Section 2 Scada-Ems 2-File 2

This document contains Siemens Power Transmission & Distribution, Inc.
Confidential and Proprietary Information

and is subject to the restrictions stated on the proprietary page.

Volume II

Network Analysis Applications

IME WGI SCADA 30-0124 01/05
Contents Siemens EMA

This document contains Siemens Power Transmission & Distribution, Inc. Confidential and Proprietary Information

CONTENTS

1. Energy Management Applications Software 1
2. Power Applications Software 1
2.1 Load Frequency Control 5
2.1.1 General 5
2.2 Performance Monitor 14
2.2.1 General 14
2.2.2 Control Performance Standards 14
2.3 Reserve Monitor 14
2.3.1 General 14
2.3.2 Concept 15
2.3.2.1 Active Reserve Monitoring 15
2.3.2.2 Reactive Reserve Monitoring 18
2.4 Economic Dispatch 19
2.4.1 General 19
2.4.2 Dispatch Calculations 19
2.4.3 Concept 20
2.5 Constrained Economic Dispatch Option 1 23
2.5.1 General 23
2.5.2 Concept 24
2.6 Constrained Economic Dispatch Option 2 24
2.6.1 General 24
2.6.2 Concept 24
2.6.3 Method 25
2.7 Production Costing 25
2.7.1 General 25
2.7.2 Concept 25
2.8 Interchange Transaction Scheduler 27
2.8.1 General 27
2.8.2 Concept 28
2.8.2.1 Pre-Scheduling 28
2.8.2.1.1 Contracts 28
2.8.2.1.2 Transactions 28
2.8.2.1.3 Schedules 28
2.8.2.2 Scheduling 29
2.8.2.3 Summaries 29
2.8.2.4 Maintenance 29
2.8.2.5 Interfacing 29
2.8.2.5.1 Instantaneous Net Scheduled Interchange 29
2.8.2.5.2 Inadvertent Interchange 30
2.8.2.5.3 ASCII File Import 30
2.8.2.5.4 User Interface 30
2.9 Economy A Evaluation (EconA) 31
2.9.1 Overview 31
2.9.2 Concept 31
2.10 Energy Accounting 32
2.10.1 Overview 32
2.10.2 Concept 32
Volume II, Contents i Siemens EMA


3. Network Analysis Applications Software 1
3.1 Model Update (MU) 5
3.1.1 MU Functional Description 5
3.1.2 MU Interface with Other Functions 6
3.1.3 MU Algorithm 7
3.1.4 MU User Interface 7
3.2 State Estimator (SE) 8
3.2.1 SE Functional Description 11
3.2.2 SE Interface with Other Functions 13
3.2.3 SE Algorithm 14
3.2.4 SE Measurement Set 17
3.2.5 SE User Interface 18
3.3 Network Parameter Adaptation (NPA) 20
3.3.1 NPA Functional Description 20
3.3.2 NPA Interface with Other Functions 21
3.3.3 NPA Algorithm 22
3.3.4 NPA User Interface 25
3.4 Security Analysis (SA) 25
3.4.1 SA Functional Description 27
3.4.2 SA Interface with Other Functions 29
3.4.3 SA Algorithm 29
3.4.4 SA Contingency Screening 32
3.4.4.1 SA Performance Indices 32
3.4.4.2 SA Real Power Performance Index 32
3.4.4.3 SA Voltage/Reactive Power Performance Index 32
3.4.4.4 SA Contingency Ranking 33
3.4.4.5 Computational Efficiency of SA Contingency Screening 34
3.4.5 SA User Interface 35
3.5 Voltage Scheduler (VS) 36
3.5.1 VS Functional Description 36
3.5.2 VS Interfaces with Other Functions 37
3.5.3 VS Algorithm 37
3.5.4 VS User Interface 38
3.6 Dispatcher Power Flow (DPF) 39
3.6.1 DPF Functional Description 40
3.6.2 DPF Interface with Other Functions 43
3.6.3 DPF Algorithm 43
3.6.4 DPF User Interface 47
3.7 Outage Scheduler (OS) 51
3.7.1 OS Functional Description 52
3.7.2 OS Interface with Other Functions 54
3.7.3 OS Algorithm 54
3.7.4 OS User Interface 54
3.8 Short Circuit Calculations (SCC) 57
3.8.1 SCC Functional Description 58
3.8.2 SCC Interface with Other Functions 60
3.8.3 SCC Algorithm 61
3.8.3.1 Formation and Factorization of the Bus Admittance Matrix 63
3.8.3.2 Network Modifications 64
3.8.4 SCC User Interface 64
3.9 Network Analysis Execution Control 67
Volume II, Contents ii Siemens EMA


4. Forecast/Scheduling Application Software 1
4.1 Short-Term Load Forecast 3
4.1.1 Overview 3
4.1.2 Concept 4
4.1.2.1 Updating/Adaptation of Historical Data 5
4.1.2.2 Forecast Algorithms 5
4.1.2.3 Very Short-Term Prediction 7
4.1.2.4 After-the-Fact Error Analysis 7
4.2 Unit Commitment 7
4.2.1 General 7
4.2.2 Concept 8
4.2.3 Solution Method 14
4.2.4 Input and Output 16
4.3 Case Comparison (CP) 17
4.3.1 General 17
4.3.2 Concept 17
5. Operator Training Simulator (OTS) 1
5.1 OTS Executive Overview 1
5.2 Introduction and Overview 3
5.3 OTS Functional Description 5
5.4 OTS Capabilities 7
5.5 OTS Techniques and Algorithms 7
5.5.1 Topology Processor 9
5.5.1.1 Raw Topology Processor 9
5.5.1.2 Power Flow 9
5.5.2 OTS Network Model Output 10
5.5.3 OTS Load Modeling 11
5.5.3.1 Load Models 11
5.5.3.2 Cold Load Models 11
5.5.4 OTS Dynamic Modeling 13
5.5.5 OTS System Dimensionality and Generator Coherency 14
5.5.6 The OTS Power Plant 15
5.5.7 VAR Resources 18
5.5.8 HVDC Model 18
5.5.9 OTS Relays 18
5.5.10 External Generation Control Areas 19
5.5.11 Simulation of Voltage Collapse 19
5.5.12 OTS Sizing Considerations 20
5.5.13 OTS Performance 20
5.6 OTS Educational Subsystem 21
5.6.1 Conditional Events 22
5.6.2 Session Support 23
5.6.3 Base Case Creation 24
5.6.4 PSM Reports 24
5.7 Heuristic Scenario Builder (HSB) [Optional] 24
5.8 Transient Stability [Optional] 25
5.9 OTS User Interface 25
5.9.1 Event Editor 25
5.9.2 Event Library Maintenance 25
5.9.3 Condition Editor 26
5.9.4 Performance Measurement Editor 26
5.9.5 Instructor Message Window 26
5.9.6 One-Line Diagrams 27
Volume II, Contents iii Siemens EMA


Volume II, Contents iv Siemens EMA
5.9.7 Sample Displays 27
5.10 Base Case and Event Library Maintenance 30
5.10.1 Motivation and Discussion 30
5.10.2 Outline of Solution of Case Retention 31
5.10.3 OTS Capability for Case and Event Library Retention 31
6. DMS Applications Software 1
6.1 Operations Support Applications 3
6.1.1 Outage Management System (OMS) 3
6.1.2 Switching Procedure Management (SPM) 5
6.1.3 Fault Location 7
6.1.4 Fault Isolation and Service Restoration 9
6.1.5 Free Placed Jumpers, Grounds, and Cuts 12
6.1.6 Graphical Query 13
6.2 Network Analysis Applications 14
6.2.1 Topology Processing 14
6.2.2 Distribution System Power Flow (DSPF) 16
6.2.2.1 Power Flow Solution 16
6.2.2.2 Equipment Modeling Within the Power Flow Solution 17
6.2.2.3 Load Setup 18
6.2.2.4 DSPF Executions 19
6.2.2.5 Input Data 19
6.2.2.6 Output Data 21
6.2.3 Volt/Var Control 22
6.2.3.1 Volt/Var Optimization Procedure 22
6.2.3.2 VVC Execution 23
6.2.4 Optimal Feeder Reconfiguration 24
6.2.4.1 Solution Procedure for Feeder Reconfiguration 25
6.3 Planned Functions 27
6.3.1 Cold Load Pickup 27
6.3.2 On-Line Short Circuit Calculation 27
6.3.3 Transformer Load Management 28
6.3.4 Load Forecasting 28

1. Energy Management Applications Software
The Energy Management applications provide the system dispatcher with tools that
help analyze and manage the available energy resources and transmission
capabilities of the power system. These applications are characterized by
algorithmically intensive software designed to assist the dispatcher in optimizing
system performance, including both economics and security.
These applications share the common environment of User Interface, Basic System
Software, etc., that also support the applications described in preceding sections
(Volume I) of this proposal, as illustrated in Figure 1-1.
The major categories for these
applications are:
BF2 127-EMS
Basic System Software Basic System Software
Software Platforms Software Platforms
Hardware Platforms Hardware Platforms
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User Interface Standards User Interface Standards
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Basic System Software Basic System Software
Software Platforms Software Platforms
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User Interface Standards User Interface Standards
Power Applications Section 2
Network Analysis Applications
Section 3
Forecast and Scheduling
Applications Section 4
Dispatcher Training Simulator
Subsystem Section 5
Distribution Management System
Section 6
Power Applications These
applications are designed to relieve
the dispatcher from the task of
matching generation resources to
load and interchange in an
economic and secure manner.
Figure 1-1. Open System Architecture Model
Network Analysis Applications These applications process the abundance of
available SCADA data to provide the dispatcher with a best estimate of the true state
of the network, evaluate system security, calculate penalty factors, and analyze
control strategies for relieving overloads and reducing network losses. In the study
mode, these applications allow the dispatcher to examine current or projected future
conditions and evaluate possible control strategies for increasing system
performance.


Volume II, Section 1 1-1 Siemens EMA

BF2 124
Operating
System
Load Frequency Control
Economic Dispatch
Production Costing
Reserve Monitor
Interchange Transaction Scheduler
Interchange Transaction Evaluation A
Energy Accounting
Performance Monitor
Constrained Economic Dispatch
Model Update
State Estimator
Network Parameter Adaptation
Network Sensitivity
Security Analysis
Power Flow (DPF/OPF)
Voltage Scheduler
Security Dispatch
Short Circuit Calculations
Outage Scheduler
Short Term Load Forecast
Unit Commitment
Transaction Evaluation
Case Comparison
Hydro Scheduling
Water Worth Value
Forecasting &
Scheduling
Application
Software
Power
Application
Software
Network
Analysis
Application
Software
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Energy Management
Applications
Energy Management
Applications
Figure 1-2. Energy Management Applications Software Overview

Forecast and Scheduling Applications These applications assist the dispatcher
in predicting system load, setting commitment schedules, and evaluating the
economics of possible interchange transactions.
This suite of applications contains a large number of highly integrated subsystems,
representing Siemens' leadership and experience in delivering application software.
Through stable and field proven functional interfaces between the applications,
additional capability can be realized for the user. For example, future interchange
may be evaluated with or without a commitment case, and the results of the
economic evaluation analyzed for its affect on system flows, losses, security, etc.,
using the projected equipment outages for the time of the analysis.




Many such interfaces have been developed both to other application areas (Figure 1-
2) and within the energy management applications (Figure 1-3), representing
Siemens' commitment and emphasis on providing not only state of the art software,
but useful tools for the operations environment.
BF2 301
System Description
Information
Management
Operator
Training
Simulator
Economy A
Evaluation A
LFC/
ED/RM
Interchange
Transaction
Scheduler
Energy
Accounting
Production
Costing
Unit
Commitment
Load
Forecast
Transaction
Evaluation
Model
Update
State
Estimator
Real Time
Security
Analysis
Voltage
Scheduler
Security
Dispatch
Network
Sensitivity
Network
Parameter
Adaptation
Power Flow
Initialization
Short Circuit
Calculations
Study
Security
Dispatch
Power Flow
(DPF/OPF)
Study Security
Analysis
Real- Time
Study
Operator Training
Network
Analysis
Forecast &
Scheduling
Power
Applications
Model Update
AGC
Study
Voltage
Scheduler
Short Circuit
Calculations
Information Management
Figure 1-3. Power System Applications Overview

2. Power Applications Software
The power application software performs the Automatic Generation Control and
dispatching functions of the ECS. It regulates the real power output of generators;
economically allocates generating demands among committed units; and calculates
operating reserves, production costs, and interchange schedules. It incorporates a
logical and comprehensive set of man-machine features for operator supervision and
control of generation and interchange. The power application software also
calculates production cost data, provides the means for scheduling interchange
transactions between companies, and supports the recording of Energy Accounting
data. Figure 2-1 shows the interrelationship of the power application functions
Power Applications
Software
Power Applications
Software
Operating
System
Software
Automatic
Generation
Control
Load
Frequency
Control
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Production
Costing
Economic
Dispatch
Reverse
Monitor
Economic A
Evaluation
Energy
Accounting
Interchange
Transaction
Scheduler
Energy
Management
Applications
Network
Analysis
Application
Software
Forecasting &
Scheduling
Application
Software
BF2 120
Power Applications
Software
Power Applications
Software
Operating
System
Software
Automatic
Generation
Control
Load
Frequency
Control
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Production
Costing
Economic
Dispatch
Reverse
Monitor
Economic A
Evaluation
Energy
Accounting
Interchange
Transaction
Scheduler
Energy
Management
Applications
Network
Analysis
Application
Software
Forecasting &
Scheduling
Application
Software
BF2 120
Figure 2-1. Power Application Software



Major features of the power application programs are:
On-line operator displays that summarize the operational results obtained by
execution of the power application programs
Operator entry with verification of values with specified limits using on-line
control displays.
Tuning displays through which control parameters for the system and units
may be modified for optimum automatic control. These displays also support
assessment of unit control response for use in tuning.
Alarms for changes of state and out-of-limits values plus logging of operator
actions and system events.
The following sections describe the proposed operation of the Power Applications
(PA) functions specified by Iraq SCADA Refurbishment. These are:
Automatic Generation Control (AGC), which consists of:
Load Frequency Control (LFC) 2.1
Performance Monitor (PM) 2.2
Reserve Monitor (RM) 2.3
Economic Dispatch (ED) 2.4
Constrained Economic Dispatch (Option 1) 2.5
Constrained Economic Dispatch (Option 2) 2.6
Production Costing (PC) 2.7
Interchange Transaction Scheduler (ITS) 2.8
Economy A Evaluation (Econ A) 2.9
Energy Accounting (EA) 2.10
The proposal functions are based upon the Iraq SCADA Refurbishment specification
and Siemens' experience in implementing other ECS systems containing similar
power application requirements.
General Functionality
In real-time the Power Applications require a significant amount of coordination
between the control center and the various power plant facilities.
System-wide economic benefits can be achieved if this coordination can be
optimized taking into consideration unit efficiencies, fuel costs and availability,



transmission efficiencies, unit and transmission outages as well as interchange
power, availability and price.



Survey of Power Applications
The Load Frequency Control function (LFC) provides the control mechanism to link
the load dispatch center and the generation units under its supervision.
It enables a utility to meet its own load together with contracts with neighbors while
contributing to the regulation of system frequency.
By making small variations to the reference frequency and/or to the scheduled tie-
line power it is also possible to control time error and inadvertent energy
interchange.
The Performance Monitor (PM) function provides information about the behavior of
the power system for control criteria reporting and so that LFC can be adjusted via
its tuning parameters to provide a desirable overall performance.
The PM function is designed to enhance the basic reporting activities concerning the
internal operation of the LFC function itself.
The Reserve Monitor (RM) helps power system operators prepare for possible
sudden loss of generation, arising from unit trips or the outage of interconnections to
a neighboring area from which energy is being purchased.
It enables the integrated management by the operator of generation, pumping,
interchange, shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors and interruptible load reserves,
with respect to required reserve targets.
The basic Economic Dispatch concept refers to the optimum allocation of load
among specified generating units.
Depending upon the end purpose, an optimum unit generation distribution for the
real-time power system operation can be used for the following functions:
Automatic Generation Control
Advisory Generation Control
Real-Time rescheduling of scheduled generation.
Constrained Economic Dispatch (CED) is responsible for allocating generation in an
optimal manner among the committed units to minimize production costs and to
relieve branch overloads. CED is dependent on the Real-Time Optimal Power Flow
function to detect security violations and to provide CED with a set of critical
constraints and sensitivities.
Production Costing (PC) refers to the calculations which seek to analyze the actual
costs of the daily production, to determine the sources of such costs, and to identify
opportunities for improvement.



The purpose of the Interchange Transaction Scheduler (ITS) is to enable a power
system to define and review the interchange transactions which it has with other
areas in the interconnected network.
ITS provides summary information to the operator for review and provides
interchange information to the Automatic Generation Control, Economy Dispatch,
and Reserve Monitor functions for use in real-time control and monitoring, as well as
to Economy A and Unit Commitment for studies
Economy A Evaluation (Econ A) provides the dispatcher with a tool for quick, online,
real-time evaluation of proposed sales and purchases of energy. It may also be
used in a study mode to plan market strategies.
One important function within an Energy Control System is a well working automatic
Energy Accounting system, which is able to deliver information about the current and
past energy transfers, generation and consumption. Energy Accounting supports the
historical maintenance of accounting data and its archival. Within Energy
Accounting, the ability to perform additional calculations is supported. These
calculations can be as simple as the grouping of data to calculate additional values
or processing of interchange data based on tariff periods.
General User Interface Features of Power Application
The Automatic Generation Control Overview display provides a summary of all
available functions as well as an overall health check of a control area.
Access is via poke points and/or softkeys.
Generation Control displays are structured in general to include:
Operating displays
Schedule displays
Parameter displays
Other specific displays
Usage of Technological Address for application data base points enables the
visualization of their contents via the standard display building software. Thus, the
user can easily create or customize any application data displays in addition to the
standard displays.



