observed at a given period. 7. Quota Sampling identifies the population to be studied and determines the proportion needed in the population.

IV.

Selection and Development of the Tools/Techniques for Collection of Data researcher develops the tool or instrument to gather data, the ff: A. Reliability basic characteristic of a research instrument that refers to accuracy or precision of the tool. B. Validity relevance of the measurement to the study being done. C. Sensitivity fine lines of difference among the study subjects can be determined from the measurements. D. Meaningfulness the measurement must have a practical application. E. Appropriate if it is applicable to the subjects being tested. F. Objective Tool free from bias. G. Ethical Tool does not violate the human rights of clients. Development of the Data Analysis Plan the data is carefully analyzed by the researcher. At this point, it may be necessary to revise the choice for data collecting methods and intelligently plan for data-gathering treatment. Data Collection A. Select the Research Personnel it should have a prior experience in data collection to acquire necessary skills. B. Train the Data Collectors the researcher should be briefted on the background and the purpose of the study in collecting data. C. Seek Permission to Collect Data researcher should seek permission to collect data from the authorities concerned. D. Explain Research Participation benefits of the research study should be explained to the participants if they are not aware what is the study of the group about. E. Importance of Pre-Test this can be best determined by pre-testing it before it is applied to the subjects in the actual study. F. Conducting a Pilot Study involves a small scale test of the entire study, that is, a testing not only of instruments but also of the sampling plan, intervention and procedures. Organization and Processing of Data A. Processing of Data methods of data processing must be decided. The main step in transforming raw data to a finished product include editing of the raw material, coding, scoring and selling the data, and summarizing the data into statistical tables. B. Organization of Data Collected the researcher should examine his organized data to ensure that they meet a series of criteria. Analysis and Interpretation of Data A. Presentation of Data results should be systematic and logical, and never contain raw data, and should begin with statements more in general findings then to specific ones.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

B. Analysis and Interpretation of Data Collected the report should also show if some aspects of the method used to analyze the data violated some of the assumptions of the statistical tests used. C. Accceptance or Rejection of the Hypothesis IX. Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations A. Conclusions are the investigator s judgment about the data collected. B. Recommendations suggestions of possible applications of research findings. C. Implications draws meaning from his conclusions and states them as possible needs of the population in general. Writing the Research Report A. Organization of Materials for Writing investigators are ordinarily faced with a mass of notes, which, without an organization guide, could mean chaos. B. Suggested Report Format certain studies are likely to call for the selection of portions of the format outline, at the discretion of the investigator. C. Abstract may or may not accompany in a written report. It is a clear, concise summary of a study that is limited to 100 to 250 words in one-page, single spaced report. D. Apply the Results a research becomes successful in providing new insights, and the results can have meaning beyond the specific setting which generated the data.

X.

BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASUREMENT Purposes: y y y y y Basic physiology with relevance for nursing care Ways that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomes Evaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesis Improving measurement and recording of biophysiologic data collected by RN Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems

It develops to: y y y y y y y Identify types of data needed for the study Select the types of measures to measure each variable Select and/or develop instruments Secure written permission to use each instrument Pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise prn Develop data collection forms and procedures Implement data collection plan

Describe characteristics of sample: y y Demographics - age, gender, ethnic origin, education background, marital status Health-related variables - health habits, diet, exercise, illness, length of illness, tx., los

Control for extraneous variables: y y y Measure as many as possible Intrinsic and extrinsic factors (variables) that might influence DV Analysis of covariance

Analyze potential biases: y y y Selection bias r/t sample Self-report of socially unpopular values, beliefs, or activities Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability scale use

Understanding subgroup effects: y May want to see if main effects also apply to subgroups o Main group - transplantation patients o Subgroups -bone marrow, heart, kidney, lung, liver transplantation subgroups o Analyze data per subgroup

Interpretation of results: y y Consider results that do not fit desired outcomes Identify what data might explain undesirable outcomes

Manipulation check: y y Ask subjects if manipulation/treatment was effective Helps to interpret negative results

Obtain administrative data: y y y Records of subject ID=s Data on number of times subjects recruited or approached, dates of data collection, length of time for data collection, location, time of day, and who collected data Who, what, when, where, and how of data collection

Select the types of measures to measure each variable: y y y y y y Each variable must be measured - quantified Highly structured measurement takes time and testing to develop, yet gives data easier to analyze both descriptively and inferentially Researcher obtrusiveness - balance decreases obtrusiveness while protecting subjects' rights Objective measurement of phenomenon Better to use multiple methods to measure variables - self-reports, observations, and physiologic measures Need to consider ethics, cost, time, staff, and stress on pt./family &/or agency personnel

Other Types of Measures: Existing Records y y Q sort y y y Subject asked to sort statements into piles according to importance to subject or most positive to least positive Forced choice arrangement distributed into piles of bell-shaped curve Time-consuming and difficult for some respondents Databases collected by other researchers Medical record audits

