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A: Mathematical Formulation (4.1.1, 4.2, ( 6.1-6.4) B: Inviscid Flow: Euler Equation/Some Basic, Basic Plane Potential Flows (6 5 6 7) (6.5-6.7) C: Viscous Flow: Navier-Stokes Equation Navier Stokes (6.8-6.10)
Introduction
Differential Analysis
There are situations in which the details of the flow are important, e.g., pressure and shear stress variation along the wing. l h i Therefore, we need to develop relationship that apply , p p pp y at a point or at least in a very small region (infinitesimal volume) with a given flow field. field This approach is commonly referred to as differential analysis. l i The solutions o the equ o s are rather difficult. e so u o s of e equations e e d cu . Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) can be applied to t complex flow problems. l fl bl
V = u ( x, y, z , t )i + v( x, y, z , t ) j + w( x, y, z , t )k
r uu r drA = VA dt
V = V ( x, y , z , t )
V = V = u +v +w
2 2
A change in velocity results in an acceleration which may be due to a change in speed and/or direction.
V4.3 Cylinder-velocity vectors V4.4 Follow the particles V4.5 Follow the particles
Unsteady streamlines are difficult to generate y g experimentally, but easy to draw in numerical computation. On the contrary, streaklines are more of a lab tool than an analytical tool. How can you determine the unsteady pathline of a moving particle?
uu uu ur r r uu r VA = VA rA , t = VA x A ( t ) , y A ( t ) , z A ( t ) , t
( )
uu uu ur r r uu r VA = VA rA , t = VA x A ( t ) , y A ( t ) , z A ( t ) , t uu r uu r uu r uu r uu r dVA VA VA dx A VA dy A aA (t ) = = + + dt t x dt y dt uu r VA dz A + z dt uu r uu r uu r uu r VA VA VA VA = + uA + vA + wA t x y z
( )
Acceleration
This is valid for any particle
u r u r u r u r r V V V V a= +u +v +w t x y z u u u u ax = +u +v + w t x y z v v v v ay = + u + v + w t x y z w w w w az = +u +v +w t x y z
Material d i ti M t i l derivative
Associated with time variation Acceleration: u r u r u r u r u r u r r DV DV V V V V a= , = +u +v +w Dt Dt t x y z Associated with space variation
Material derivative
The material derivative of any variable is the rate at which that variable changes with time for a given particle (as seen by one moving along with the fluid the L l i h h fl id h Lagrangian i descriptions) p ) If velocity is known, the time rate change of temperature can be expressed as, as
DT T T T T = +u +v +w Dt t x y z r T = + (V )T t Example: the temperature of a passenger experienced on a train starting from Taipei on 9am and arriving at Kaohsiung on 12.
u r u r r V V u u r a= +u = + u i t x t x
3 r r R 3 4 a = Vo (1 + 3 )Vo [ R ( 3x )] i x
ay =
az =
v v v v +u +v +w t x y z
w w w w +u +v +w t x y z
If velocity gradient v / y and w / z are also present, then 1 d ( V ) u v w = + + = V volumetric dilatation rate V dt x y z
The volume of a fluid may change as the element moves from one location to another in the flow field. For incompressible fluid, the volumetric dilation rate is zero.