BF2 959
RM
Power System
Frequency 59.979 Hz
Generation 1864 MW
Non-AGC 11 MW
Manual 0 MW
Scheduled 0 MW
Economic 1853 MW
Interchange
Actual 66 MW
Desired 75 MW
System Load
Actual 1803 MW
Forecast 1800 MW
2: Process/ 2: Process/ RealTime - Automatic Generation Control & Scheduling RealTime - Automatic Generation Control & Scheduling
Automatic Generation Control Overview
ED PCM
S
ACE 2.4 MW
Sustained Generation
Manual 0 MW
Schedule 0 MW
Economic 1808 MW
Total 1808 MW
Temporary Generation
Total 32 MW
Regulating Range
Raise 40 MW
Lower 25 MW
LFC normal
CPS
Base Lambda
Load $/MWH
Control
1808 MW 30.917
Advisory
1808 MW 30.917
Target
1864 MW 22.390
Cost
Current 10757 $/h
Target 9620 $/h
Responsive Ready Operating
fast slow fast slow
res too low res too low res too low res too low
5 MW 20 MW 45 MW 62 MW 62 MW
Current
Reserve
BF2 959
RM
Power System
Frequency 59.979 Hz
Generation 1864 MW
Non-AGC 11 MW
Manual 0 MW
Scheduled 0 MW
Economic 1853 MW
Interchange
Actual 66 MW
Desired 75 MW
System Load
Actual 1803 MW
Forecast 1800 MW
2: Process/ 2: Process/ RealTime - Automatic Generation Control & Scheduling RealTime - Automatic Generation Control & Scheduling
Automatic Generation Control Overview
ED PCM
S
ACE 2.4 MW
Sustained Generation
Manual 0 MW
Schedule 0 MW
Economic 1808 MW
Total 1808 MW
Temporary Generation
Total 32 MW
Regulating Range
Raise 40 MW
Lower 25 MW
LFC normal
CPS
Base Lambda
Load $/MWH
Control
1808 MW 30.917
Advisory
1808 MW 30.917
Target
1864 MW 22.390
Cost
Current 10757 $/h
Target 9620 $/h
Responsive Ready Operating
fast slow fast slow
res too low res too low res too low res too low
5 MW 20 MW 45 MW 62 MW 62 MW
Current
Reserve
Figure 2-2. Automatic Generation Control Overview Display

2.1 Load Frequency Control
2.1.1 General
The overall objective of Load Frequency Control (LFC) is the power output alteration
of certain electric generators within a predefined area of an electrical network in
response to changes in system frequency and/or tie-line flows as well as their
reference values, so as to meet the area's obligations to contribute to system
regulation and/or to honor interchange agreements with other areas.
The LFC System enables the above objectives to be met via the integrated
management of generation resources from a central location. It includes all of the
secondary control features plus enough tertiary control features to enable total unit
output (temporary plus sustained components) to be controlled as a single quantity.



BF2 961
P
c-b
AREA S
c-b
P
s-c
P
s-b
P
s-a
AGC
S............... Own area
A,B,C........ Adjacent areas
D............... Distant area
A, B,C,D........ Interconnected areas
AREA D AREA D
AREA B AREA B
P
P
c-d
AREA B AREA B
AREA C
BF2 961
P
c-b
AREA S
c-b
P
s-c
P
s-b
P
s-a
AGC
S............... Own area
A,B,C........ Adjacent areas
D............... Distant area
A, B,C,D........ Interconnected areas
AREA D AREA D
AREA B AREA B
P
P
c-d
AREA B AREA B
AREA C
Figure 2-3. LFC Overview

The deviations from the area's obligations are defined in terms of the control
expression for Area Control Error: ACE = P + B F
where :
P = Net Interchange Error [MW]
F = Frequency Error [Hz]
B= System Frequency Bias [MW/Hz]
System time and energy can also be controlled by making small adjustments to the
frequency and interchange reference values respectively. This capability is
described in subsequent sections.
Interfaces
The LFC software system is closely linked to the Application Data software system.
It also relies on supervisory control output software for transmitting the setpoint
commands.
The Application Data software system coordinates the interaction between the
Economic Dispatch system and the LFC System and supplies these functions with
data from the User Interface (control modes, parameters etc.), from Data Acquisition,
and from the Scheduling Applications.
Other functions are available to help with the production of schedules if required.
The Control Approach



The general mechanism for correcting the Area Control Error is shown in Figure 2-4.
It consists of an outer loop for area control and an inner unit control.
The calculation of area control error takes into account not only the effect of
governor response to system frequency and changes in net interchange, but also:
Desired changes in frequency bias from the natural one,
Possible external area control error signals and
The separation of internally generated changes from external changes
originating from the power system.
BF2 963
Generation
Calculation
and
Distribution
Inner loop
Unit Control
Power
System
Calculation
of Area
Control
Error
Outer Loop
Dispatcher Input
and Schedules
ACE
Frequency Tie-line flows
Compensation
BF2 963
Generation
Calculation
and
Distribution
Inner loop
Unit Control
Power
System
Calculation
of Area
Control
Error
Outer Loop
Dispatcher Input
and Schedules
ACE
Frequency Tie-line flows
Compensation

Figure 2-4. LFC Control Loops

The generation allocation and control algorithm also includes features to enable high
speed processing of known generation changes and non-linear and variable unit
behavior to be managed.
The control approach consists of five tasks:



BF2 964
Area Control
Generation Calculation
Generation Distribution
Compensation
Unit Control
Generation
Control
Approach
Generation
Control
Approach
BF2 964
Area Control
Compensation
Unit Control
Generation
Control
Approach
Generation
Control
Approach

Figure 2-5. LFC Control Approach
Additional necessary auxiliary functions are carried out by a preprocessing module,
which performs the following functions :
Status processing of LFC-relevant messages (tie-line connection, etc.)
Interpreting frequency, interchange and unit measurement quality flags
Filtering of frequency and interchange power
Area Control
This module carries out the area control error calculation. The Area Control Error
(ACE) represents the deviation of the current situation from the area's obligations.
These obligations can involve frequency, interchange power, time and energy
interchange as single items or in certain combinations:
The ACE calculation is controlled via the operator entered control mode:
CONTROL MODE ACE CALCULATION
Constant Frequency ACE : = B * F
Constant net interchange ACE : = P
Tie-line bias ACE : = P + B * F
Constant frequency with time correction ACE : = B * F + T
c

Tie-line bias with time correction ACE : = P + B * F + T
c

Constant net interchange with energy ACE : = P + E
c

correction
Tie-line bias with energy correction ACE : = P + E
c
+ B * F
Tie-line bias with time and energy ACE : = P + E
c
+ B * F + T
c



where:
B = natural system bias [MW/Hz]
The value of frequency bias used in the ACE calculation consists of a network bias
and a plant bias. The network bias is made up from a bias estimate for the load.
The plant bias is calculated as the total of the individual bias factors for all on-line
units within the area. Alternatively, an operator entered system bias also can be
used.
P = net interchange error [MW]
The network interchange reference is usually provided by the interchange scheduling
system. If AGC is running as power plant controller, it comes from the supervisory
AGC system.
F = frequency deviation [Hz]
Usually the reference frequency is the nominal frequency of the area. Furthermore,
a reference frequency offset can be entered by the operator or can be scheduled.
E
c
= energy correction [MW]
Unilateral payback of inadvertent energy (as calculated by Energy Accounting) may
be performed by LFC. Energy Accounting maintains separate values for on and off
peak inadvertent.
T
c
= time correction [MW]
For correcting the electrical time, the (measured) time error is multiplied by an
operator entered value (B
t
, time bias) for calculating an offset to ACE.
Additionally, a parameter representing a share of externally supplied ACE or an Area
Requirement can be added to the term of ACE described above.
The purpose of the generation calculation function is to determine the total desired
generation of units under LFC control.
In conjunction with ACE, the following terms are taken into account:
Anticipatory Control
Via anticipation logic, it is possible to eliminate an ACE which would exist
because of a steadily increasing or decreasing load.
Unit Aid



The ACE represents the deviation of the actual behavior from the area's
obligations to meet a pre-defined amount of interchange power at a specific
reference frequency. However, the average frequency may be different from
the pre-defined value due to external influences not under control of the AGC
system. To ensure that limits are respected and all generation can be
allocated economically as required, the AGC system takes into account the
additional primary control component associated with the frequency deviation
(unit aid).
Stabilization
A feedback of the total unit generation reference is used to stabilize the
control input in the presence of unexpected unit behavior. If actual
generation is not available because of a telemetry failure, the result of the
unit simulation (see unit control) is used instead.
Non-Linear Processing
The resulting signal, including all control responsibilities (area control signal), is
processed by a Proportional plus Integral (PI) controller with different handling of
small and large signals. This non-linear dynamic element consists of the following
parts:



BF2 965
Off Remote Control
On Remote Control
Unit
Control
Type
Base
Load
Source
Indep
.
Not updated Updated Inflexible Supportive Flexible
Operator
Manual
Station
Dispatch
Base
Monitoring
Ramp
Monitoring
Schedule
Monitoring
Economic
Monitoring
Base
Advisory
Ramp
Advisory
Schedule
Advisory
Economic
Advisory
Base
Ramp
Schedule
Economic
Base
Assist
Ramp
Assist
Schedule
Assist
Economic
Assist
Base
Regulating
Ramp
Regulating
Schedule
Regulating
Economic
Regulating
Schedule
Economic
Dispatch
BF2 965
Off Remote Control
On Remote Control
Unit
Control
Type
Base
Load
Source
Indep
.
Not updated Updated Inflexible Supportive Flexible
Operator
Manual
Station
Dispatch
Base
Monitoring
Ramp
Monitoring
Schedule
Monitoring
Economic
Monitoring
Base
Advisory
Ramp
Advisory
Schedule
Advisory
Economic
Advisory
Base
Ramp
Schedule
Economic
Base
Assist
Ramp
Assist
Schedule
Assist
Economic
Assist
Base
Regulating
Ramp
Regulating
Schedule
Regulating
Economic
Regulating
Schedule
Economic
Dispatch

Normal gain
The purpose of the normal gain factor is to enable the overall
responsiveness of the control system to be set without disturbing the
relationship between the proportional and integral components of the PI-
Controller. Normal gain is a dispatcher adjustable parameter.
Small signal gain
The small signal gain is used to set the sensitivity of the AGC system to
small values of ACE (i.e., where the normal value of ACE is lower than the
noise threshold).
Dead band
The dead band ensures that control action for small random values of ACE is
different from control action for normal values.
Integrator
The integration time is always equal to the basic unit control time constant
(compensated regulation). Slower speed control (without altering the PI
relationship) is obtained by changing the normal gain as described above.
The output of the PI-controller is the total desired generation which is necessary to
meet the area's obligations.
The generation distribution function is responsible for distributing the total desired
generation to AGC units in a way which is consistent with their capabilities defined
by the unit operating modes:

Figure 2-6. Unit Operating Modes



Independent units are not considered by the LFC system
Dependent units are supervised by the LFC system, but not on remote
control. A setpoint is sent via the Remote Terminal Unit (RTU), if the unit is
updated.
Inflexible units do not contribute to system regulation.
Supportive units regulate only when the regulating capacity of flexible units is
inadequate
Flexible units are those assigned to normal system regulation.
The source of the base load can be specified by the operator. Manual Ramping is
controlled via the specified target value, the ramp rate and/or the ramp time. For
generation distribution the total regulating range is divided into three parts:

BF2 966
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
v
e
l
Maximum Unit Capacity
Regulating HIGH
Upper Emergency Regulating Range
Upper Regulating Range (Manual)
Sustained Operating Point
T
o
t
a
l

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

R
a
n
g
e
Lower Regulating Range (Manual)
Lower Emergency Regulating Range
Regulating LOW
Most
Constrained
- Lower operating limit (external)
- Calculated limits (internal automatic)
- Derated minimum capacity (manual)
Minimum Unit Capacity
Most
Constrained
- Upper operating limit (external)
BF2 966
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
v
e
l
Regulating HIGH
Upper Emergency Regulating Range
Upper Regulating Range (Manual)
Sustained Operating Point
T
o
t
a
l

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

R
a
n
g
e
Lower Regulating Range (Manual)
Lower Emergency Regulating Range
Regulating LOW
Most
Constrained
- Lower operating limit (external)
Most
Constrained
- Upper operating limit (external)
Figure 2-7. Regulating Ranges

Normal regulating range
The sum of the operator adjustable regulating ranges of all flexible units.



Boosted regulating range
The sum of the emergency regulating range (the range between emergency
regulating high and low) of all flexible units minus the normal regulating
range.
Assist regulating range
The sum of the emergency regulating range of all assist units.
The procedure for units not in an independent mode is first to allocate sustained
generation, and then to subtract it from the total desired generation. The result is the
temporary generation, which is split between the regulating units in accordance to
their regulating participation (specified by their operating modes and their regulating
ranges). Then, the sustained and temporary generation components are individually
recombined to obtain the unit desired generations. Units in an independent mode
are taken into account only via the effect they have on the area control error.
Prohibited regions are crossed with the maximum transient loading rate.
Sustained Generation Allocation:
The allocation process basically consists of incrementing the sustained generation
each cycle at current allowable rate until it reaches a defined target value (specified
by operator, schedule or Economic Dispatch (ED) ). The target value is limited by
the sustained loading range, calculated from the total regulating range and the
reserved regulating ranges.
BF2 967
Base Unit
Ramp Unit
Schedule Unit
Economic Unit
Sustained
Generation
Allocation
Sustained
Generation
Allocation
BF2 967
Base Unit
Ramp Unit
Schedule Unit
Economic Unit
Sustained
Generation
Allocation
Sustained
Generation
Allocation

Permissive Dispatch:
Units in Ramp or Schedule Mode (and without regulation assigned) have their
generation frozen by being placed in Base Mode if they are being loaded in the
direction which would further violate the limit, if there is a generation disturbance or a
limiting occurs. Operator action is then required to return such units to their
programmed loading situation after the regulation restriction has been removed.
The temporary generation component is obtained by subtracting the sustained
generation component from the total desired generation.
Temporary Generation Allocation:



All regulation resources (e.g., normal or normal plus boost or normal plus boost plus
assist) whose total is less than the current temporary generation are defined to be
saturated and they simply contribute their maximum available regulating capacity.
The remainder is allocated according to participation factors which are derived as the
individual regulating capacities divided by the total regulating capacity over all units
on LFC and in this condition.
The regulation participation factors themselves are not available for external
manipulation. They are influenced by the unit regulating ranges and operating
modes, as well as by operator entry of participation.
Economic Dispatch Activation:
In order to free saturated regulating capacity, and to reduce the time which is used
while generation distribution is done in a less economic way, the economic dispatch
function is activated immediately whenever the temporary generation exceeds an
operator defined limit.
Compensation
The unit generation calculated by the generation dispatch module is compensated,
so that all units used by the LFC program have similar average response time (basic
unit control time constant) under normal conditions. A smooth change-over between
units is activated when routine generation re-distribution is being carried out.
The compensation procedure is bypassed during generation disturbances and during
crossing of prohibited regions.
Unit Control
The unit control function enables generating units to be connected to different
sources of generation requirements via a variety of unit interface arrangements and
signal types.
Generation input processing provides the selection between a manual and an
automatic mode and limitation of the corresponding input value where appropriate.
The manual control mode can in general be defined either as:
Reference (i.e., allowing a frequency influence),
Absolute (i.e., not allowing a frequency influence)
Conditional absolute (i.e., not allowing a frequency influence if the frequency
deviation is small).
LFC performs both pulse and setpoint output. Selection of pulse or setpoint is done
independently for each unit.



A basic unit model is used to simulate unit power output for the purpose of stabilizing
unit control and supporting the central LFC algorithm.
The integral control action ensures that the unit power output can be controlled to a
true MW value even if some other intermediate control quantity is being used (e.g., a
valve position). The unit control error (the input of the integral control module) is
calculated as the difference of real unit power output and the result of the unit
simulation. Closed loop integral control can be carried out at user request.
The control output process calculates the total unit generation command, translates
it into a unit control command, and sends it to the supervisory control output software
for transmission to the unit.



Units being controlled are subjected to:
Tests to determine if they are properly following control command
Logic to define their ability to continue to be controlled
2.2 Performance Monitor
2.2.1 General
The Performance Monitor (PM) function provides information about the behavior of
the power system under Load Frequency Control (LFC) so that LFC can be adjusted
via its tuning parameters to provide a desirable overall performance.
2.2.2 Control Performance Standards
The LFC Performance Monitor examines and reports on LFC control using the
NERC (North American Electric Reliability Council) Control performance.
The Control Performance Standards (CPS) are always evaluated based on Tie-Line
Bias ACE. Corrections for Unilateral Inadvertent Payback and Automatic Time Error
Correction are not included.
CPSI is a measure of the control areas contribution to maintenance of
interconnected system frequency. It is calculated based on clock-minute averages.
CPS2 is a measure of the control areas meeting of its own control obligations.
Compliance Factors for CPS1 and CPS2 are calculated and stored in the Relational
Data Base Management System (RDBMS). Forms are provided to show daily,
monthly, and annual CPS performance.
2.3 Reserve Monitor
2.3.1 General
The Reserve Monitor (RM) manages the risk associated with a range of probable
power system contingencies by comparing the reserve contributions with the reserve
requirements for a variety of reserve classes (e.g., recovery phases after a
disturbance).
Acceptable risk is defined via requirements which are expressed in terms of:
The worst contingency (the loss of largest unit or largest interchang)



Plus an allowable margin (plus or minus) from this amount.
Reserve monitoring is implemented for active and reactive reserves.
2.3.2 Concept
2.3.2.1 Active Reserve Monitoring
For a power system to be able to survive a disturbance and proceed to return to the
normal operating state, its power supply capability must be greater than the demand
for some specified points in time after the disturbance.
For each specified point in time, the reserve contributions of all reserve elements are
totaled for comparison with the requirements. These totals are referred to as
Reserve Classes.
The reserve classes and typical response times are shown in the following Table 2-
1.
Table 2-1. Typical Response Times for Reserve Classes
Reserve Class Typical Response Time
Responsive Reserve (of significance only for isolated networks) 20 seconds
Fast Ready Reserve
(This is needed to ensure system recovery before fuel transport mechanisms
have been able to react completely.)
2 minutes
Slow Ready Reserve
(This is the maximum reserve available from readily available sources)
10 minutes
Fast Operating Reserve
(This is the reserve which can be most quickly available from that which is not
immediately accessible from on-line sources)
30 minutes
Slow Operating Reserve
(This is the slowest form of reserve which must be activated from off-line
sources)
2 hours

Reserve Elements
Power system elements which contribute to reserve can be either:
Units (hydro, steam, gas turbine)
Interchange transactions
Pumps
Interruptible load
All reserve elements can be designated as being available for reserves or
unavailable for reserves by the dispatcher/operator.