Delphi or nominal technique y Measures the judgments of a group of experts, assess priorities or make forecasts o Steps  Identify panel of experts to answer questions  Develop questionnaire mostly closed-ended  Questionnaires completed and returned by experts and results analyzed  Statistical analysis and 2nd questionnaire sent to experts and returned  Steps 3 & 4 repeated until data reflects the consensus of the experts

SECONDARY METHODS/RESEARCH What is Secondary Method? Also known as desk research, secondary method is the most common research method employed in the industry today. It involves processing data that has already been collected by another party. With this form, researchers will consult previous studies and findings such as reports, press articles and previous market research projects in order to come to a conclusion. The relatively low expense in comparison to primary research is the main advantage of this research as no new research needs to be commissioned. However, its main disadvantage is that the data used in the analysis may be out-dated and therefore return inaccurate results. Furthermore, previous studies may not have targeted the exact issue that the current research requires. Advantages:
y

Ease of Access - In years past accessing good secondary data required marketers to visit libraries or wait until a report was shipped by mail. When online access initially became an option marketers needed training to learn different rules and procedures for each data source. However, the Internet has changed how secondary research is accessed by offering convenience (e.g., online access from many locations) and generally standardized usage methods for all data sources. Low Cost to Acquire - Researchers are often attracted to secondary data because getting this information is much less expensive than if the researchers had to carry out the research themselves. May Help Clarify Research Question Secondary research is often used prior to larger scale primary research to help clarify what is to be learned. For instance, a researcher doing competitor analysis, but who is not familiar with competitors in a market, could access secondary sources to locate a list of potential competitors. May Answer Research Question - As noted, secondary data collection is often used to help set the stage for primary research. In the course of doing so researchers may find that the exact information they were looking for is available via secondary sources thus eliminating the need and expense to carrying out their own primary research.

May Show Difficulties in Conducting Primary Research The originators of secondary research often provide details on how the information was collected. This may include discussion of difficulties encountered. For instance, the secondary research may be a research report written by a large market research company. These types of reports often include a section discussing the procedures used to collect the data and within this may disclose problems in obtaining the data, such as a high percentage of people declining to take part in the research. After reading this the marketer may decide the potential information that may be obtained is not worth the potential difficulties in conducting the research.

Disadvantages:
y

Quality of Researcher As we will discuss, research conducted using primary methods are largely controlled by the marketer. However, this is not the case when it comes to data collected by others. Consequently, the quality of secondary research should be scrutinized closely since the origins of the information may be questionable. Organizations relying on secondary data as an important component in their decisionmaking (e.g., market research studies) must take extra steps to evaluate the validity and reliability of the information by critically evaluating how the information was gathered, analyzed and presented. Not Specific to Researcher s Needs Secondary data is often not presented in a form that exactly meets the marketer s needs. For example, a marketer obtains an expensive research report that looks at how different age groups feel about certain products within the marketer s industry. Unfortunately, the marketer may be disappointed to discover that the way the research divides age groups (e.g., under 13, 14-18, 19-25, etc.) does not match how the marketer s company designates its age groups (e.g., under 16, 17-21, 22-30, etc). Because of this difference the results may not be useful. Inefficient Spending for Information Since the research received may not be specific to the marketer s needs, an argument can be made that research spending is inefficient. That is, the marketer may not receive a satisfactory amount of information for what is spent. Incomplete Information Many times a researcher finds that research that appears promising is in fact a teaser released by the research supplier. This often occurs when a small portion of a study is disclosed, often for free, but the full report, which is often expensive, is needed to gain the full value of the study. Not Timely Caution must be exercised in relying on secondary data that may have been collected well in the past. Out-of-date information may offer little value especially for companies competing in fast changing markets. Not Proprietary Information In most cases secondary research is not undertaken specifically for one company. Instead it is made available to many either for free or for a fee. Consequently, there is rarely an information advantage gained by those who obtain the research.

Secondary method or research may include:

y

statistical analysis: where information is readily available from the census studies, Australian Bureau of Statistics, local councils and other government bodies, is analysed to give a notion of the need for a particular target market for a project. This may be useful for establishing if there is a genuine need for a project. information research: including all forms of print, that is, texts, magazines, journals, pamphlets. It also includes electronic sources. These need to be checked for reliability and relevance. Anyone can publish on the Internet. Print sources should not be too out of date. Use your school and local librarians, they are trained to help you find information.

Secondary research can save time, you can easily incorporate your sources from Internet searches into your folio. However these need to be referenced, commented upon and analysed. Avoid plagiarism. Internet sources may also assist you in development of relevant tests and provide clues for how to collate and present data. Choosing the appropriate research method and collecting data is the first stage of research. The next stage is presenting the data, interpreting the results and analysing the data and identifying any trends that may become evident.