so that
OA = lim
( v / x) t v =x t 0 t
(if
v x
u yt u y t tan = = y y
so that
OB
( u / y ) t u = lim = t 0 t y
Angular rotation
V4.6 Flow past a wing
The rotation, z , of the element about the z axis is defined as the average of the angular velocities OA and OB , if p , , counterclockwise is considered to be positive, then,
1 v u z = 2 x y
similarly
1 w v x = y z , 2
1 u w y = 2 z x
thus h
i 1 1 V = 2 2 x u
+ + k = 1 curl V = 1 V = xi j y x 2 2
j y v k 1 w v 1 u w 1 v u = i + j+ k z 2 y z 2 z x 2 x y w
Definition of vorticity y
Define D fi vorticity ti it
= 2 = V
The fluid element will rotate about z axis as an undeformed block ( ie: OA = OB ) only when y
u v = y x
ur = u z = 0
z = 2
r = = 0
1 1 u r (ru ) z = r r r
Free vortex
u = k r
ur = u z = 0
r = 0
= 0
1 (ru ) = 0 z = r r
for f
r0
Angular Deformation
Apart form rotation associated with these derivatives v and x , these derivatives can cause the element to undergo an angular deformation, which results in a change in shape of the element. The change in the original right angle is termed the shearing strain ,
= +
u y
Angular Deformation
Rate f h i R t of shearing strain or rate of angular deformation t i t f l d f ti
u v x t + y t & = lim = lim t 0 t t 0 t v u = + x y
The rate of angular deformation is related to a corresponding g p g shearing stress which causes the fluid element to change in shape. If , the rate of angular deformation is zero and this condition indicates that the element is simply rotating as an undeformed block.
u v = y x
Conservation of mass:
dV cv d + cs V ndA = 0 t
(6.19)
To obtain the differential form of the continuity equation, Eq. 6 19 i E 6.19 is applied to an infinitesimal control volume. li d t i fi it i l t l l
u x u x u Net mass flow in the direction u + yz u x 2 yz = x xyz x 2 v Net mass flow in the y direction xyz y Net mass flow in the z direction w xyz z u v w Net rate of mass out of flow x + y + z xyz
dV t xyz t
V = 0
V = 0
v= x
+ x y 2 2 =0 = xy yx
then
x y
For velocity expressed in forms of the stream function, the conservation of mass will be satisfied.
d = dx + dy = vdx + udy x y
which is the defining equation for a streamline. Thus we can use to plot streamline. The actual numerical value of a stream line is not important but p the change in the value of is related to the volume flow rate.
If 2 > 1 then q is positive and vice versa. p In cylindrical coordinates the incompressible continuity 1 (rv r ) 1 v equation becomes, + =0 Then, ,
1 vr = r
v = r
or
= VdV + VV ndA CS t CV
then
F =
D ( V m ) Dt
or
Fbx = mg x
Fby = mg y
Fbz = mg z
Surface force act on the element as a result of its interaction with its surroundings (the components depend ) on the area orientation)
Where Fn is normal to the area A and F1 and F2 are parallel g to the area and orthogonal to each other.
Sign f t Si of stresses
Positive sign for the stress as positive coordinate direction ii di di i on the surfaces for which the outward normal is in the positive coordinate direction.
NotePositive normal stresses are tensile stresses, ie, they tend to stretch the material.
Thus
F = Fs + Fb
PART B Inviscid Flow: Euler Equation/Some Basic, Plane Basic Potential Flows (Sections 6.5-6.7) 6 5-6 7)
p + +w gy = + u y t x y z w p w w w gz = + u + +w z t x y z or V g p = + (V )V t
The main difficulty in solving the equation is the nonlinear terms which appear in the convective acceleration.
g p = ( V ) V
g = g z (up being positive) 1 ( V ) V = ( V V ) V ( V ) 2 thus the equation can be written as, g z p = ( V V ) V ( V )
2 or p 1 + V 2 + g z = V ( V ) 2
( )
Take h dot T k the d product of each term with a differential length d f h i h diff i ll h ds along a streamline p 1 ds + (V 2 ) ds + g z ds = V ( V ) ds 2
V ( V ) ds = 0
Since
ds = dx + dy + dz k i j p p p p d s = dx + dy + dz = dp x y z
Thus the equation becomes q
dp
1 + d V 2 + g dz = 0 2
( )
dp V 2 + 2 + gz = constant which indicates that the sum of the three terms on the left side of the equation must remain a constant along a given streamline.