Reserve Matrix
Each reserve element can assist with a particular reserve class using a certain
reserve calculation type, which depends on the reserve element type and the time
after the disturbance (i.e., the response time of the reserve class as shown in Figure
2-8).
BF2 968
Ready Operating
Reserve
class
Element
type
Responsive
Fast Slow Fast Slow
Hydro-
Generators
Spinning Spinning Standby Standby Standby
Pumps
Auto
Tripping
Auto
Tripping
Tripping Tripping Tripping
Pump
Generators
Auto
Tripping
Auto
Tripping
Tripping &
Standby
Tripping &
Standby
Tripping &
Standby
Steam
Units
Stored
Energy
Spinning Spinning
Warm
Standby
Warm
Standby
Gas
Turbines
Spinning
Auto
Standby
Standby Standby Standby
Inter-
change
Emergency
Contracts
Emergency
Contracts
Emergency
Contracts
Interrupt-
able load
U/F Load
Shedding
BF2 968
Ready Operating
Reserve
class
Element
type
Responsive
Fast Slow Fast Slow
Hydro-
Generators
Spinning Spinning Standby Standby Standby
Pumps
Auto
Tripping
Auto
Tripping
Pump
Generators
Auto
Tripping
Auto
Tripping
Tripping &
Standby
Tripping &
Standby
Tripping &
Standby
Steam
Units
Stored
Energy
Spinning Spinning
Warm
Standby
Warm
Standby
Gas
Turbines
Spinning
Auto
Standby
Standby Standby Standby
Inter-
change
Emergency
Contracts
Emergency
Contracts
Emergency
Contracts
Interrupt-
able load
U/F Load
Shedding
Figure 2-8. Reserve Matrix

Reserve Calculation Types
The following reserve calculations are supported:
Stored Energy Reserve
This restricted type of reserve depends solely upon the transient loading rate and the
high pressure turbine production factor (stored energy fraction). This reserve
mechanism is only associated with thermal units.
Spinning Reserve
Spinning reserve is the reserve that can be made available from synchronized units.
It is the difference between current loading point and the current regulating high limit.
Spinning reserve is also limited by unit ramping limitations. This constraint for each



reserve class is equal to the unit's maximum sustained rate times the reserve class
corresponding time period (e.g., 10 minutes for Slow Ready Reserve).
Standby Reserve
Standby reserve is the contribution from off-line units which can be brought on-line
manually (Standby) or automatically (Auto-Standby). The time to bring a unit on-line
is derived from the time the unit was actually off-line. A linear relationship is used
between warm startup and cold startup.
Pump Reserve
Each pumping unit can be defined as being able to have its pumping action manually
(Tripping) or automatically (Auto-Tripping) interrupted in emergencies. In addition, a
pumped hydro unit can be quick started as a generator or can be tripped while
pumping and restarted as generator (Tripping & Standby).
Interruptible Load Reserve
Each radial feeder can be specified if its load should be included in an interruptible
load computation for a feeder group. These feeder loads are then summed to yield
the total contribution to reserve for the corresponding group.
The load of such a radial feeder group can be designated as being shed either
manually (Tripping) or by an under frequency relay (U/F Load Shedding).
Interchange Reserve
Each interchange transaction can be specified if it can be interrupted in an
emergency situation after mutual agreement of the partners (non-firm interchange
transaction).
Interchange transactions can be specified which are not active during normal
operation but can be activated by the operator in emergency situations (emergency
capacity transactions). The scheduled values of both types of interchange are
separately summed up to yield their respective contributions to reserve.
Reserve contribution totals are calculated for all reserve elements for each time
period (i.e., reserve class). The reserve contribution of each reserve element for
each reserve class and the reserve class totals are available on operator displays.
Reserve Requirements
Reserve requirements are defined in terms of the standard risk (loss of the largest
unit or of the largest interchange, or a power export to a partner in emergency)
and/or a variation from this risk (i.e., an absolute value, or a percentage of the
largest unit, of the largest interchange, and/or of the actual load).



2.3.2.2 Reactive Reserve Monitoring
The reactive reserve of generators is calculated as the difference between the actual
reactive output and the reactive rating, which is a function of the actual active output:

BF2 969
current P ... current active power output
current Q ... current reactive power output
Q
High Regulating Limit
Q (ind) max.
current Q
Q (cap) max.
current
P
P
Cap. Reserve
Ind. Reserve
Low Regulating Limit
BF2 969
current P ... current active power output
current Q ... current reactive power output
Q
High Regulating Limit
Q (ind) max.
current Q
Q (cap) max.
current
P
P
Cap. Reserve
Ind. Reserve
Low Regulating Limit
Figure 2-9. Generator Capability Curve

The generator capability curve can be defined as piecewise linear approximations.
The reactive reserve of static shunt elements is calculated as the difference between
the actual amount of reactive power and the nominal capacity.
The inductive and capacitive reserve contributions of the reactive reserve elements
are summed separately over the whole network area and over defined parts of the
area (zones). The total inductive and capacitive reserve contribution of a zone is
checked against operator defined requirements. All reactive reserve contributions
(inductive and capacitive) which do not meet the defined requirements will be
alarmed.
The reserve contribution of interchanges are defined as the difference between the
actual reactive power and definable limits.



2.4 Economic Dispatch
2.4.1 General
Economic Dispatch (ED) is the allocation or change in allocation of the power
resources, which are connected to the system at a particular time, to meet the
system load and interchange schedules at that time in a manner which minimizes the
overall economic cost to the system. The Economic Dispatch function provides the
generation base point values for each generation unit that participates in the
optimization. For the purpose of this function the on-line units are divided into four
groups depending on their operating modes:
Economic - Automatically controlled units regulating their economic desired
generation
Manual - Manually controlled units regulating their economic desired
generation
Schedule - Automatically controlled units regulating their scheduled
generation
Base - Base loaded units

BF2 970
Economic Economic
Manual Manual
Schedule Schedule
Base Base
BF2 970
Economic Economic
Manual Manual
Schedule Schedule
Base Base
Figure 2-10. Unit Loading Groups



2.4.2 Dispatch Calculations
In response to these modes of unit operations, three different dispatch calculations
are performed to meet real-time dispatch requirements (i.e., tertiary control) and also
the advisory and schedule requirements of the dispatching personnel:
The Control Pass calculates the economic base point values for those units that are
automatically controlled to their economic desired generation (i.e., Automatic
Generation Control). With every change of the system load, new base point values
are evaluated (real-time dispatch).
The Advisory Pass calculates the economic base point values for all the units in the
Control Pass plus those single units which are manually controlled and for which the
operator desires to have a recommendation as to how they should be loaded for
most desirable economics.
The Target Pass computes of the optimum base load for all on-line units for the most
desirable system economics. The result of this calculation can be used as reference
values by the system dispatcher or by other functions.
2.4.3 Concept
Economic Dispatch is based on the principle of equal incremental costs (i.e.,
Lambda Dispatch). By application of a fast step-by-step algorithm, lambda is
determined in a non-iterative process. This allows the ED cycle time to be very
short.
Unit Operating Modes
In the context of Economic Dispatch only some of the operating modes are
considered for the inclusion of units in the two dispatch calculation passes. These
are:
Economic
Economic advisory
In addition, all on-line units can be included in the target dispatch based operator
selection.
Unit Costs
The lambda dispatch algorithm operates with incremental cost curves for the
determination of the optimal load allocation among thermal and hydro units. Hydro
units are included in the optimization via the use of water consumption curves and
Water Worth Values.
For thermal units the incremental cost curve is calculated from the incremental heat
rate curve, fuel price, efficiency factor and incremental maintenance cost. The fuel



price may result from different fuel types or different ratios of mixed fuels (multi-
fueled units). The incremental heat rate curve selection can be done automatically
based on the selected fuel or fuel ratio.
Incremental curves are approximated by linear monotonically increasing segments
and curves that have flat or not continuous sections can be accommodated.
Uneconomic loading regions around valve points are considered by not operating
units in such regions.
Transmission losses are considered by means of Penalty Factors calculated by the
Network Sensitivity function (or can be manually entered if necessary).
Unit Limits
Unit operating arrangements like generation limits, regulating ranges, and loading
rates are taken into account.



BF2 971
Sustained
Loading Range
Economic Upper Limit
G
e
n
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r
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
v
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l
Economic Lower Limit
- Lower operating limit
- Calculated limits
- Derated minimum capacity
Regulating LOW
Lower Reserved
Regulating Range
Maximum
Regulating
Range
Prohibited Region
Upper Reserved
Regulating Range
Regulating HIGH
Total Regulating Range
- Calculated limits
- Derated maximum capacity
Most
Concentrated
Most
Concentrated
BF2 971
Sustained
Loading Range
Economic Upper Limit
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
v
e
l
Economic Lower Limit
- Calculated limits
- Derated minimum capacity
Regulating LOW
Lower Reserved
Regulating Range
Maximum
Regulating
Range
Prohibited Region
Upper Reserved
Regulating Range
Regulating HIGH
Total Regulating Range
- Calculated limits
- Derated maximum capacity
Most
Concentrated
Most
Concentrated
Figure 2-11. Resulting Sustained Loading Range

Economic limits for each unit are dispatcher/operator enterable in order to provide for
midterm and long-term economic optimization considerations or fuel constraints. For
ED purposes a predefined fraction of the maximum loading/ de-loading rate, the
sustained loading rate, can be manually input.
Sustained Generation Component
The temporary component (Ptemp ) of the total generation received from Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) is transferred to the sustained component by allocating it
to the economic units. For the calculation of the total generation to be economically
distributed (PED), the sum of the current base points (BP) of the units in economic
mode is also determined. Two calculation modes are possible:
Normal (after the fact):...
PED = BPecon + Ptemp
Feed-forward (coping with the system load and interchange development in
the near future):.
PED= BPecon + Ptemp + Pfeedforward



Anticipatory Dispatch
P
feedforward
represents the forecasted variations of the load and scheduled
variations of interchanges and generators within a certain time range into the future
(current time + observation time = T*, e.g., + 5 minutes). Regardless of the
normal/feed forward mode the Economic Dispatch results handed over to AGC are
base point values with the target time T*.
The effect is that when time T* is reached, the temporary component has been
smoothly shifted to the sustained component.
Optimizing the Reserve Constraints
Considering the total amount to be economically distributed, Economic Dispatch
checks the responsive and fast ready reserve requirements received from the
Reserve Monitor function. If the requirements are not met, Economic Dispatch
increases the reserve contributions for some of the economic units by calculating
lower reserve limits for others as shown in Figure 2-12:
In this way the minimum generation limits of those units which are loaded with a
smaller load than the restricted reserve loading point (group 1) are increased, so that
the increments will be enough to meet the reserve requirements. Though these
loading offsets do not change the reserve contribution of group 1, the corresponding
unloading of the units of group 2 by the same amount causes the desired increase in
the reserve contribution.
BF2 972
Generation
Level
regulating
high
restricted
reserve
loading
offset
loading point
current
loading
regulating
low
loading
offset
reserve
limit
Group 1 Group 2
maximum
reserve
restricted reserve
BF2 972
Generation
Level
regulating
high
restricted
reserve
loading
offset
loading point
current
loading
regulating
low
loading
offset
reserve
limit
Group 1 Group 2
maximum
reserve
restricted reserve
Figure 2-12. Altering Generator Loading to Increase Reserve Contribution



Activation
ED can be activated with real-time data cyclically, spontaneously (e.g., due to a
significant change in the sustained generation or upon changes in unit operating
conditions or unit parameters) or manually on operator request.
Functional Environment
The ED-Control Pass receives the temporary system load component to be
economically allocated from the AGC function. Then ED supplies the AGC function
with base load values for each unit.
From the Reserve Monitor, the ED-Control Pass receives the amount of generation
requirement which is necessary to meet the generation reserve requirements. With
this value, ED performs a reserve dispatch prior to allocating generation.
BF2 973
Data Acquisition
and Control
Schedule
Management
System
Manual
Scheduling
Unit Commitment
Hydro Scheduling
Reserve Monitor
Economic Dispatch
Constrained
Economic
Dispatch
Control Pass
Advisory Pass
Target Pass
LFC UI
Optional
BF2 973
Data Acquisition
and Control
Schedule
Management
System
Manual
Scheduling
Unit Commitment
Hydro Scheduling
Reserve Monitor
Economic Dispatch
Constrained
Economic
Dispatch
Control Pass
Advisory Pass
Target Pass
LFC UI
Optional
Figure 2-13. Functional Environment



2.5 Constrained Economic Dispatch Option 1
2.5.1 General
Constrained Economic Dispatch (CED) is responsible for allocating generation in an
optimal manner among the committed units to minimize production costs and to
relieve branch overloads. CED is dependent on the Real-Time Optimal Power Flow
function to detect security violations and to provide CED with a set of critical
constraints and sensitivities.



CED performs the Control and Advisory pass dispatches. With the control pass,
CED can be operated in either an open loop or a closed loop mode. In open loop
mode, CED results may be monitored by the dispatcher/operator but they will not be
used to control generation. In closed loop mode, CED results are used by AGC to
control generation and reduce overloads when they exist.
After successful resolution of all branch flow constraints, closed-loop CED remains
active until all branch flows are at or below some fraction (typically 90%) of the
respective branch limits. This prevents hunting which could cause repeated
violations. During this period, closed loop CED basically replaces the conventional
ED. After the period, the operator is informed that the power system is back at its
secure and economic state and that closed-loop CED is ready to be switched off
(i.e., the closed loop for CED may now be opened and conventional ED used
instead).
2.5.2 Concept
Refer to Section 3.7 of this proposal for a complete description of the Security
Constrained Dispatch function which incorporates the Real-Time Optimal Power
Flow and Constrained Economic Dispatch.
2.6 Constrained Economic Dispatch Option 2
2.6.1 General
This option of Constrained Economic Dispatch (CEDEX) covers the functionality of
both Economic Dispatch (Section 2.4) and Constrained Economic Dispatch Option
1 (Section 2.5) as an alternative approach to optimization of real-time power
resources. CEDEX minimizes the overall system operating costs with respect to
system power balance, reserve requirements, transmission branch capacities, power
plant limitations, and generating unit characteristics.
CEDEX performs the Control, the Adivsory, and the Target Dispatch passes under
the same conditions and unit operating modes as the Economic Dispatch. Also, an
Anticipatory Dispatch is provided. In addition to the branch flow limitations of Option
1 of Constrained Economic Dispatch, Option 2 covers economic and security
requirements simultaneously.
2.6.2 Concept
The optimization concept is derived from economical and technical characteristics of
power systems. The objective is to minimize the total system production costs
subject to:
Power generation balance



Spinning reserve requirements
Transmission line capacities
Power plants generation limits
Unit power and reserve characteristics
Unit power output and reserve limits
CEDEX provides the optimal base points for dispatched generating units to support
feedback control as a part of Automatic Generation Control.
2.6.3 Method
All dispatch passes utilize a solution technique based on the nonlinear Dantzig-Wolfe
decomposition principle. The solution proceeds in two phases. In the first phase the
initial feasible solution is provided, while in the second phase the optimal power
allocation is achieved. Both phases are performed through iterative solution of
System Optimal Dispatch and the set of single Unit Optimal Dispatches.
The System Optimal Dispatch provides the most economical manner of satisfying
system requirements (power balance, reserve level, branch capacities and plant
limits). The optimal solution is constructed as the best combination of generating
unit responses to energy and reserve marginal prices.
On the other side, the Unit Optimal Dispatch provides the most economical unit
power outputs under given energy and reserve prices. The optimal unit responses
are calculated separately using unit operating cost curves, reserve capabilities, and
generating limits.
2.7 Production Costing
2.7.1 General
Production Costing (PC) refers to the calculations which seek to analyze the actual
costs of the daily production, to determine the sources of such costs, and to identify
opportunities for improvement.
2.7.2 Concept
The system dispatcher is provided with a tool to monitor and summarize the
production costs of thermal units and to compare them with the optimal production
costs.



The real-time production costs are calculated from the output load of the unit.
Missing values, e.g. due to an interrupted data transmission, can be manually
entered or corrected.
After each run of the cyclic economic dispatch target pass calculation, the real
production costs are compared with the theoretical production costs resulting from
the optimal load allocation of the economic dispatch target pass. The theoretical
production costs result when all on-line units, except those which are tagged not to
be "in target", are operating at equal incremental cost. An alarm message is
generated whenever the real-time production cost for the interval exceeds the
theoretical production cost by a certain enterable amount.



BF2 974
Man-Machine
Interface
Report Production
Historical
and
Future Data
Data
Acquisition
Production
Costing
Production
Costing
Economic Dispatch
Target Pass
BF2 974
Man-Machine
Interface
Report Production
Historical
and
Future Data
Data
Acquisition
Production
Costing
Production
Costing
Economic Dispatch
Target Pass
Figure 2-14. Functional Environment

Production costs are computed as a function of:
MWh output
Input/output curves
Type and rate of used fuels
Fuel heat content
Fixed percentage costs associated with fuel type
Efficiency factor
Startup and maintenance costs (fixed and incremental) are also taken into account.
Production Costing provides cost and fuel consumption values for each unit and data
base defined groups. Unit group values are used to support plant and system totals



BF2 975
Units Units Unit Groups Unit Groups
Current Consumption
of Each Fuel Type
Displayed Results
Current Fuel Consumption
Difference Between
Total Current and Total
Theoretical Costs
Theoretical Production Costs
Current Production Costs
BF2 975
Current Consumption
of Each Fuel Type
Displayed Results
Current Fuel Consumption
Difference Between
Total Current and Total
Theoretical Costs
Theoretical Production Costs
Current Production Costs
Figure 2-15. PC Results
2.8 Interchange Transaction Scheduler
2.8.1 General
The SINAUT Spectrum 3.x Interchange Transaction Scheduler (ITS) separates the
user's tasks into pre-scheduling and real-time scheduling components and
associates information with date ranges rather than single days. ITS uses the full
range of pertinent data a utility has-from contract information all the way down to
actual scheduling. ITS is based upon a Relational Data Base Management System
(RDBMS) with a graphical user interface (GUI) front-end.
Pre-scheduling consists of Contract, Transaction, and Schedule information. For a
given contract with another power company, the data from the actual contract is
entered. From this Contract, Transactions are created for possibilities that the
contract covers. Additional attributes of the Transaction are also added. Various
types of energy can be defined via the Transaction, including interchange, capacity,
bilateral inadvertent pay-back, non-metered generation sources, non-metered load
sources, and DC-Lines. Schedules are then created from the Transaction attributes,
and further attributes are added to define the Schedule.



Real-time scheduling consists of manipulating (creating, deleting, viewing, and
modifying) scheduled MW information. This information can be presented as
segments or grids. Segments are the underlying concept in ITS. They consist of MW
values and start and stop times (segments are graphically represented as trapezoids
-- see Segment Figure 2-13). Grids are very traditional-a way to present the
scheduled MW data in discrete steps (typically an hour at a time). Segments and
grids define target MW power values, and conversion between the two is fully
supported - but only stored in the database in segment format. Daylight Saving Time
(DST) is fully supported. Instantaneous interchange is calculated for use by Load
Frequency Control (LFC), Economic Dispatch (ED), Reserve Monitor (RM), Economy
A (EconA), and Unit Commitment (UC).
After the fact cleanup of schedules will typically involve adjusting the segments to
agree with Energy Accounting (EA) data as well as the other company data to bring
both parties into agreement in preparation for the billing process. The energy
information is made available to the EA function for use in calculating inadvertent
interchange.
Summary information is provided by means of a System Summary, a Firm/Non-Firm
Summary, a Load Summary, a Group Summary, a Company Summary, a Type
Summary, and a Company by Type Summary.
2.8.2 Concept
The Interchange Transaction Scheduler function is composed of the following
subfunctions:
2.8.2.1 Pre-Scheduling
ITS provides the tools to perform pre-scheduling by defining criteria which will guide
the scheduling of power. This is performed by creating, editing, and deleting
contract information.
2.8.2.1.1 Contracts
From each Contract, multiple Transactions may be defined. Once attributes are
defined in a Contract, they are automatically inherited in any of its Transactions at
creation time, where they can be overridden.
2.8.2.1.2 Transactions
From each Contract, multiple Transactions may be defined. Once attributes are
defined in a Transaction, they are automatically inherited in any of its Schedules at
creation time, where they can be overridden.



2.8.2.1.3 Schedules
From each Transaction, Schedules may be defined. Each Schedule is a specific
instance of a Transaction. Once attributes are defined in a Transaction, they are
automatically inherited in any of its Schedules at creation time, where they can be
overridden. A Schedule defines the framework whereby specific instances of energy
can be scheduled via segments or grids, but does not itself include any MW or time
data.
2.8.2.2 Scheduling
In Scheduling, the following concepts are used: Segments and Grids. Segments are
the underlying principle from which the grids are calculated. Segments form
trapezoids when drawn-they is a start/stop scheduling mechanism where the start
point, the stop point, the start ramp information, the stop ramp information, and the
MW level are specified. Where a start time is specified for the duplicate hour in a 25
hour day, the first occurrence of the hour is assumed. Where a stop time is specified
for duplicate hour in a 25 hour day, the second occurrence is assumed.
2.8.2.3 Summaries
Summary information is displayed in many ways in a daily format-System
Summaries, System Firm/Non-Firm Summaries, Load Summaries, Group
Summaries, Company Summaries, Type Summaries, and Company by Type
Summaries. Summaries are available for any date. Where applicable, summary
information is sorted first by company, then by transaction type. Inactive schedule
data is not used in the calculation of summaries. Daily totals including on and off
peak subtotals are included on each summary.
2.8.2.4 Maintenance
On-line maintenance of ITS support data is available for the following data:
Company definitions:
Transaction Type definitions:
Company Loss definitions:
Peak Period definitions:
Daylight Saving Time switchover information
Other types of data can be defined and scheduled, such as Non-metered generation
sources, Non-metered loads, and DC-Lines. While these types of data are supported



in the database and in the displays, interfaces for these data are not provided due to
varying requirements.
2.8.2.5 Interfacing
ITS interfaces with many other functions in the ECS. Functions which make use of
ITS data include LFC, ED, RM, UC, EconA, and EA. Inactive schedule data is not
passed to other functions.
2.8.2.5.1 Instantaneous Net Scheduled Interchange
This subfunction calculates the Instantaneous Net Scheduled Interchange (INSI) of
LFC. INSI is calculated for LFC to use each cycle from schedule information. The
effects of ramping are used in the calculation of INSI. Only active, external company
interchange schedule information is used in the calculation of INSI. The ability to
use, ignore, augment or override INSI is provided within the LFC function.
This subfunction calculates the Instantaneous Net Scheduled Reserves for use by
RM in the calculation of system reserves. The reserve contributions are calculated
for RM to use each cycle. The effects of ramping are included in this calculation.
Only active capacity schedule information is used.
This subfunction calculates the Instantaneous Net Scheduled Non-Firm Interchange
(also known as interruptible interchange) for use by RM in the calculation of system
reserves. These reserve contributions are calculated for RM to use each cycle. The
effects of ramping are included in this calculation. Only active non-firm interchange
schedule information is used.
2.8.2.5.2 Inadvertent Interchange
This subfunction passes the hourly system net scheduled interchange to EA to
calculate the system's cumulative inadvertent energy into on-peak and off-peak
accounts. This transfer occurs periodically and when changes are made to ITS data.
The previous hours data is transferred on an hourly basis. All past hours affected by
a change are transferred. The hourly system net scheduled interchange is the net of
all active external interchange schedules (bilateral pay-back schedules are not
included) for an hour.
2.8.2.5.3 ASCII File Import
Segments can be imported via an ASCII file mechanism. When imported, the
Segments are placed in temporary import tables. The data is then validated to
confirm that it maps correctly to an existing Schedule (by matching the company
name, transaction type and suffix, and direction). Once successfully validated, the
Segments are automatically imported into ITS and placed on-line. The imported data



can either overwrite any existing data, or can be added in addition to what already
exists. If the data does not pass validation, it goes into Accept/Reject tables for
review. The data can then be accepted and transferred into the on-line ITS either
hour by hour, or for the entire day. Data can be rejected by the user on an hourly or
daily basis. Once the data is rejected, it is moved to temporary reject tables, where
they can be edited or deleted by the user. Once the user is satisfied with the data, it
can be un-rejected either hourly or for the entire day, and then can be accepted.
Once deleted from the reject tables, data is erased from ITS.
2.8.2.5.4 User Interface
ITS displays serve as the user's primary interface to ITS. Console function
assignment support is provided by the ECS. ITS Display support is provided by the
Oracle Forms Designer. ITS is a multi-user function. The following section describes
the types of data that are displayed.
For the Segment Scheduling form, a section of each form is devoted to a swapping
region that can display different types of information to help reduce information
overload. New Segment, Financial, Ramping, Wheeling, and Characteristics sections
are supported.
A pop-up calendar is also supported to aid in the selection of dates. Additionally,
arrows are available for next/previous record (Contract, Transaction, or Schedule
depending upon the display) and next/previous active record for pre-scheduling and
scheduling data. A Go To button is provided to select a specific schedule to display.
Next/previous day and next/previous week are available on summary displays.
On ITS displays, when underlying data has been changed by another user, a
Refresh button will appear to indicate to the user that the displayed data should be
refreshed.
2.9 Economy A Evaluation (EconA)
2.9.1 Overview
Economy A Evaluation (EconA) provides a quick tool for dispatchers to use for
evaluating proposed short-term energy exchanges, as well as for developing market
bid strategies.
It has both a real-time mode, which evaluates energy exchanges based upon current
real-time system conditions, and a study mode, which allows for evaluation of single-
and multi-hour exchanges starting now or in the future.



2.9.2 Concept
A proposed transaction is modeled in Economy A as:
A direction (sale or purchase)
A maximum size
A number of steps or blocks
A proposed price for each block
The system production (generation) cost is first evaluated without the transaction.
Each block is then sequentially added, with the production cost being recalculated
based on the change in generation requirements. The change in production cost is
compared to the cost of the purchase or income from the sale.
Real-time evaluation allows the dispatcher to define a proposed transaction as
described above. Once that is done, pressing a single button causes Economy A to
retrieve all current system conditions (load, desired interchange, list of committed
units, incremental heat rate curves, fuel costs, penalty factors, et cetera) and
immediately evaluate the transaction.
Study evaluation provides separate initialization and evaluation steps. In addition to
retrieving data from current system conditions, data for future hours may be retrieved
from any of the following functions that are part of the system:
Interchange Transaction Scheduling
Short Term Load Forecast
Unit Commitment
Network Sensitivity
After the data has been retrieved, it may be edited by the dispatcher before
evaluation is performed. Repeated edit-evaluate-analyze cycles may be performed,
if desired
2.10 Energy Accounting
2.10.1 Overview
In an Energy Control System, Energy Accounting (EA) delivers all information about
the current and past energy transfer, generation and consumption.
Energy Accounting provides the ability to perform calculations such as data
averaging, minima/maxima determinations and contract based calculations, and



stores the data for a specified period of time. The collected and calculated data may
be displayed via User Interface.
Energy Accounting maintains data for display for the current day, current week,
current month and year.
The storage of the data accommodates daylight savings time.
Interchange Accounting, as a part of Energy Accounting, takes into account the
respective tariff rates, which are defined by Interchange Contracts.
2.10.2 Concept
The following figure is an overview of the EA function showing all of its components:
BF2 980
Accumulator
Data
Processing
Application
Data
Interchange
Scheduling
Daily, Weekly,
Monthly,
EA-Reports
Daily, Weekly,
Monthly,
EA-Reports
Energy
Accounting
Accumulated
Values
Accumulated
Values
Combination
Rules
Combination
Rules
Contracts Contracts
BF2 980
Accumulator
Data
Processing
Application
Data
Interchange
Scheduling
Daily, Weekly,
Monthly,
EA-Reports
Daily, Weekly,
Monthly,
EA-Reports
Energy
Accounting
Accumulated
Values
Accumulated
Values
Combination
Rules
Combination
Rules
Contracts Contracts
Figure 2-16. Overview of the EA function




Value Definition
The accumulated values that are relevant for the energy accounting task are defined
via the Database Administration subsystem (DBA). Additionally secondary values
can be defined, which serve as destination for the results of calculations upon the
primary values.
Calculations
As energy accounting is utility-specific, the Energy Accounting function provides
freely definable calculation rules.
Typical calculation rules for accumulated values are sums of several values of one
period to a total as well as totals over all the periods of a day. The appropriate rules
for these calculations are defined with the Data Base Administration subsystem.
Cyclic
After the termination of a period, when all accumulated values are supplied
by the Accumulated Data Processing.
At the end of the tariff day
This is the moment when daily reports are printed for all partners and
customers. Additionally, at the end of a week or month, the appropriate
reports are printed out.
Recalculation
During report editing the operator can manually substitute accumulated
values. All other values, which depend on the substituted values, are
recalculated (e.g., totals, sums, costs etc.) on operator command.
Energy Accounting Displays
Energy Accounting displays can be defined or changed on-line by the operator.
Energy accounting values can be automatically stored in the Historical And Future
Data. Data stored in Historical and Future data may be transmitted to the RDBMS.
The features of the RDBMS may be used to display and access the data.

3. Network Analysis Applications Software
This section describes the Network Analysis (NA) subsystem proposed for Iraq
SCADA Refurbishment.
The Network Analysis functions are divided into two types: those that execute
automatically on a periodic basis are known as the Real-Time (RT) functions and
those that execute on demand by the operator are known as the Study (S) functions.
The Real-Time and Study Network Analysis functions proposed for Iraq SCADA
Refurbishment include:
Real-Time Network Analysis functions:
Model Update (MU)
State Estimator (SE)
Network Parameter Adaptation (NPA)
Security Analysis (SA)
Voltage Scheduler (VS)
Short Circuit Calculations (SCC)
Study Network Analysis functions:
Study Security Analysis (SA)
Dispatcher Power Flow (DPF)
Optimal Power Flow (OPF)
Outage Scheduler (OS)
Short Circuit Calculations (SCC)
Figure 3-1 shows an overview of the set of Network Analysis functions proposed for
Iraq SCADA Refurbishment.





Network Analysis
Applications Software
Network Analysis
Applications Software
BF2 120
Operating
System
Software
Model Update
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Network Parameter
Adaptation
State Estimator
Security Analysis
Voltage Scheduler
Dispatcher Power
Flow / Optimal
Power Flow
Generation Control
And Scheduling
Applications
Power
Application
Software
Forecasting &
Scheduling
Application
Software
BF2 121-2
Short Circuit
Calculations
Outage
Scheduler
Figure 3-1. Network Analysis Application Software

Figure 3-2 shows an overview of the proposed set of Real-Time functions. Figure 3-
3 shows a detailed relationship of all Real-Time and Study functions proposed for
Iraq SCADA Refurbishment.
BF2 309-1
POWER
FLOW
REAL TIME
NETWORK
MODEL
SHORT CIRCUIT
CALCULATIONS
CONTINGENCY
SIMULATION
STATE
ESTIMATOR
MODEL
UPDATE
REAL
TIME
UPDATE
ONE LINE
DIAGRAMS
SECURITY ANALYSIS
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
TABULAR
DISPLAY
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
MODEL
CONTINGENCY
SELECTION
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER

Figure 3-2. Real-Time Network Analysis Overview





Short
Circuit Calc.
Results
BF2 310
OFF-LINE ON-LINE
System
Description
Database
Generation
From Load Forecast
From Unit Commitment
Outage
Scheduler
Real Time
Data
Model
Update
State
Estimator
Dispatcher
Power Flow
Initialization
Save
Cases
Short Circuit
Calculations
Network
Parameter
Adaptation
(NPA)
Real Time
Study
Study
Real
Time
Dispatcher/
Optimal
Power Flow
Security
Analysis
To DTS
Voltage
Scheduler
Security
Analysis
Short Circuit
Calculations
Security
Analysis
Results
(Real-Time)
Short
Circuit
Calculation
Results
Voltage
Scheduler
Results
Load
Forecast
Schedules
Unit
Commitment
Schedules
Outage
Schedules
Network
Description
Power
Flow
Results
Security
Analysis
Results
(Study)
Network
Topology
& Measure-
ments
NPA
Model
Network
Topology
& System
Solution
Network
Base Data

Figure 3-3. Network Analysis Applications Real-Time/Study

Siemens' Network Analysis functions have been rigorously tested on many large
systems with very diverse and complicated power network systems. As a result of
this experience, a number of claims can be made for the functions.
The algorithms employed by the Network Analysis functions are field proven on
many networks. In recent years Siemens has established the operable use of new
algorithms in the field on existing systems before offering them. Development of
each new customer's network model has brought improved insight by our staff into
representation and analytic solution methods applicable to various electrical
equipment and system operating procedures.
The performance of the functions is established. Timings and resource requirements
are well known and a high level of confidence can be attached to projected system
performance.
Several of the functions use algorithms which are truly state-of-the-art. The State
Estimator, for example, uses a fully-coupled orthogonal transformation algorithm

which incorporates line flows, bus voltages, bus injections, ampere measurements,
and known zero injections which typically occur at high voltage buses in transmission
stations. The Security Analysis function uses the fast decoupled power flow
algorithm and adaptive local solution techniques which produces accurate complex
power (active and reactive power) solutions at a considerable savings in computer
time. It includes a sophisticated screening process to eliminate non-critical
contingencies. The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) is a second generation development
which incorporates both linear programming and full Newton algorithms to be used
as appropriate to the optimization problem at hand; production cost, losses, real or
reactive security or combinations of these.
3.1 Model Update (MU)
The Model Update function determines the real-time configuration of the power
network for use by the State Estimator and other real-time network analysis
functions. It is fully general to effectively process any type of station layout. The
same topology processing algorithm as used in Model Update is used in the Study
Network Analysis functions, such as power flow, to support study case network
configurations.
The function takes as input:
Telemetered logical device status (circuit breakers and/or disconnect
switches)
Telemetered tap positions for LTC or phase shifter transformers
Manual entry or override of the above data by the operator
Normal or default status from the database
In study case use, the algorithm can accept as input either a copy of the real-time
configuration or a saved study case configuration.
Model Update constructs a bus-oriented model of the network. In this process,
connections within each station are separately maintained as are the voltage levels
within stations. Electrical islanding is detected as well.
3.1.1 MU Functional Description
The Model Update function builds the bus oriented network model for use by other
network analysis functions. Some of the features of the Model Update function are:
Processes logical device status
Performs a topological analysis



Builds the bus model of the network
Algorithmically organized on a station/voltage level basis
Detects electrical islanding
Maintains equipment energized/de-energized status
Used in real-time and study analyses
STATIC
NETWORK
DATA
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
AGC
BF2 311
STATE
ESTIMATOR
POWER
FLOW
ANALOG
MEASURE-
MENTS
SCADA
MEASURE-
MENT DATA
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
REAL TIME
BUS
MODEL
REAL TIME
NETWORK
STATUS
RETRIEVAL
OF STATUS
AND
ANALOGS
STATION
MODEL
REBUILD
STATIC
NETWORK
DATA
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
AGC
BF2 311
STATE
ESTIMATOR
POWER
FLOW
ANALOG
MEASURE-
MENTS
SCADA
MEASURE-
MENT DATA
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
REAL TIME
BUS
MODEL
REAL TIME
NETWORK
STATUS
RETRIEVAL
OF STATUS
AND
ANALOGS
STATION
MODEL
REBUILD
Figure 3-4. Overview of the Model Update Function

Network data is available from several sources. Network topology and normal status
of breakers, switches, etc., are always available from the network database; the real-
time status and analog values for measurements are obtained from the SCADA
database. Further, manual entries of status external to the SCADA system and
operator override of SCADA status may be made from one-line displays associated
with the Model Update function. System load and current unit parameters are
obtained from Automatic Generation Control, time-switched breaker positions and
load parameters are obtained from Network Parameter Adaptation.
At the start of each real-time Network Analysis sequence, Model Update obtains the
latest data from each of its sources to construct a single model of the entire network
(both internal and external companies).