For inviscid incompressible flow, the equation become, inviscid, flow become
V2 + + gz = const g 2 or p p1 V12 p2 V22 + + z1 = + + z2 2g 2g
For (1) i i id fl inviscid flow (2) steady flow (3) incompressible flow (4) flow along a streamline
V = 0
Since V = , therefore for an irrotational flow field the vorticity is zero. field, zero
The condition of irrotationality imposes specific relationships among these velocity gradients gradients. For example, 1 u
=0 z = 2 x y u w x = y , y = z , u w = z x
fluid?
According to the 2-D vorticity transport equation (cf. Problem 6.81) D z = 2 z Dt D Vorticity of an fluid element grows along with its motion as long as is positive. So, an initially irrotatioal flow will eventually turn into rotational flow in a viscous fluid. On the other hand, an initially irrotatioal flow remains , irrotational in an inviscid fluid, if without external excitement.
In an irrotational flow, V = 0, so the equation is zero reg , q g ardless of the direction of ds. Consequently, for irrotational flow the Bernoulli equation is q y, f q valid throughout the flow field. Therefore, between any flow points in the flow field,
dp V 2 + 2 + gz = constant or p1 V12 p2 V22 + + z1 = + + z2 2g 2g
For (1) Inviscid flow (2) Stead flow (3) Incompressible flow (4) Irrotational flow
In Cartesian coordinates, Thus, inviscid, incompressible, irrotational flow fields are governed by Laplaces equation. Cylindrical coordinate
( ) 1 ( ) ( ) = e + ez r + r r z 1 = er + e + ez r r z where = ( r , , z ) (
2 2 2 + 2 + 2 =0 2 x y z
)e
Since V = r e r + e + z e z
Example 6.4 p
= 2r 2 sin 2
1 = 4r cos 2 = = 2r 2 cos 2 + f1 ( ) r r 1 = = 4r sin 2 = = 2r 2 cos 2 + f 2 ( r ) r r Thus = 2r 2 cos 2 + C
r =
= 2r 2 cos 2
V 2 = ( 4r cos 2 ) + ( 4r sin 2 ) = 16r 2
2 2
p1
V12 p2 V22 + = + 2g 2g
= 1 + 2
The practical implication is that if we have basic solutions, we solutions can combine them to obtain more complicated and interesting solutions. solutions In this section several basic velocity potentials, which describe some relatively simple flows, will be determined flows determined.
stream function : u = , v= y x
or
1 vr = , r
v = r
Defining the velocities in terms of the stream function, function conservation of mass is identically satisfied. Now impose the condition of irrotationality, u v = y x Thus
y y = x x or 2 2 + 2 =0 2 x y
Thus for a two-dimensional irrotational flow, the velocity two dimensional flow potential and the stream function both satisfy Laplace equation. It is apparent from these results that the velocity potential and the stream function are somehow related related. Along a line of constant , d =0
d = dx + dy = vdx + udy x y dy v udy = vdx, = dx u
Therefore, Therefore the equations indicate that lines of constant (equipotential lines) are orthogonal to lines of constant (stream line) at all points where they intersect.
u =U v = 0 =U, =0 x y = Ux + C
Thus, for a uniform flow in the positive x direction, , p ,
= Ux
The corresponding stream function can be obtained in a similar manner, =U, = 0 =U Uy y x
The l it Th velocity potential and stream function for a t ti l d t f ti f uniform flow at an angle with the x axis,
Note: At r=0, the velocity becomes infinite, which is of course physically impossible and is a singular point.
= K and = K ln r
where K is a constant.
1 K v = = = r r r (free (f vortex) t )
Free vortex
Forced vortex
If the fluid were rotating as a rigid body, such that v = Kr , this type of vortex motion is rotational and can not be described b a velocity potential by elocit potential. Free F vortex: b h b fl bathtub flow. V6.4 Vortex in a beaker Forced vortex: liquid contained in a tank rotating about its axis.
Combined vortex
Combined vortex: a forced vortex as a central core and a free vortex o tside the core orte outside core.
v = r r r0 K v = r r > r0
where K and r are constant and r0 corresponds to the radius of central core.