Normally, Model Update executes automatically at the frequency required for State
Estimator executions and when pre-defined network switching devices operate;
however, it may also be executed by an operator request.
3.1.2 MU Interface with Other Functions
Model Update interfaces with the following functions:



Acquisition: To obtain real-time status and analog network data.
State Estimator: The State Estimator uses the analog measurements and
the real-time bus model to obtain a complete steady-state solution of the
network.
Power Flow: Receives the network model for study purposes.
Network Parameter Adaptation: To obtain time-switched breaker status
and load data. The current status of telemetered switches are sent to NPA to
support the adaptation process.
Automatic Generation Control: The system load and various operating unit
parameters are obtained from generation control.
3.1.3 MU Algorithm
Model Update first accesses the latest status and analog telemetry from the SCADA
database. The analog quantities are then stored for use by the State Estimator.
Status is then merged with the normal status from the base data to give a complete
real-time status for the entire network. (Manual overrides entered via SCADA are
also respected by Model Update, so they need not be re-entered.) This status is
next compared to the previous real-time status, and a list of those stations where
differences occur is compiled and stored. If no stations have changed, the State
Estimator is executed directly; if changes have occurred, the station model rebuild
logic is executed to update the network model for those stations with status changes.
A list of changed stations resides in the real-time network status area, along with the
new status. Station model rebuild logic processes each station in the list
independently. It obtains the topology of equipment in the station in terms of nodes
from the network base data; nodes are then sorted into buses based on what logical
devices are closed in the real-time status; finally, equipment attached to a node is
listed with the bus of which that node is a part. The resulting station model is stored
into the real-time bus model area, replacing the old model for that station. When all
changed stations have been processed, the State Estimator is executed.
3.1.4 MU User Interface
Real-Time Network Status Displays: These are the data entry displays for Model
Update. They display network statuses for all logical devices, transformer taps and
phase-shifter taps defined in the network database. These displays are primarily
used to complement usage of the one-line diagrams which normally describe only
the areas covered by the SCADA system. They allow the operator to view and
manually alter network status for the entire system for use by the real-time Network
Analysis functions.



Network status is displayed on one-line diagrams. The one-line diagram displays the
network connectivity. The one-lines as a group explicitly show each status which the
operator may need to change or review.



The types of variables which may be displayed and entered are:
Logical device status
LTC Transformer tap position
Phase-Shifter tap position
Analog measurement status
For the first three types, operator entry overrides any telemetered value, and the
entered value is used. In the latter case, analogs may be removed from
consideration in the State Estimator by changing its status, but operator entry of an
analog value is not permitted.
Outaged Equipment Summary Display: This display lists the outaged equipments.
Abnormal Devices Summary Display: This display lists the logical devices with
abnormal status.
Changed Devices Summary Display: This display lists the logical devices whose
statuses have changed since the previous execution of the Real-Time Sequence.
3.2 State Estimator (SE)
The State Estimator function provides a complete and reliable network solution using
the real-time measurements, forecasted load and generation, scheduled voltages
and any operator entries. The solution for the "observable" portion of the network
model is based on noisy, yet redundant real-time measurements. The solution for
the "unobservable" portion is based on scattered telemetry, forecasted load and
generation, scheduled voltages and any operator entries.
Throughout this proposal, the term "observable" is used to refer to the portion(s) of
the network with sufficient, redundant real-time measurements. The remainder of
the network will be referred to as the "unobservable" or "external" portion(s) of the
network.
The real-time measurements are often noisy, but overall are redundant in terms of a
power flow solution. State estimation exploits this redundancy to improve the
solution accuracy beyond that of the measurements in the observable network. The
State Estimator performs an observability analysis at each execution to assess the
boundaries of observability, which may vary with time according to the availability of
telemetry.
For the external network, load and generation is forecasted. The State Estimator
uses these forecasted values, together with scheduled voltages, scattered telemetry
and any operator entries to determine a complex voltage estimate for the
unobservable portion of the network model, thus providing a complete solution for



the entire network model.



The State Estimator function:
Estimates a complete real-time network solution
Provides an assessment of the reliability and accuracy of the data acquisition
system by the detection of bad measurements (anomalies) in the observable
network
Provides an assessment of the accuracy of the network model
Provides pending and historical anomaly (metering error) detection records
Provides pending and historical records for abnormal measurements (those
that are manually replaced, saturated, or declared unusable by the operator)
Provides the bus injection solutions used by Network Parameter Adaptation
to develop the observable system load distribution models
Provides the base case real-time total network solution to support the
Security Analysis function and other network functions
Some of the salient features of the State Estimator function are as follows:
Orthogonal transformation algorithm
Handles zero injection buses as high confidence measurements
Bias estimation via time averaging of residuals
Anomaly detection via normalized residuals, compensation method, or
weighted residuals
Telemetered transformer and phase shifter tap estimation
Uses pseudo load estimates automatically
Can use power pool exchange data
One line diagram output
Overload monitoring
Tracking solution
Measurement set can include:
Branch MW and MVAR, paired or unpaired
Bus kV (allows for multiple measurements)



Generation MW and MVAR, paired or unpaired
Load MW and MVAR, paired or unpaired
Breaker flow MW and MVAR
Branch Amperes
LTC and phase shifter tap positions
Solves for multiple observable and electrical islands
Dispatches generation as necessary
Meets generation MW and MVAR and bus voltage constraints
Some of the general benefits of the State Estimator are as follows:
Ability to estimate values when not measured or when telemetry fails.
Reduction of field personnel for telemetry maintenance
Increases the confidence the operator has in the analog values
Ability to produce a suitable base case for the Security Analysis function.
Ability to detect and reject anomalous measurements.
Ease with which implementation of telemetry can take place
The following are some of the specific benefits of the State Estimator function
proposed by Siemens:
The State Estimator solves the entire (observable and external) network in
one pass. This eliminates the boundary mismatch common in two-pass
estimators. This is possible through the use of Orthogonal Estimation which
allows mixing of real and pseudo measurements without significant
degradation of the estimate of the observable portion of the network.
The orthogonal transformation algorithm provides an accurate and stable
coupled solution where considerable large differences in measurement
confidence values can be handled.
Use of known zero injections adds a significant level of redundancy and
reliability. Increased redundancy results in an improved solution and
accurate bad data detection. Zero injections improve reliability by making the
solution less dependent on a small set of measurements.



The State Estimator solution incorporates measured transformer and phase
shifter taps as state variables. This provides an accurate estimation of tap
positions based on real-time telemetry.
The State Estimator solves multiple electrical and observable islands



Branch ampere estimation is used to enhance redundancy and reduce the
need for transducer installation.
Normalized residuals are the best way to find bad data avoids transmission
of errors in one measurement to other neighboring measurements.
3.2.1 SE Functional Description
The purpose of the State Estimator function (Figure 3-5) is to provide a complete
network solution from the real-time measurements, forecasted load and generation,
scheduled voltages and operator entries. The real-time measurements are imperfect
but redundant. This redundancy permits the State Estimator to determine an
estimate for the complex voltage solution for the observable portion of the network
model which best matches the information given by the unfiltered measurements.
For the portion of the network model that is unobservable, load and generation is
forecasted and bus voltage is scheduled. These forecasted and scheduled values
along with scattered telemetry and any operator entries are used by the State
Estimator to determine a complex voltage estimate for the unobservable portion of
the network model.
BF2 312-1
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER
STATION
TABULAR
OUTPUT DATA
STATE
ESTIMATOR
SOLUTION
REAL-TIME
NETWORK
MODEL
SECURITY
ANALYSIS
MODEL
UPDATE
DATA
ANALOG
MEASURE-
MENT
REAL TIME
BUS
MODEL
CURRENT
BUS LOAD
VALUES
EXTERNAL
SYSTEM
INPUT DATA
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
POWER FLOW
DPF/OPF
GENERATION
SCHEDULER
LOAD
SCHEDULER
ONE LINE
DIAGRAMS BUILD STATE
ESTIMATION
STATION
TABULATION
OUTPUT
MEASURE-
MENT
ALARMS &
BIAS DATA



Figure 3-5. Overview of State Estimator Function



The function processes branch MW/MVAR flows and bus injections as complex
power measurement pairs for solution efficiency. The function, however also utilizes
unpaired active or reactive components.
The State Estimator uses branch real and reactive power flows, bus real and reactive
power injections, voltage magnitude, ampere, and transformer and phase shifter tap
measurements. The function uses the real-time status and measurements collected
by the Data Acquisition function to calculate the best fit voltage solution (magnitude
and phase angle) for the observable network model. The observable network model
will be limited to that portion of the system where adequate real-time measurements
exist. When appropriate, "pseudo-measurements" of forecasted bus loads are used
to circumvent the loss of observability due to measurement failures.
The observable network model is dynamically reduced to the limit of observability
due to loss of measurements, detection of anomalies, or changes in the network
configuration. This dynamic determination of the observable network boundary is
identified and is recognized by the Network Parameter Adaptation function.
The State Estimator uses all other available information to estimate the complex
voltage solution for the unobservable network. This information is obtained via the
following sources:
The load scheduler forecasts the load in the external network using
parameters obtained from the Network Parameter Adaptation function.
The generation scheduler forecasts the generation for non-telemetered units
using a simple unit commitment scheme and economic allocation factors.
The factors are changeable by the user. Each company is economically
dispatched to the forecasted load and company net interchange. The State
Estimator allows manual entry of external company interchanges.
Voltage magnitudes corresponding to desired voltages for voltage regulated
buses in the external network using parameters obtained from the Network
Parameter Adaptation function.
Scattered telemetry, i.e., any telemetry which may exist in the external
network.
With the assignment of these measurements the external network becomes
"observable". Formal anomaly detection and rejection are not done for the external
network measurements because they are not meaningful as compared to
measurements in the observable network.
The State Estimator has the ability to perform, in the external network, generation
MW and MVAR and regulated voltage limiting. This ensures that these parameters
stay within reasonable estimates. This is accomplished through manipulation of the
confidence values assigned to each measurement.
The output of the State Estimator is used by the operator and as the base case for



further network analysis calculations and modeling. The information available for the
operator, analyst, and system maintenance personnel is of three types:
Single solution branch flows, bus voltages and injection details
Measurement anomaly and abnormal information
Measurement bias information
The single solution details include the latest solution data. This data includes
estimates of all branch flows (lines, transformers, phase shifters and series devices),
bus voltages and bus injections. The data also contains all measurement quantities
used for the solution. This data can be displayed on both one-line diagrams and
tabular displays.
The pending and historical anomaly files are records of the bad measurements which
have been detected by the estimator. These records are displayed in three ways.
First, the pending anomalies are available on workstation displays. Second, the
pending and historical records are available on the line printer by operator request.
Third, the historical record is printed on the line printer automatically whenever a set
number of new historical entries have been accumulated.
The pending and historical abnormal measurement files are records of the abnormal
measurement status (i.e., the measurement availability status) conditions which
existed prior to the solution. The three workstation and line printer display options
are the same as those available to the anomaly records discussed in the preceding
paragraph.
The bias detection data is used to determine where minor consistent measurement
errors exist in the real-time measurements. These errors may be either due to meter
calibration errors or may be due to a network modeling error. This feature is a tool
which assists in the improvement of the system network modeling parameters and as
a tool to assist in the evaluation and maintenance of the measurement system. This
data is output on the line printer upon operator request via the workstation.
3.2.2 SE Interface with Other Functions
The State Estimator interfaces with the following functions:
Model Update: The current representation of the network and the current
measurements and measurement status are obtained from Model Update.
Network Parameter Adaptation: The State Estimator obtains the load
parameters which are used to calculate load MW and MVAR values for use
as pseudo measurements and forecasted external measurements. Network
Parameter Adaptation uses the State Estimator results for the observable
portions of the network to update the adaptive load parameters.



] [ ] [
] [ [ ) (
2 / 1 2 / 1 2 / 1 2 / 1
1
X H R Z R Z H R Z R
X H Z R X H Z X J
T
T
=
=


Analysis: Security Analysis uses the total network solution to assess the
security of the system.
Security Constrained Economic Dispatch (Option): The total network
solution is used as a starting point for the security constrained economic
dispatch function.
Voltage Scheduler (Option): The total network solution is used to determine
optimized settings of MVAR sources to minimize system losses.
Power Flow: The total network solution as a starting point for studies
involving the current network.
3.2.3 SE Algorithm
The State Estimator solution method is the Givens rotations algorithm in which
orthogonal transformation is applied to network measurement equations. The set of
system measurements can be modelled as:
z = h (X) + (1)
where:
z is the (mx1) measurement vector
X is the (nx1) system state vector
h(X) is the (mx1) vector of non-linear measurement functions
and
is the (mx1) vector of measurement errors
m is the number of measurements
n is the number of busses
Assuming sufficient measurement redundancy, i.e., m>n, the best estimate of the
state is obtained by minimizing the weighted least square objective function. The
objective function, J(X), is given below:

(2)
)] ( [ ) ( [ ) (
1
X h z R X h z X J
T
=

Rewriting J(X) in an incremental form to accommodate the non-linearity of the
problem, we get

(3)

where:
is the (mx1) measurement mismatch vector
H is the (mxn) measurement Jacobian
X is the (nx1) correction vector to the systemstate
and
R is the (mxm) diagonal measurement covariance matrix.



Define Q to be an orthogonal (mxm) matrix, i.e., Q
T
Q = I where I is the identity
matrix, such that
(4)
U D
H QR
0
2 / 1
2 / 1

where:
D is a diagonal (nxn) matrix
and
U is an upper triangular (nxn) matrix
When applied to the measurement mismatch vector Z, Q will give
(5)
Q

2
1
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
Z
Z
R D
D
Z R

where:
Z
1
, Z
2
is the resulting (mxl) independent vectors of the orthogolization
process
and
D
R
is a resulting diagonal (nxn) matrix
Apply Q
T
Q to the objective function J(X) shown in equation (3), we get:
J (X) = [R
-1/2
Z R
-1/2
HX]
T
Q
T
Q [R
-1/2
Z R
-1/2
HX]
= [QR-1/2 Z QR -1/2 HX]T [QR-1/2 Z QR-1/2 HX] (6)
Minimization of J(X) in (6) by setting its gradient to zero leads to:
U X = Z1 (7)
The correction X to the state vector is computed as a solution to (7).
The State Estimator function estimates the system state (complex voltage solution)
by iteratively solving equations (4), (5) and (7). In each iteration, the following basic
equation is solved:
Xk+1 = Xk + U-1 Z1k (8)
where:



X
k
is the estimate of the system complex voltage solution for the k
th
teration
Z
1k
is the resulting independent vector of the orthogonalization process at the
k
th
iteration
A derivation of the Givens rotation algorithm is given in Reference
1

Orthogonal transformations (4) and (5) are performed in optimal order for columns
and rows of U using efficient form of Givens rotation with initial null matrix and two-
multiplication scheme for elementary transformations. Equation (8) is solved in
optimal order using sparse matrix techniques. The solution is iterative and has the
Newton's method quadratic convergence properties.
A large number of buses will be buses where the injection is known to be zero. This
occurs at most higher voltage buses when more than one voltage level is modeled in
a station. The robustness of the orthogonal transformation algorithm allows the
State Estimator to explicitly handle these known zero injections as very high
confidence measurements.
Bad Data Detection
After a solution is derived, the resulting performance index given by equation (9) is
checked against a set of Chi-squared confidence limits.
(9)

2
) i (
est meas
1 i
m
P
2
) i ( Z ) i ( Z

=
=
I

where:
PI is the performance index
Z(i)
meas
is the i
th
measured value
Z(i)
est
is the estimate of the i
th
measurement
2
(i) is the input variance for the i
th
measurement
m is the number of measurements
A Chi-squared value is calculated for the number of degrees of freedom which exist
and the input confidence level desired. Equation (10) is used to determine the Chi-

1
N. Vempati, I. W. Slutsker and W. F. Tinney, "Enhancements to Givens Rotations for
Power System State Estimation", Paper 90SM 492-9 PWRS, Presented at the IEEE/PES
Summer Power Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, July, 1990.
2
= [ ]
2
1 2d f(X)
1 2
+


squared value:
(10)



where:
2
is the Chi-squared value
d is the number of degrees of freedom
f(X) is the standard deviation given by the normal curve for a specified
probability
X is the probability specified by the user.
If the performance index exceeds the Chi-squared value, then the presence of the
bad data is detected. The next step is to identify it.
Bad Data Identification
The user can select between three identification methods:
Measurement compensation method
Normalized residual method
Weighted residuals
The measurement compensation method consists of two phases:
The potentially bad measurements are processed one at a time. The
measurement value is modified in such a way that effect of the measurement
on the estimation results is canceled (compensation). The new values of
residuals are obtained using the linear residual calculation (based on residual
sensitivity matrix).
The statistical analysis of estimated errors of suspected measurement is
performed. True anomalies are separated from good measurements.
Normalized residual method calculates differences of all measurements and their
corresponding estimates weighted by the normalized measurement confidence. The
weighted residuals method calculates differences of all measurements and their
estimates weighted by the user defined confidences. In both methods, the
calculated values are checked against a threshold value. All those which exceed the
threshold are considered as anomalies and removed from the measurement set, and
the solution is repeated.
The solution is a static least-squares fit, and can be demonstrated in a simulation
environment for test purposes.



3.2.4 SE Measurement Set
The State Estimator handles paired and unpaired MW and MVAR measurements
through the following devices:
Transmission lines
Transformers
Phase-shifters
Series devices
Bus injections (generators and loads)
Circuit breakers
The Estimator handles the MW and MVAR power flow measurements in pairs for
solution efficiency. The State Estimator utilizes unpaired measurements, even
though paired measurements are more desirable. The Estimator will also handle
ampere measurements and multiple bus voltage magnitude measurements.
Additionally, the State Estimator incorporates transformer and phase shifter tap
position measurements into this measurement set.
It is assumed in this proposal that the telemetered measurement set that defines the
observable network will meet the following general rules:
At least 50% of all modeled buses will have voltage magnitude
measurements.
In general, one end of each modeled branch will either be measured, or will
be connected to a zero injection bus or a measured injection bus.
The system-wide measurement redundancy for branch flows and known zero
injections will be greater than 1.75. The redundancy value is given by:
R = (mb + mz + mi )/n (11)
where:
R is the redundancy value
m
b
is the number of complex branch flow measurements
m
z
is the number of known zero injection buses
m
i
is the number of measured complex injection buses



n is the number of modeled buses
The measurements will be fairly evenly distributed across the modeled
network such that local redundancy is approximately equal to system
redundancy.
3.2.5 SE User Interface
Execution Control Display: The execution control display controls the use of the
State Estimator.



Station Output Displays: Two types of station output displays exist: a one-line
diagram display and a tabular display. The one-line diagram displays show the State
Estimator estimated voltages, branch flows and injections. The station tabular
displays are generated upon operator request via the execution control display and
show the measurements, the estimates and the deviations and all equipment flows.
Since there are many stations, a table of contents is provided by station for the
station tabular displays.
Anomaly Pending Display: The anomaly pending display shows all the anomaly
conditions which were detected by the State Estimator solution during the last
execution.
Abnormal Pending Display: The abnormal pending display shows all the abnormal
measurement conditions existing in the real-time State Estimator network during the
last execution. Conditions detected are saturation, RTU out-of-service and operator
specified out-of-service. Also included in this display is the availability index when it
is less than a specified threshold. The availability index is a means to prevent
measurement chattering between consecutive SE executions. The index for a
measurement is set to 1.0 any time it is found to be anomalous or abnormal. In
subsequent SE executions, if the telemetered measurement becomes good, the
index will be exponentially scaled down. The measurement will not be used by SE
until its availability index becomes less than a specified threshold. Until then, the
measurement will be considered abnormal.
Measurement Error Analysis Display: This display allows the user to evaluate the
reliability of the State Estimator solution. A measurement is included in this display if
the difference between its measured and estimated values are greater than a preset
threshold. The existence of large errors indicates bad telemetry, incorrect scheduled
values or topology errors.
Voltage Range Limit and Branch Overload Threshold Display: This display
allows the user to enter a range of bus voltage outside of which bus voltages will be
considered in limit violation. Similarly, a threshold is entered for branches in percent
of rating.
Overload Displays: There are two overload displays, one for new overloads (those
occurring in this run but not the previous) and one for existing overloads (those
occurring in this run and also the previous). The time and date the overload
appeared on the new overload display is shown for all entries on the existing
overload display.
Network Losses: The total network losses are calculated and presented for the
total modeled network.
Single Solution Output Listing: A single solution output listing can be obtained via
the execution control display. The listing is in similar form to the workstation display
and consists of line printer output of:
Anomaly Pending File



Abnormal Pending File
Station Tabular Detail
Table of Contents for Stations



Anomaly History Listing: Via the execution control display, the user can obtain an
anomaly history listing. The history shows those anomalies which existed and have
been corrected. The listing shows for the anomaly the time first detected, the time
last detected and the number of detections.
Bias File Listing: Via the execution control display, the user can obtain a listing of
the bias file. The bias file can also be cleared via the execution control display. The
bias file listing contains for each measurement the average values since the last
clearing of the bias file for the following quantities:
The engineering unit measurement bias in MW, MVAR, KV, ampere.
The bias in terms of the measurement confidence.
The calculated deviation both in engineering units and in terms of the input
standard deviation.
The input standard deviation.
3.3 Network Parameter Adaptation (NPA)
The Network Parameter Adaptation function provides parameters used to generate a
forecast of bus loads, regulated bus voltages, and of the status of time-switched
breakers. As part of the Real-Time Sequence, the program periodically updates
company, zone and load group parameters, non-conforming loads, desired voltages
for regulating equipments, and, for selected points, telemetered time-switched
breaker schedules. In real-time execution, the parameters are used by the State
Estimator function to schedule loads and desired voltages at all unobservable buses
and to generate pseudo load measurements. In study situations, the parameters are
used by the Power Flow function to schedule bus loads and desired voltages for the
specified day and hour of a study.
A load group is defined as one or more loads to be treated collectively. One typical
use would be for the set of feeders on a bus having a transformer measurement for
power into the bus but not having individual real and reactive feeder measurements.
(A non-conforming load is a bus load that does not follow the typical system load
pattern.) A zone is a set of load groups, and non-conforming loads, typically
representing an area of the power system. Time-switched breakers are typically
used for capacitor/reactor banks. A regulating equipment is a generating unit, LTC
transformer, or voltage-controlling capacitor that has been specified to control
voltage at a bus.
3.3.1 NPA Functional Description
Network Parameter Adaptation function (Figure 3-6) adapts forecasting parameters
for load group, non-conforming loads, and voltage MW and MVAR, desired voltages



for regulating equipment, and time-switched capacitor/reactor breaker positions for
which data is available. It also adapts the zone and company MW values. The
forecasting parameters for load groups, non-conforming loads, and voltages are
adapted from the State Estimator solutions; the time-switched breaker positions, for
adaptive breakers only, are time filtered from the telemetry data. In both cases, an
exponential filter is used to smooth the new data points in with the old data points.



POWER FLOW
STATE
ESTIMATOR
BF2 314
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
FILE
STATE
ESTIMATOR
SOLUTION
MODEL
UPDATE
SOLUTION
TIME-SWITCHED
BREAKER
UPDATE
ERROR
ANALYSIS
LOAD
FACTOR
UPDATE
VOLTAGE
PARAMETER
UPDATE
POWER FLOW
STATE
ESTIMATOR
BF2 314
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTATION
FILE
STATE
ESTIMATOR
SOLUTION
MODEL
UPDATE
SOLUTION
TIME-SWITCHED
BREAKER
UPDATE
ERROR
ANALYSIS
LOAD
FACTOR
UPDATE
VOLTAGE
PARAMETER
UPDATE
Figure 3-6. Overview of Network Parameter Adaptation Function

Parameters are kept for:
Load group MW and non-conforming load and MVAR
Desired voltage magnitude for regulating equipment
Switch position
The load groups and non-conforming loads are defined via the Information
Management function. A load group is defined as the set of power system loads,
which encompass an area. By defining the equipment, which defines the boundary
of the load group, the Load Factor Update function adaptively updates the load group
parameters. Non-conforming loads are adaptively updated if they are observable.
Each load element may have multiple sets of parameters to define its changing
relationship to overall company load over the hours of the week. The user defined,
via Information Management, the day-type and each of the 24 hours within the day-
type over which each load element parameter set should be updated. Parameters
for each load element are distributed over nine day types on a 24 hour day basis.
The day types cover seven days of the week plus two holiday types. The number of
day types is configurable.
For the load element parameters, two statistics are kept for each: the average
deviation from a predefined normal and a maximum deviation from a predefined
normal. These statistics are available to the user via workstation displays.



3.3.2 NPA Interface with Other Functions
Network Parameter Adaptation interfaces with the following functions:



State Estimator: The MW and MVAR equipment flows are obtained from the
State Estimator to update the load group, non-conforming load, zone and
company parameter values. The State Estimator uses the load group, non-
conforming load, zone and company parameters to schedule the loads that
will be used as pseudo measurements. The State Estimator also uses the
scheduled loads and desired voltages in the external network.
Update: To obtain the current system load to update the load group, non-
conforming load, zone and company parameter values, and to obtain the
current real-time status to update the time-switched breaker positions.
Power Flow: The Power Flow function uses the adaptive load group, zone,
non-conforming load, and company parameters to schedule load, the voltage
parameter to schedule desired voltages for regulating equipment, and the
time-switched breaker position parameters to schedule the time-switched
breaker positions.
3.3.3 NPA Algorithm
The Network Parameter Adaptation function maintains the load group, non-
conforming zone, company, desired voltage, and time-switched breaker parameters
which are either fixed values or adapted by the Network Parameter Adaptation
update function. The function that requests a forecast uses the proper load group,
non-conforming load, zone, company, desired voltage, and time-switched breaker
parameters that correspond to the hour and day type the forecast is requested for.
The actual calculation of the forecast is performed in the using function (such as the
Power Flow function or the State Estimator function) and not by Network Parameter
Adaptation.
NPA Adaptive Update Equations
All NPA parameters except for the company MW parameters are adaptively updated
using the following equation:
NPAP
new
(j, d, h) = NPAP
old
(j, d, h) + (1-) NPAP
rts
(12)
where:
NPAP Stands for each of the following NPA parameter types:
a) Load Group MW; adapted using the SE observable network solution
b) Load Group MVAR; adapted using the SE observable network
solution
c) Zone MW; adapted using the SE complete network solution
d) Time-switched breaker positions; adapted from telemetry retrieved via
Model Update 1.0 for closed and 0.0 for open.



NPAPnew = The new adaptively updated NPA parameter value
NPAP
old
= The old adaptively updated NPA parameter value prior to the
current update
NPAPrts = The actual/estimated parameter value provided by the real-time
functions.
= The adaptive smoothing constant. Each parameter type has its
own adaptive constant.
J = The jth item of NPAP
d = The dth day type
h = The hth hour
The equation for updating the company MW is:
COMW (p, d, h) = ZSUM (p, d, h) (13)
where:
p = The p
th
company
COMW = The company adaptive MW load value for specified day and hour
ZSUM = The sum of adaptive MW zone load value for all zones in the p
th

company for a specified day and hour
NPA Forecast Equations
The general equation for load group real and reactive power forecasts are:
W(i,d,h) = LGMW (i,d,h) S(P)/COMW (i,d,h) (14)
R(i,d,h) = LGMVAR (i,d,h) S(P)/COMW (i,d,h) (15)
where:
W = The load group MW forecast
R = The load group MVAR forecast
LGMW = The load group adaptive MW value for a specified day and hour
LGMVAR = The load group adaptive MVAR value for a specified day and hour
i = The i
th
load group



d = The d
th
day type
h = The h
th
hour
S = The company MW load for which forecast is requested
COMW = The company adaptive MW value for a specified day and hour



Zone load forecast are represented by the following equation:
Z(k,d,h) = ZMW (k,d,h) S(P)/COMW (p,d,h) (16)
where:
ZMW = The zone adaptive MW load for a specified day and hour
p = The p
th
company
Z = The zone MW forecast
k = The k
th
zone
In most cases, the value of company MW load(s) is specified and zone and load
group MW forecasts are computed using that value in accordance with equations 3,
4, and 5. This is the general case in real-time use.
For study case use, the capability is provided to use an adaptive value of company
MW load for a specified day and hour for scheduling of zone and load group MW
loads. In that case, the company MW load forecast is taken to be:
S(P) = COMW (p,d,h) (17)
Zone and load group MW forecasts are then simplified:
Z (k,d,h) = ZMW (k,d,h)
W (i,d,h) = LGMW (i,d,h)
R (i,d,h) = LGMVAR (i,d,h)
Time-switched breakers are described by a single parameter referred to as the
switch parameter. This switch parameter is a number between zero and one, where
zero represents a closed switch and one represents an open switch. The general
equation for forecasting the switch position is:
0 for SP (K,j,d,m) < TOL
ISP(K,d,m) = (18)
1 for SP (K,j,d,m) > TOL
where:
SP is the switch parameter (0.0 < SP < 1.0)
ISP is the logical switch position (0 or 1)



TOL is the switching threshold
K is the K
th
time-switched breaker
d is the d
th
day type
m is the m
th
hour
3.3.4 NPA User Interface
Execution Control Display: The execution control display controls the execution of
the line printer output and the initialization of parameters.
Load Group and Zone Parameter Values Display: This display shows the
parameters for all load groups and zones, whether they are adaptive, the day-type
and the adapted and default values. The operator can change the violation
tolerances via this display.
Non-Conforming Load Parameters Display: This display is similar to the load group
parameter values display.
Desired Voltage Parameters Display: This display is similar to the load group
parameter values display.
Time-Switched Breaker Position Parameters Display: This display is similar to the
load group Parameter Values display.
Current Violations Display: This display contains the current load group violations.
The display contains:
Type of violation (MW or MVAR)
Deviation from normal
Normal and adaptive values
Average and maximum deviations
Time of occurrence of maximum error
Similar displays exist for non-conforming loads, desired voltage and time-switched
breaker positions.
The contents of the Parameter Values displays and the Current Violations displays
can be listed on a printer via the Execution Control display.



3.4 Security Analysis (SA)
The purpose of the Security Analysis function is to determine the security of the
power system under specified contingencies. For each contingency, Security
Analysis simulates the steady-state power flow solution and checks the network for
out-of-range conditions. An exception report is generated for ease of interpretation.



The Security Analysis function provides the following features:
Studies effects of contingencies on current system
Alerts the operator about what can happen, before it really happens
Operator can take precautionary measures, thus avoiding possible problems
Only the worst problems are reported
Both overloads and voltage problems are reported
Other unique features of the proposed Security Analysis function can be summarized
as follows:
Analyzes many contingency cases using AC load flow (adaptive local solution
and fast decoupled power flow)
Screens contingency cases for those requiring full analysis
Real-Time initializes the base case to the State Estimator network solution
Study initializes the base case to the study Power Flow results
Handles multiple outages of lines, transformers, phase shifters, series
devices, DC lines, generating units, loads and circuit breaker operations
Solves for cascading outages
Solves islanded systems, isolated buses and split buses
Handles transfer of load to a different feeder if the original becomes de-
energized
Ranks contingency results and presents violations of each contingency
Reallocates of lost generation
Simulates movement of on-load tap changing transformers
Performs MVAR limiting of units
Regulates the voltage of a local or remote bus with capacitor bank switching
Dynamically adds contingencies to list based on branch overloads detected
by the State Estimator function
Input to the Security Analysis function consists of:
Base case network from the State Estimator or the Power Flow



Contingency list (operator may modify interactively)
Priority level (or subset) of contingencies to be analyzed
Violation thresholds as a percent of limits
The following is a summary of the available output options:
Violation list violations for each contingency
Severity index and rank of each contingency
New violations since the last solution in real-time
3.4.1 SA Functional Description
The Security Analysis function (Figure 3-7) uses the Fast Decoupled Power Flow
(FDPF) technique to obtain the network solution. A converged solution with or
without limiting generator excitation, automatic transformer tap control and capacitor
bank switching can be obtained from a full AC analysis for any or all contingencies.
Alternatively, a screening process can be used which consists of ranking
contingencies according to the expected severity of the resulting branch MVA
overloads, voltage limit violations or bus reactive power limit violations following one
or more (operator may modify interactively) iteration(s) of AC analysis and then
selecting a small worst case list for full AC analysis. The major contributing
techniques used in the procedure are:
Adaptive local solution technique
Sparsity-oriented programming
Optimally ordered triangular factorization
A direct solution technique
Use of the Factor Update Technique (FUT) to simulate outages
A nonlinear network model
Decoupled real and reactive equations



BF2 316
POWER
FLOW
CONTINGENCY
SIMULATIONS
OUTPUT
PROCESSING
INPUT
PREPARATION
CONTINGENCY
LIST SETUP
STATE
ESTIMATOR
LINE
PRINTER
SCREENING
& RANKING
INPUT CRT
DISPLAYS
OUTPUT CRT
SUMMARIES
CONTINGENCY
LISTS &
SCREENING
PARAMETERS
INPUT
NETWORK
BUS MODEL
SECURITY
ANALYSIS
RESULTS
BF2 316
POWER
FLOW
CONTINGENCY
SIMULATIONS
OUTPUT
PROCESSING
INPUT
PREPARATION
CONTINGENCY
LIST SETUP
STATE
ESTIMATOR
LINE
PRINTER
SCREENING
& RANKING
INPUT CRT
DISPLAYS
OUTPUT CRT
SUMMARIES
CONTINGENCY
LISTS &
SCREENING
PARAMETERS
INPUT
NETWORK
BUS MODEL
SECURITY
ANALYSIS
RESULTS
Figure 3-7. Overview of Security Analysis Function

The contingency screening technique processes the specified contingencies with the
exception of those that are flagged to bypass the screening process. It then sorts all
of them into two separate screened contingency lists based on MW branch overloads
or MVAR/KV violations, following one full iteration of AC analysis. Contingencies in
the screened contingency lists are simulated for full AC solution until a "Stopping
Criterion" is met. (Further description is provided in Section 3.5.4.5.) For the full AC
solutions, it is possible to take into account automatic correction of generator VARs
for increased accuracy. In addition, Security Analysis recognizes contingencies that
cause system islanding and appropriately modifies the analysis.
Security Analysis analyzes independently, either the real-time network from the State
Estimator function or a study network from the Power Flow. For each of these
executions, SA simulates contingencies contained in the contingency list. Each
contingency can consist of any combination of the following:
Branch outages
Load element outages
Generating unit outages
DC link outages (for either the single ended bus injection model or the double
ended branch model)
Logical device status changes (open or close)
Bus outages can be simulated by outaging all branches connected to a bus or by
changes in logical device statuses.





Associated with each contingency is a priority. The user first selects a priority range
for an execution (real-time and study executions have separate priority ranges),
Security Analysis then simulates all contingencies in the list within that priority range.
For all those contingencies with a generator unit, load or DC link bus injection
outage, the lost generation is allocated to the remaining generators via user
changeable participation factors. The generator allocator is also utilized to maintain
a power balance under islanding conditions. The participation factors could
correspond to machine inertias or to governor droop characteristics. Separate sets
of participation factors are maintained for study and real-time users. Unit limits are
respected by the allocation.
For each solution of a contingency, elements are checked for out-of-range
conditions. The following types of limits can be checked:
Branch flow limits
Generator reactive limits
Voltage deviation limits
The user can specify at what percentage of the ratings, violations are to be
generated. For example, 80 percent for branches would result in a violation
whenever a branch is loaded to more than 80 percent of its current rating.
For each contingency simulated, an index is calculated as a guide to the relative
seriousness of the contingency. This index is used for ranking the contingencies.
When contingency screening is performed, this ranking can be used to execute full
AC analysis on the worst cases. This ranking can also be displayed in the study
mode to assist the operator with assignment of priority values.
3.4.2 SA Interface with Other Functions
Security Analysis interfaces with the following functions:
State Estimator: To obtain the solved real-time network (real-time mode)
Power Flow: To obtain the solved study network (study mode)
3.4.3 SA Algorithm
A detailed development of the fast decoupled power flow is published in reference
(
1
). Key points of the algorithm are repeated below.

1
B. Stott and O. Alsac, "Fast Decoupled Load Flow", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-93, May/June 1974.