Circulation
A mathematical concept commonly associated with vortex motion is that of circulation. = V ds (6.89) C The integral is taken around curve, C, in the counterclockwise curve direction. Note: Greens theorem in the plane dictates ( V ) k dxdy = C V ds For an irrotational flow
V = V ds = ds = d
R
therefore,
For an irrotational flow, the circulation will generally be zero. However, if there are singularities enclosed within the curve, the circulation may not be zero.
d = 0
C
K ( rd ) = 2 K r
K= 2
Note: However along any path which does not include the singular point at the origin will be zero. The velocity potential and stream function for the free vortex are commonly expressed in terms of circulation as, as
= 2 = ln r 2
Example 6.6
Determine an expression relating the surface shape to the strength of the vortex as specified by circulation .
V12 V22 = zs + 2g 2g 1 v = = r 2 r 2 zs = 2 2 8 r g
6.5.4 Doublet
Consider potential flow that is formed by combining a source and a sink in a special way. Consider a source-sink pair
m = (1 2 ) 2
2 tan m
Doublet
For small values of a
(6.94)
Doublet is formed by letting the source and sink approach one another ( a 0 ) while increasing the strength m ( m ) so that the product ma/ remains constant.
As a 0, r /( r 2 a 2 ) 1 / r
K sin = r where K = ma/ is called the strength of the doublet. The corresponding velocity p p g y potential is K cos = r
(6.95)
(6.96)
Doublet-streamlines
1 K cos Vr = = = r r r2 1 K sin V = = = r r r2
(6.97)
For the source alone m vr = 2r Let the stagnation p g point occur at x=b, where U = m , 2b m so b= 2U The value of the stream function at the stagnation point can be obtained by evaluating x at r=b and , which yields from b i db l i b d = hi h i ld f Eq. 6.97 m stagnation = = bU 2 Thus the equation of the streamline passing through the stagnation point is, b( ) bU = Ur sin + bU or r= (6.100) sin
The width of the half-body asymptotically approaches 2b half body b. This follows from Eq. 6.100, which can be written as y = b( ) so that as 0 or 2, the half-width approaches b.
With the stream function (or velocity potential) known, the ( yp ) , velocity components at any point can be obtained. 1 m = U cos + vr = r 2r = U sin i v = r
Thus the square of the magnitude of the velocity V at any point is, Um cos m 2 2 2 2 2 V = vr + v = U + +( ) 2 r r m since b = 2 U b b2 V 2 = U 2 1 + 2 cos + 2 (6.101) r r With the velocity known, the pressure distribution can be dete determined from the Bernoulli equation, ed o t e e ou equat o ,
1 1 2 p0 + U = p + V 2 2 2
(6.102) (6 102)
Note: the velocity tangent to the surface of the body is not zero; that is, the fluid slips by the boundary.
Example 6.7 p
b b2 V 2 = U 2 1 + 2 cos + 2 r r on the surface = / 2 h f 4 Thus V 2 = U 2 1 + 2 Th b y2 = 2
b ( ) b r= = sin 2
p1
V12 p2 V2 2 + + y1 = + + y2 2g 2g
p1 p2 =
(V 2
2 2
V12 ) + ( y2 y1 )
As in Section 6.5.4
= Ur sin
or m 2ar sin tan 1 2 2 2 r a m 2ay 1 = Uy y tan 2 x + y2 a2 2
The stream line =0 forms a closed body. Since the body is closed, all of the flow emanating from the source flows into the sink. p These bodies have an oval shape and are termed Rankine ovals. The stagnation points correspond to the points where the uniform velocity, velocity the source velocity, and the sink velocity all combine to velocity give a zero velocity. Th location of the stagnation points depend on the value of a, m , The l ti f th t ti i t d d th l f and U.
l m or = + 1 a Ua
source:
Therefore h f m m U + =0 2 ( r a ) 2 ( r + a )
m 2a U =0 2 2 2 r a m 1 m 2 2 1 = 0 or r a = 2 2 U r a U m l =r = + a2 U
1 2
m vr = 2 r
The body half width, h, can be obtained by determining y y g the value of y where the y axis intersects the =0 streamline. Thus, from Eq. 6.105 with =0, x=0, and y=h, It follows that f ll th t
m 2ay y m 2ah 1 0 = Uh =U Uy tan 2 t tan t 1 2 2 x + y2 a2 2 2 h a
2ah Uh 2 tan 1 2 = 2 m h a 2ah 2 Uh = tan 2 2 h a m 2 Uh h2 a 2 tan h= 2a m h 2 h 2 2 Uh 1 Ua h h 1 = 1 tan = 1 tan 2 a 2 a m 2 a m a
Both l/a and h/a are functions of the dimensionless parameter Ua/m. As l/h becomes large, flow around a long slender body is described, whereas for small value of parameter, flow around a more blunt shape is obtained. Downstream from the point of maximum body width the surface pressure increase with distance along the surface. In t l i I actual viscous fl flow, an adverse pressure gradient will d di t ill lead to separation of the flow from the surface and result in a large low pressure wake on the downstream side of the body. However, separation is not p , p predicted by p y potential theory. y Rankine ovals will give a reasonable approximation of y y y the velocity outside the thin, viscous boundary layer and the pressure distribution on the front part of the body.
V6.6 Circular cylinder V6.8 Circular cylinder with separation V6.9 Potential and viscous flow
Thus the stream function and velocity potential for flow around a circular cylinder are
a2 = Ur 1 2 sin r a2 = Ur 1 + 2 cos r
Therefore the maximum velocity occurs at the top h f h i l i h and bottom of the cylinder = /2 and has a magnitude of twice the upstream velocity U. The pressure distribution on the cylinder surface is p y obtained from the Bernoulli equation,
1 1 2 p0 + U = ps + v s 2 2 2 1 ps = p0 + U 2 1 4sin 2 2
where p0 and U are pressure and velocity for point far from the cylinder. cylinder
The figure reveals that g only on the upstream part of the cylinder is there y approximate agreement between the potential flow and the experimental results.
The resulting force (per unit length) developed on the g (p g ) p cylinder can be determined by integrating the pressure over the surface.
Fx = ps cos ad = 0
0
Fy = ps sin ad = 0
0
Both the drag and lift as predicted by potential theory for a fixed cylinder in a uniform stream are zero. since the pressure distribution is symmetrical around the cylinder. In reality, there is a significant drag developed on a cylinder when it is placed in a moving fluid. (dAlembert paradox)
By adding a free vortex to the stream function or velocity potential for the flow around a cylinder, then i l f h fl d li d h
a2 1 2 sin = Ur ln r 2 r a2 = Ur 1 + 2 cos + r 2
= 2U sin + 2a
(6.121)
This type of flow could be approximately created by placing a rotating cylinder in a uniform stream. Because the presence of viscosity in any real fluid, the fluid in contact with the rotating cylinder would rotate with the same velocity as the cylinder, and the resulting flow field would resemble that developed by the combination of a uniform flow past a cylinder and a free vortex.
U 2 2 Fy = ps sin ad = sin d = U 0 0
For a cylinder with circulation, lift is developed equal to the product of the fluid density the upstream velocity and the density, velocity, circulation. Fy = U
U (+) ( +, counterclockwise ) the Fy is downward
The development of this lift on rotating bodies is called the Magnus effect.
F y = ma y
Fz = ma z
m = x y z
u xx yx zx u u u gx + + + = +u +v +w x y z t x y z xy yy zy v v v v y y gy + + + = +u +v +w x y z t x y z w xz yz zz w w w gz + + + = +u +v +w x y z t x y z
visc,ij
xx,visc xy yx yy,visc zx zy
xx = p + 2
z y w u zx = xz = + x z
Can you figure out why the normal viscous stress xx,visc can be expressed as 2 u x ?