Expressions for the real and reactive power injections at node k can be written as:
P
k
= V
2
k
G
kk
+ V
k
V
m
(G
km
cos
km
+B
km
sin
km
) (20)
m
k

Q
k
= V
2
k
B
kk
+ V
k
V
m
(G
km
sin
km
+B
km
cos
km
) (21)
m
k

where:
P
k
+ jQ
k
is the power injection at node k
V
k
is the voltage magnitude at node k
km
is the voltage phase angle across branch km
G
km
+ jB
km
is the km entry in the branch admittance matrix
G
kk
+ jB
kk
is the driving point admittance of node k
k
is the set of branches connected to node k
N is the number of system nodes
The system of equations for real power mismatch and reactive power mismatch can
be approximated as:
[/] =[] [] (22)
[/] =[] [] (23)
where and V are voltage angle and magnitude corrections. [B'] and [B"] are
matrices given by
B'km = B"km = Vk Vm Bkm (24)
B'kk = B"kk = V2k Bkk (25)
The above expressions are obtained by making the following assumptions:
Transmission line resistances are negligible (compared to reactances).



Angle is small i.e. Sin ~ .
Voltage magnitude is approximately 1 p.u.
The effects of the network elements that predominantly affect the MW flows
(e.g. phase-shifters) are ignored in the [B'] equations.
The effects of the network elements that predominantly affect the MVAR
flows are ignored in the [B"] equations, e.g., effect of off-nominal transformer
tap.
These assumptions result in the mathematical formulation of two sets of equations
with decoupled constant matrices [B'] and [B"]. These equations in (3) and (4) are
solved to obtain network voltages and angles by using sparsity oriented
programming techniques to perform optimally ordered triangular factorization and
direct solution. Branch outages are simulated using the Partial Factorization
Technique (PFT) to update the [B'] and [B"] matrices. Generator outages and
generator MVAR limiting are simulated using the Factor Update Technique (FUT).
The solution method uses a non-linear model and, using the decoupling
assumptions to speed up the computation, obtains exact answers to the load flow
problem. Further computational speed up is also obtained by judicious use of the
adaptive local solution technique. Consequently, even when only the first few
iterations are used for contingency selection, the accuracy is superior to fully linear
methods such as the method of distribution factors.
Security Analysis uses the Zero Mismatch Power Flow (ZMPF) (
2
), which is an
enhanced modification of the Fast Decoupled Power Flow, to obtain converged
solutions for all contingencies flagged as potentially harmful during screening and
selected for full AC analysis. The computational efficiency of the Zero Mismatch
Power Flow is derived from the fact that it utilizes only a minimum number of bus
mismatch calculations in order to obtain a converged load flow, whereas, in the
traditional FDPF real and reactive power mismatches are computed at all buses and
for all iterations until convergence.
The basis of the ZM approach is to exploit localization in solving power network
problems arising from contingency analysis by relying on the following observed
facts:
The effect of most local changes in power networks tend to remain
localized.
Iterative solutions of network problems whose effects are initially widespread
tend to become localized as the iterations converge.

2
R. Bacher and W.F. Tinney, "Faster Local Power Flow Solutions: The Zero Mismatch
Approach", paper presented at the IEEE/PES Winter Power Meeting, New York, NY, Jan. 29-
Feb. 3, 1989.



In the ZMPF algorithm, bus MW/MVAR mismatches smaller than a certain tolerance
are processed as if these mismatches were actually zero, and computational effort is
thus saved by skipping computation of relatively small MW/MVAR mismatches. The
adaptive localization and bounding of mismatches and iteration solutions are
accomplished using sparse vector methods. Thus, the ZMPF provides a faster
converged decoupled power flow solution using MW/MVAR mismatches computed at
only a subset of buses but without requiring the use of reduced equivalent networks
and without modifying the factors of the global network equations. The adaptive
nature of the ZMPF allows the local area being evaluated to follow the actual
MW/MVAR mismatch values from iteration to iteration. This guarantees that all
buses affected by the contingency are properly evaluated.
3.4.4 SA Contingency Screening
3.4.4.1 SA Performance Indices
The system performance index is a measure that can be used to evaluate the
relative severity of a contingency. System performance indices are not unique and
take on different forms depending on the parameters that are of most importance to
the system engineer. However, in selecting a performance index, physical properties
of the system should be taken into consideration. The most common form of a
system performance index gives a measure of the deviation of the system variables
such as line flows, bus voltages, bus power injections from their rated values.
Due to the weak coupling between the real power and the (compared to reactances)
reactive power equations, two separate performance indices are defined:
Real Power Performance Index
Voltage/Reactive Power Performance Index
3.4.4.2 SA Real Power Performance Index
For computational efficiency, branch power flow monitoring is accomplished by
branch angle monitoring using equivalent branch angle limits transformed from the
branch MVA limits. The real power performance index,PI
, shown in the following

equation gives a measure of branch overloads.
(26)
2
W PI
0
d
d

where:
W
= Real power weighting factor



d
= Branch angle of branch d
o
d
= Branch normal angle limit of branch d
= Set of overloaded branches
3.4.4.3 SA Voltage/Reactive Power Performance Index
The voltage/reactive power performance index, PI
VQ
, is given by equation:



+ =
Q
Q Q
W
V
V
W PI
m
i
m
i i
i
i
Q V VQ
2
2
lim

(27)
where:
V
i
= Voltage magnitude change from the base case at bus i
V
i
lim
= Voltage magnitude change limit at bus i
Q
i
= Reactive power injection at bus i
Q
i
m

= Midpoint between reactive high and low limits
i.e., (Q
_

i

+ Q
i
)/2
Q
_

i
, Q
i
= Reactive power high and low limit at bus i
W
Q
= Reactive power weighting factor
W
V
= Voltage magnitude weighting factor
= Set of buses at which the voltage deviation is either below a specified
minimum or above a specified maximum
= Set of buses at which the reactive power is either below a specified
minimum or above a specified maximum.
It should be re-emphasized here that performance indices are not unique and usually
depend on what the engineer considers important in evaluating the security of the
system.
3.4.4.4 SA Contingency Ranking
One or more iteration(s) of the Fast Decoupled Power Flow are used to calculate the
performance indices for every contingency. Contingencies are then ranked on the
basis of the magnitudes of their corresponding performance indices. Ranking for
overloads and ranking for voltage problems are done separately since the two are
normally uncorrelated.
Contingency Selection Stopping Criteria



Once the ranking of contingencies is done according to their severity, the more
severe cases may be analyzed further for more details with more accuracy. Full AC
analysis of the outages in the ranked lists are carried out until a "stopping criterion" is
met. The Stopping Criteria may take one of the following two forms:
Study the most severe N cases from each ranked list
Study all cases with possible violations
3.4.4.5 Computational Efficiency of SA Contingency Screening
The computational efficiency of the screening algorithm is derived from the following
features:
Extensive use of Sparse Vector (SV) methods (
3
) (fast forward and fast
backward techniques).
Efficient bounding technique (
4
) for fast computation and checking of branch
angle limit violation.
Transformation of branch normal MVA limits to branch normal angle limits for
efficient branch limit checking.
Adaptive reactive mismatch bounding for fast computation of bus voltage
magnitudes.
Use of Approximate Sparse Vector (ASV) (
5
) techniques (skip-back-by-
column).
Essentially, contingency screening is accomplished in two steps. First, execute the
FDPF for the operator defined number of screening iterations. Second, evaluate
equipment loading at the state following the screening iterations. The use of multiple
screening iterations is essential to properly reflect the effects of voltage control
devices in the screening phase.
During MW screening the algorithm employs sparse vector methods and
approximate sparse vector methods to quickly compute all significant bus angle

3
W.F. Tinney, V. Brandwajn and S.M. Chan, "Sparse Vector Methods", IEEE Trans. on
Power App. and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No. 2, Feb. 1985, pp. 295-301.

4
V. Brandwajn, "Efficient Bounding Method for Linear Contingency Analysis", IEEE Trans.
on Power Systems, Vol. 3, No. 3, Feb. 1988, pp. 38-43.

5
R. Bacher, G.C. Ejebe and W.F. Tinney, "Approximate Spare Vector Techniques for
Power Network Solutions", Proceedings of 1989 Power Industry Computer Applications
Conference, Seattle, WA, May 1-5, 1989, pp. 2-8.



changes globally throughout the power network, and then applies the incremental
angle bounding criteria for fast checking of branch angle limit violations.
During the voltage screening phase, contingencies that cause significant voltage
changes and limit violations are detected. The efficiency of the voltage screening
phase is enhanced by Adaptive Localization in the reactive power mismatch
computation. Using the bus angles from MW screening, the reactive power
mismatches are calculated initially for those buses in the immediate electrical
neighborhood of the outage and, subsequently, adaptively for those other buses with
significant MVAR mismatches. The second set of buses are quickly determined by
Adaptive Expansion of the boundaries of the neighborhood and computation of the
reactive power mismatches at the new boundary buses. The algorithm adaptively
decides how far to go and in which direction by examining the computed numerical
values of the MVAR mismatches. Once all the significant MVAR mismatches for the
contingency are computed then the associated bus voltage changes and limit
violations are determined globally throughout the power network using fast forward
and skip-back-by-column techniques. All branches and buses in the network are
checked for violations as appropriate.
3.4.5 SA User Interface
Execution Control Display: The execution control display controls the execution of
Security Analysis and provides for entry of execution parameters such as the title of
a study case, limit violation parameters, outage priority, etc.
Working Contingency List Displays: The purpose of the working contingency
display is to provide a mechanism for preparing the contingency list. This list is not
used by the solution. The user can enter new contingencies, delete existing
contingencies, change normal priorities, or reorder the contingencies. The entire
working list can be validated (i.e., checked for errors) or implemented (i.e., replace
the existing on-line contingency list). New contingencies are defined and existing
contingencies are modified by entering the outage title, station name, the element
type, the element name and priority via interactive contingency editor displays.
Validation checks are performed on an individual contingency being modified in the
contingency editor.
Active Contingency List Display: This display shows the title of the contingency,
the normal priority of the contingency and its operator modifiable actual priority. The
contingencies in this display are actually used in the solution.
Generator Allocation Displays: The Generator Allocation participation factors for
units are initialized to database default values. These participation factors can be
viewed and modified separately for real-time and study through the Generator
Allocation Display. These factors can be reset to default at any time via the
execution control display.
Summary Display: This display contains for the last execution of Security Analysis,
a summary of the case including case title, number of contingencies simulated,



number of violations checked, number of contingencies with violations, violation
thresholds and other pertinent summary data.
Violation List Display: This display enumerates the violations that occurred with
each contingency. For each violation, the station, equipment identifier, rating and
solved value in both engineering units and percent of rating are displayed. The
output for each contingency is presented in the order which represents the severity
of the contingency.
Real-Time Existing Violations Display: This display shows all the
contingency/violation pairs encountered in the most recent execution of Security
Analysis in real-time. The time the violation of each pair was first detected is
included in this display. If the time shown is previous to the last run, it means that
the pair was in violation in all intervening runs.
Real-Time New Violations Display: This display shows the contingency/violation
pairs encountered in the most recent execution of Security Analysis in real-time that
did not exist in the previous run.



3.5 Voltage Scheduler (VS)
The Voltage Scheduler is a real-time application of the Optimal Power Flow algorithm
in loss optimization or reactive power security mode. The function has two purposes:
1. To eliminate or reduce voltage violations and branch overloads using LTC
transformer tap positions, generator bus voltages and controllable
capacitor/reactor MVAR values.
2. If there are no branch overloads or violations, to determine the optimum
setting for LTC transformer tap positions, generator bus voltages,
controllable capacitor/reactor MVAR values and phase shifter tap positions
which minimize Iraq SCADA Refurbishment MW transmission losses.
All bus voltage, branch flow and control variable limits are enforced in both execution
modes.
Features can be summarized as:
Real-Time optimization of network voltages and MVAR flows to eliminate or
reduce reactive power constraint violations or to achieve minimum active
power losses.
Automatically selects its execution mode based on real-time bus voltage and
branch loading conditions
Relaxation of limit violations in an optimal fashion when a feasible solution
cannot be found
3.5.1 VS Functional Description
The Voltage Scheduler function (Figure 3-8) operates on the real-time network
model. It determines the reactive power control settings that relieves the existing
bus voltage violations and branch overloads or minimize real power transmission
losses.
The Voltage Scheduler first checks for voltage violations or branch overloads in the
State Estimator (SE) solution. If there are voltage violations or branch overloads,
Voltage Scheduler reschedules LTC transformer tap positions, generator bus
voltages and controllable capacitor/reactor MVAR values in minimum control shift
fashion to relieve the overloads/violations. The VS advises the user regarding what
can be done to eliminate or relieve the network problems. VS does not attempt to
minimize active power loses if there are overloads/violations in the SE solution.
If there are no voltage violations or branch overloads in the SE solution, the Voltage
Scheduler determines the optimum settings for LTC transformer tap positions,



generator bus voltages, controllable capacitor/reactor MVAR values and phase
shifter tap positions which minimize Iraq SCADA Refurbishment MW transmission
losses.



INPUT CRT
DISPLAYS
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER
PARAMETERS
BF2 317
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER
SOLUTION
OUTPUT
PROCESSING
STATE
ESTIMATOR
SOLUTION
DATA
TRANSFER
OUTPUT CRT
SUMMARIES
REAL TIME
NETWORK
MODEL
VS
RESULTS
INPUT CRT
DISPLAYS
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER
PARAMETERS
BF2 317
VOLTAGE
SCHEDULER
SOLUTION
OUTPUT
PROCESSING
STATE
ESTIMATOR
SOLUTION
DATA
TRANSFER
OUTPUT CRT
SUMMARIES
REAL TIME
NETWORK
MODEL
VS
RESULTS
Figure 3-8. Overview of Voltage Scheduler Function

The Voltage Scheduler function is executed automatically at a specified periodic
frequency following the execution of the State Estimator function. The results can be
used (manually) by the dispatcher to alter the system voltages to minimize voltage
violations or active power losses. The function ranks the controls in their appropriate
order of effectiveness in eliminating overloads or changing system losses. This
gives the option to filter out control actions that have minor impact on the objective
(feasibility or loss minimization).
The Voltage Scheduler function can also be executed on demand via the Real-Time
Sequence Execution Control Display.
The algorithms for the Voltage Scheduler are exactly the same as the ones used by
the Optimal Power Flow in a MVAR security optimization and loss minimization
mode. For more details refer to Section 3.9.3.
3.5.2 VS Interfaces with Other Functions
State Estimator constructs the solved real-time network which is the sole source of
network description for Voltage Scheduler.
3.5.3 VS Algorithm
The algorithms for the Voltage Scheduler are exactly the same as the ones used by
the Optimal Power Flow in a MVAR security optimization loss minimization mode.
For more details on the algorithm refer to Section 3.9.3.



3.5.4 VS User Interface
As with other real-time functions, control of execution of the Voltage Scheduler (VS)
function is provided on the Real-Time Sequence Execution Control display. VS
provides only the displays of its local data requirements.
Company Control Status Display: This display provides for entry of optimization
control statuses for the various companies and allows for enabling/ disabling bus
voltage control status, and global enable/disable for branch flow control status.
Unit Voltage/MVAR Parameters Display: This display provides for entry of unit
voltage ranges and control statuses.
LTC Parameters Display: This display allows entry of LTC voltage ranges and
control statuses.
Phase Shifter Parameters Display: Phase shifter ranges and control statuses are
entered on this display.
Capacitor/Reactor Parameters Display: This display allows entry of controllable
capacitor/reactor voltage ranges and control statuses.
System Bus Voltage Limits Display: This display is used to enable or disable
voltage limit checks on non-regulated buses using voltage range limits.
Unit Summary Display: This display shows the rescheduled unit voltage setting
before and after VS solution. The controls are listed in order of effectiveness.
LTC Summary Display: This display shows the rescheduled LTC voltage setting
before and after VS solution. The controls are listed in order of effectiveness.
Phase Shifter Summary Display: The current and optimized phase shifter tap
settings are displayed here. The controls are listed in order of effectiveness. Phase
shifters are only used as controls for loss minimization.
Capacitor/Reactor Summary Display: This display shows the rescheduled
controllable capacitor/reactor tap setting before and after VS solution. The controls
are listed in order of effectiveness.
Pre- and Post-Solution Violation Summary Displays: Displays will be provided to
show the violations that existed before and after VS solution.
Losses Summary Display: This display shows the active power losses before and
after the VS solution together with the change in losses.
Branch Overloads Display: This display shows the overloaded branches after the
VS solution.



3.6 Dispatcher Power Flow (DPF)
The Dispatcher Power Flow function is a study function which executes only on user
request; it is used to examine the steady-state conditions which may exist on the
power network under a wide variety of hypothesized conditions. The following
summarizes the features within the Dispatcher Power Flow function:
Provides a full A-C power flow
Voltage magnitudes and phase angles
Real and reactive power flows
Provides study load flow solutions of network conditions
Computes and limit checks MW, MVAR, KV, MVA
May use real-time conditions as the "base case" or a saved study case
Permits modifications to the "base case"
Provides convenient input and output
Uses Study Case Input/Output workstation displays which have the same
static structure as SCADA one-line displays for entry and output in a
familiar form
Tabular input/output workstation formats are also available
Batch-type print-outs can be requested
Permits as entry most variable conditions
Breaker status
Load MW/MVAR
System load or interchange; limits, costs
Generator values limits, costs, availability
Transformer taps, limits, setpoints
DC link schedules and control mode parameters
Operator control of convergence tolerances and other solution parameters
Ability to designate a generator as controlling the voltage at a remote bus. In
addition, a tap changing transformer can be designated to control the voltage



at either side of the transformer or at a remote bus. Voltage Control
Capacitors (VCC) can also be designated to control their bus voltage.
Generators, LTC transformers, and VCCs can simultaneously regulate the
voltage of a local or remote bus.
MVAR limiting of units is represented
Handles multiple electrical islands
Interfaces to an Outage Scheduler function (Option)
3.6.1 DPF Functional Description
An overview of the Dispatcher Power Flow function is shown in Figure 3-9.
BF2 319
DPF/OPF
POWER
FLOW
SAVE
CASES
TABULAR
DISPLAY
HARD COPY
OUTPUT
UNIT
COMMITMENT
STUDY
NETWORK
MODEL
STUDY
SECURITY
ANALYSIS
OUTAGE
SCEDULES
(Option)
SHORT
CIRCUIT
CALCULATIONS
REAL-TIME
NETWORK
MODEL OR
SAVE CASES
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTION
ONE LINE
DIAGRAMS
DPF/OPF
SOLUTION
FILE
BF2 319
DPF/OPF
POWER
FLOW
SAVE
CASES
TABULAR
DISPLAY
HARD COPY
OUTPUT
UNIT
COMMITMENT
STUDY
NETWORK
MODEL
STUDY
SECURITY
ANALYSIS
OUTAGE
SCEDULES
(Option)
SHORT
CIRCUIT
CALCULATIONS
REAL-TIME
NETWORK
MODEL OR
SAVE CASES
NETWORK
PARAMETER
ADAPTION
ONE LINE
DIAGRAMS
DPF/OPF
SOLUTION
FILE

Figure 3-9. Overview of Power Flow Function

In order to facilitate use of the Dispatcher Power Flow, an extensive system of data
initialization and scheduling subfunctions are included and are implemented through
the user interface.
The data initialization subfunctions allow an operator to retrieve the data required to
define a Dispatcher Power Flow in several ways:
The entire input data file may be retrieved from any one of the previously-
stored Dispatcher Power Flow input cases. Data is stored in the input file at
the device level.