1 r r r = r = r + rr = p + 2 r r r r 1 r + z = z = + 1 z = p + 2 z r r r z r z zz = p + 2 rz = zr = + z z r
Note: Notation xy
1 r p = + gr + r r r r r
Nonlinear terms
umax
= 0, w = 0 ,
Thus continuity indicates that
u =0 x
u = u ( y)
2u 2u 2u u u u u p + u + + w = + gx + 2 + 2 + 2 x y z x y z t x 2 2 2 p +u + + w = + gy + 2 + 2 + 2 t x y z y y z x 2w 2w 2w w w w w p +u + + w = + gz + 2 + 2 + 2 t x y z z y z x
g x = 0 , g y = g and g z = o
p p
1 p 2 u= y h2 2 x
which indicates that the velocity profile between the t th two fixed plates is parabolic. fi d l t i b li
V6.13 Laminar flow
1 p 2 y h 2 dy d h 2 x
h
1 q= 2 1 = 2
h y3 p 2 h y x 3 h p y 3 h3 3 3 h + h x 3 3
2 h3 p = 3 x
The pressure gradient is negative, since the pressure decreases i th direction of th fl d in the di ti f the flow.
p p = l x 2 h 3 p 2h 3p q= = , 3 x 3 l
q h 2 p V= = 2h 3 l
The maximum velocity umax , occurs midway y=0 between a the two plates, thus
h2 p umax = 2 x 3 umax = V 2
or
Thus the pressure variation throughout the fluid can be obtained from
p p = gy + x + p0 x
V 2h
The above analysis is valid for R = Re remains below about 1400 Problem 6.88: 10 tons on 8psi
or in dimensionless form
u y b 2 p y y = 1 U b 2U x b b
Couette flow
The simplest type of Couette flow is one for which the pressure gradient is zero i.e. the fluid motion is caused by the fluid being dragged along by the moving p boundary. y =0
x y Thus u =U b which indicates that the velocity varies linearly y y between the two plates.
e.g. e g Journal bearing ro-ri << ri The fl Th flow i an unloaded in l d d journal bearing might be approximated by this simple Couette flow.
Example 6.9
u=w=0
=0 y
= ( x)
p p = =0 x z x = h p = atmospheric pressure dp d d dp =0 =0 dx dz
Therefore Th f d 2 0 = g + 2
dx d 2 = 2 dx d = x + C1 dx
on the film surface x=h we assume that the shearing stress is x=h, zero d xy = xy = 0 at x = h dx h C1 =
2nd integration
2 h x x + C2 2 x = 0 = V0 C2 = V0 2 h = x x + V0 2 =
2 h q = dx = x x + V0 dx 0 0 2 h3 q = V0 h 3
h h
Only if y
h2 V0 > 3
vr = v = 0 vz =0 z vz = vz ( r )
g r = g sin
g = g cos
0=
1 v z p + r z r r r
which indicate that the pressure is hydrostatically distributed at any particular cross section and the z component of the pressure gradient, p / z , is not a function of r or .
Boundary conditions
At r=0, vz is finite at the center of the tube, thus C1=0 1 p 2 At r=R vz =0 then r R, 0, C2 = R 4 z Thus the velocity distribution becomes,
dQ = v z (2r )dr
Q = 2
v rdr = 2
0 z
1 p 2 R 4 p 2 (r R )rdr = 4 z 8 z
Poiseuille s Poiseuilles law
R 4 p p p Let , then Q = = 8l l z
mean velocity y
Q R 2 P V= = 2 8l R
maximum velocity
vmax R 2 p R 2 p = = 4 z 4 l
2
so
vmax = 2V
ro2 ri2 rm = 2 ln ( r0 / ri )
The maximum velocity does not occur at the mid point of the annulus space, but rather it occurs nearer the inner cylinder. To d t T determine R i Reynolds number, it i common practice t use an ld b is ti to effective diameter hydraulic diameter for on circular tubes.