The entire input file may be copied from the State Estimator function,
resulting in a definition which matches the real-time network configuration
and real-time solution.
The file may be constructed piecemeal. Network status can be obtained from
either the "normal" device positions or from real-time, the network load can
be obtained using Network Parameter Adaptation parameters for any
specified hour, all other parameters can be obtained from database default.
A Load Scheduler is provided within the Dispatcher Power Flow system. The Load
Scheduler retrieves from Network Parameter Adaptation, the appropriate set of real
and reactive power load distribution and switchable device parameters for the day
and hour type specified by the user for the power flow run. The user may then
modify any of these parameters. The forecasted load and the relationship of external
company loads to the Iraq SCADA Refurbishment company load can also be
modified before executing the Load Scheduling function. Scheduled loads can be
reviewed after execution and individual load point real and/or reactive loads can be
modified if necessary.
A Generation Scheduler is also provided which acts within the Dispatcher Power
Flow system. When invoked by the user, this subfunction schedules unit generation
to meet the specified load and interchange for each company, and it also schedules
the desired voltage for each unit utilizing data from Network Parameter Adaptation.
The generator MW outputs are determined by a simplified dispatch/commitment
algorithm which uses a quadratic cost curve and ignores losses, time-dependent
costs, etc. The operator may retrieve the unit MW schedules from the Unit
Commitment function. The desired voltages are determined from data entered in the
database defining a linear relationship between each unit desired voltage and the
company load.
Before and after each data activity, displays are available for operator override of the
default data. The only data which always has an operator as its source are:
Time and date being studied
Net Interchange for external companies
The network database which serves as input to the Power Flow has an explicit
representation of all bus sections and logical devices (breakers, switches, etc.) which
are entered via the Information Management function. All network status for the
Dispatcher Power Flow is then displayed and entered on one-line diagrams by actual
switching processes. If, in the course of setting up a Dispatcher Power Flow, the
operator has made such entries, he will also execute the Study Station Model
Rebuild subfunction which processes logical device status to produce buses, where
a bus consists of all bus sections connected by closed devices. This serves two
purposes: it reduces the network dimensionally to a more reasonable level for the
network solution, and it determines which elements of the network (units, branches,
etc.) are not connected to any legitimate bus.



At any time, the data residing in the Dispatcher Power Flow input area may be saved
in one of the Power Flow input cases for future retrieval. Any case so saved remains
available until either a new case is stored in that area or a new database is stored by
Information Management which has introduced an incompatible set of network
identifiers. The data is saved to the most detailed level (i.e., device status, load point
level).
The following special features are handled:
Net interchange is controlled for all companies.
Generating units control a voltage anywhere in the system.
Non phase-shifting transformers are modeled with taps on both sides. One of
the taps may also be designated as tap-changing and may control either a
voltage on the high or low side or a remote bus voltage. All taps are input
and solved as discrete integer tap settings.
Phase-shifting transformers are modeled as simple angular shifts in series
with an impedance.
DC links are modeled as a single bus injection or a double ended branch for
a variety of control modes.
Limits are respected on unit MW and MVAR outputs, transformer taps, and
phase-shifter taps.
Voltage control capacitors may control their bus voltages.
If the network is disconnected, up to ten subnetworks having both load and
generation are solved in a single solution step.
The output data produced by the solution subfunction is immediately available for
display. Detailed results are available both on one-line diagrams and in tabular
station-by-station formats suitable for reproduction on the line-printer. Tabular
summary displays are available for:
Overloaded lines, transformers, and voltage limit violations
Generation MW, MVAR
Tap changers
Phase-shifters
Voltage Control Capacitors
DC links
Bus voltage control



Zone, company and system generation, load and losses
Solution summary
Line-printer copies of all of these except the one-lines are available by operator
request, and to reduce the volume of detailed printout, this may be requested only for
a selected zone (where a zone is a predefined subset of a company).
A save area is also provided so that copies of the Dispatcher Power Flow output may
be saved for future review. An output case which is recalled from storage is
available for all the same subfunctions as one generated by the solution.
An Output Case Comparison subfunction is also available within the Dispatcher
Power Flow. This subfunction compares the output results of two network solutions
and identifies the differences. The differences are generally sorted by company, and
then by the amount of difference of the various types of equipment. Differences
which are below a user-modifiable threshold are removed from the results to simplify
comparison. Additionally, the user may specify which companies should be included
in the comparison. The following case comparisons are permitted.
One power flow user versus another power flow user
One power flow user versus a power flow save case
One power flow save case versus another power flow save case
One power flow user versus State Estimator results
Security Dispatch results versus State Estimator results
Voltage Scheduler versus State Estimator results
Security Dispatch versus Voltage Scheduler results
3.6.2 DPF Interface with Other Functions
The Power Flow uses data from the following functions:
Model Update: To obtain the real-time status of logical devices.
Network Parameter Adaptation: To obtain data necessary to forecast
distributed network loads.
State Estimator: To obtain the real-time solution of the network.
Unit Commitment (Option): May be used to retrieve unit MW output
schedules.



Outage Scheduler (Option): To obtain the outage schedules of logical
devices for a specified time and date.
The Power Flow supplies data to the following functions:
Study Security Analysis: Receives the solved network from the Power
Flow output to be used as a base case for security studies.
Short Circuit Calculations: Receives the solved network from the Power
Flow output to be used as the base case for short circuit calculation studies.
3.6.3 DPF Algorithm
The Dispatcher's Power Flow makes use of the two distinct solution algorithms; the
Fast Decoupled Power Flow (FDPF) algorithm and the Newton-Raphson (NR)
algorithm. The FDPF algorithm is the first choice because of its speed advantage.
However, for certain network topologies, network parameters, and control
designations, it is known that the FDPF algorithm has difficulty converging. In such
an event the solution switches to the NR algorithm, which has better convergence
properties. This switching is performed by the solution subfunction itself. It is
possible to specify that the FDPF not be used at all.
The essence of the power flow problem is to solve a set of general non-linear
equations of the form:
F(X) = 0 (35)
Where F is a non-linear vector function of a vector argument X.
The power flow equations are a set of N complex equations, one for each bus, of the
form:
(36) ( )
N k
m e V jB G
m
N
k e V
net
k
jQ
net
k
P
j
m km km
j
k
,..., 1
0
1 =
= +
=
+ +

where:
V
k
is the voltage magnitude at bus k
k
is the voltage angle at bus k
G
km
+jB
km
is the (k,m)th element of the bus admittance matrix



k bus at injections power reactive and real net the are
Q
P
net
k
net
k

The preceding equation can be separated into two real equations:
Pknet Pk (V, ) = 0
k = 1, ..., N (37)
Qknet Qk (V, ) = 0
These equations can be solved by making use of the Taylor series expansion of
F(X). The vector matrix Taylor expansion of F(X) about the initial guess X = X
(0)
is:
F(X) = F(X(0)) + J X + higher order terms (38)
) 0 (
) (
) ( X X
X
X F
J
j
j
ij
=
= at evaluated
Where J is the Jacobian matrix:
Ignoring the higher order terms this can be rewritten as:
(39)
( )
) 0 (
X F K J =
This equation is solved for X using optimal ordering and Gaussian elimination. The
state variables, X, are updated by the corrections, X, serving as a new guess, X
(K)
.
If F
i
(X
(K)
) is less than some tolerance for all i, then X
(K)
is the desired solution. If not
then a new Taylor's series expansion about the point X
(K)
is performed and the
process repeats. This is the Newton-Raphson algorithm. Note that it requires the
Jacobian matrix to be recalculated and refactorized each iteration.
The Fast Decoupled Power Flow algorithm can be developed from the Newton-
Raphson algorithm in the following manner. When using the Taylor series
expansion, with the higher order terms ignored, the real and reactive power
mismatches at bus k (WP
k
and WQ
k
) can be written as:
( ). sin cos
1
km km km km m k
net
K k
B G V
m
N
V P P +
=
=
(40)



( )
km km km km m k
net
k k
B G V
m
N
V Q Q cos sin
1

=
=
(41)
where:
km
=
k

m

Applying the Newton-Raphson method to the solution of these non-linear equations,
the Jacobian matrix equation has the general form:
V / V L
M
J
H
Q
P
(42)
where: H, M, J, and L are coupling submatrices with the following definitions:
[H] =

P
[M] =
V
P V
[0]
[J] =

[0]
Q
[L] =
V
Q V

Elements of the off-diagonal submatrices J and M are much smaller in magnitude
than elements of the diagonal submatrices H and L in the matrix equation due to the
weak coupling between the real power and the reactive power equations. Neglecting
the off-diagonal coupling submatrices M and J, two sets of matrix equations are
obtained:
= [] [] (43)
Q = [L] [ V/V] (44)
where:
H
km
= L
km
= V
k
V
m
(G
km
sin
km
B
km
cos
km
)



H
kk
= -B
kk
V
k
2
-Q
k
and L
kk
= -B
kk
V
k
2
+ Q
k

Further simplifications are made by observing that in most realistic situations:
cos
km
~ 1
G
km
sin
km
<< B
km

and
Q
k
<< B
kk
V
k
2

With these approximation equations (9) and (10) reduce to:
[ P] = [VB'V] [ ] (45)
[ Q] = [VB"V] [ V/V] (46)
Where the elements of B' and B" are elements of -B, the susceptance matrix.
Taking the left most V terms to the left-hand side of the equations and setting the
right most V term to 1 p.u. in equation (45), as V affects the MVAR flows mainly,
equations (45) and (46) reduce to:
[ P/V] = [B'] [ ] (47)
[ Q/V] = [B"] [ V] (48)
Equations (47) and (48) are the standard Fast Decoupled Power Flow equations. In
calculating the elements of B' and B", the following decoupling considerations are
used:
a. Shunt elements and off-nominal transformers are neglected in B'.
b. Phase shifters angle effects are neglected in B".
c. Series resistances are neglected in B'.
The major advantage of these equations is that the matrices [B'] and [B"] only need
to be calculated and factorized once. This is the characteristic that gives the FDPF
algorithm its speed advantage over the NR algorithm.
3.6.4 DPF User Interface
The Power Flow has an extensive system of displays which make this a very general
and highly interactive function. Some of the key displays are summarized below:



Execution Control Display: This display serves as the central mechanism for
operator control of the Power Flow study system. Through it, the operator can enter
basic system parameters and request execution of the various Power Flow functions.
Some studies may be set up and executed without the use of any other display.
The Execution Control Display is a logical sequence of steps (function executions)
which form the setup, solution and review stages of a Power Flow study, together
with display/entry of appropriate parameters at the various steps.
The operator may request execution of any step by selecting the point corresponding
to the desired action. Not all steps need to be executed. Different studies will call for
slightly different actions. The system is exceptionally flexible where change cases
are being run in sequence. Between runs, only those steps where changes occurred
need to be re-executed.
Saved Case List Display: This display lists basic descriptive information
concerning cases currently resident in the input save area, including:
Case identification
Case title (it is the operator's responsibility, prior to saving a case, to enter a
title which will clearly describes the case)
Time being studied
Time saved
Input Case Summary Display: This display is designed to summarize the major
characteristics of the system currently existing in the input work area.
The network title, which is the title of the base case network stored by Information
Management, the case title and time being studied make up the first part of the
display. The second section of this display summarizes load, generation, and
interchange for each company.
Load Parameters Display: This display provides the operator with a detailed
picture of network load data. It lists all bus section loads within each load group in
each company.
Load Group Parameters Display: This display shows all the load groups in the
network, including:
Company zone and load group name
Percent of company load
MVAR/MW ratio for the load group
MW, MVAR load group total



Generator MW Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed summary of
generator real power data. It lists all generators in each station in each company.
Generator Reactive Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed
summary of generator reactive and voltage regulation data. It lists all generators in
each station in each company.
DC Link Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed summary of the DC
link schedules and control mode selections. Available control modes include
constant voltage, constant MW, and constant ampere.
LTC Transformer Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed summary
of LTC transformer data. It lists all voltage transformers which have LTCs by station
and company.
Phase-Shifter Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed summary of
phase-shifter data.
Voltage Control Capacitor Parameters Display: This display provides a detailed
summary of voltage control capacitors data.
Station Input One-Line Displays: Station one-line diagrams will be provided for
entry of status and transformer taps.
Abnormal Status Display: This display provides a summary of abnormal logical
devices (as entered via the station input one-lines). It lists only those devices whose
status is abnormal.
Solution Summary Display: This display is generated by the solution algorithm. It
reports the progress of the solution.
Saved Output Case Summary Display: This display lists the cases stored in the
output save area and is identical in form to the display described for input cases.
Output Case Summary Display: This display contains the same variables
described for the input case summary, except that it describes the current output
case and includes the final disposition of the case and the solution output values for
such quantities as company generation.
Overload Summary Display: This display lists all lines and transformers in the
power flow results which are above their normal rating.
Generation Summary Display: This display lists the solved real and reactive output
for each generating unit.
LTC Summary Display: This display lists each solved transformer regulating tap,
together with its limits and identification.
Phase-Shifter Summary Display: This display lists each phase-shifter tap, together



with its limits and identification.
Voltage Control Capacitor Summary Display: This display lists each solved
voltage control capacitor tap and MVAR output.
Voltage Limits Summary Display: This display will list each bus which violates its
high/low voltage limits.
Station Results Display: This display gives a detailed picture in tabular form of the
Power Flow results on a bus-by-bus basis for each station in each company.
The Station Results display contains the following information:
Table of contents
Station name and company name
Bus nominal KV, solved KV and solved angle in degrees
Line, connecting station, MW, MVAR, amps, and percent loading
Transformer name, opposite winding KV, MW, MVAR, MVA and percent
loading
Capacitor name and MVAR
Load MW, MVAR
Unit name, MW and MVAR
Station One-Line Output Diagrams: Power flow results will be additionally
provided in detail on one-line diagrams. The static portion of such displays will
correspond with the station input one-lines, but there will be no enterable data.
Instead, the status will be displayed along with the loading of selected equipment
and the KV at selected bus sections. Overloaded and out-of-range conditions will be
shown in inverse video.
Abnormal Status (Output) Display: This display is identical to that for input; it is
carried into the output for informational purposes.
Index of Displays: This display provides an index of Power Flow displays with
poke-point selection of each.
Additionally, the Output Case Comparison subfunction of the Dispatcher Power Flow
has a separate set of displays for executing the subfunction and for review of the
results.
Through the Output Case Comparison input displays, the user is provided with the
necessary mechanism to set up the desired case comparison. Entry is allowed for
the following data:



Output Case Comparison Input Data:
Source for case 1
Source for case 2
MVA branch flow comparison threshold
Unit MW comparison threshold
Unit and VCC MVAR comparison threshold
LTC and VCC tap position comparison threshold
Voltage comparison threshold
For output results of the comparison, the subfunctions displays the case 1 value, the
case 2 value, and the difference between the case 1 and case 2 values for a wide
variety of values. A summary of the output data provided by these displays is as
follows:
Company Summary Data:
Load MW
Delivered load MW
MW loss percentage
MW losses
Net interchange
MW generation
Generation MW capacity
Hourly fuel cost
Bus Voltage Data:
Voltage in KV
Voltage in per unit
Regulated bus voltage flag
Bus Model Data:
Bus configuration



Bus voltage
Unit Data:
Unit MW
Unit MVAR
Regulated bus voltage



LTC Data:
Tap position
Phase-Shifter Data:
Tap position
Load Data:
Load MW
Load MVAR
VCC Data:
Tap positions
MVAR output
Branch Data:
MVA flow
3.7 Outage Scheduler (OS)
The Outage Scheduler (OS) function provides data entry via workstation displays of
expected future generator and equipment outages and optional specification of
generator operating MW and operating limits. The equipment schedules, which
include both generator and equipment outages, are used by the Optimal Power Flow
and Unit Scheduling functions in order to retrieve equipment statuses for a specified
future date and time. The Outage Scheduler uses the Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS) for entry and storage of schedule information, and
for report generation.
The Outage Scheduler function consists of the following subfunctions:
Entry Validation
Schedule Viewing, Ordering and Reporting
Schedule Archiving



User entries are validated by the RDBMS as they are entered. Outage Schedule
information in the RDBMS can be displayed in many different formats. Ordering and
viewing of Outage Schedule information can be accomplished based upon selected
criteria that is used by the RDBMS. A report can be generated for the set of
schedules currently being viewed. Equipment schedules that are no longer active for
a specified period of time are archived from the Outage Scheduler operational
database to the HFD/Outage Scheduler database.
3.7.1 OS Functional Description
Entry Validation
Entry validation is executed automatically following a data entry. Whenever one or
more equipment schedules are added, deleted or modified, entry validation is
executed to validate the schedules' information. Valid equipment are those that are
defined in the Network Applications Primitive Database. All error-free schedules are
stored in the relational database. For all invalid schedule information, error
messages are generated. Invalid data could be as follows:
Invalid station name
Invalid voltage level name
Invalid equipment name
Invalid time span (i.e., end time is earlier than start time)
Invalid or incomplete device status
Duplicate equipment name with overlapping schedule times
Invalid unit limit or capacity
Switching actions required to implement the outage are automatically generated. OS
provides a list of switches whose operation will produce the outage. The capability
for the user to modify and delete switching actions from this list is provided.
It is also possible to enter equipment schedules for record purposes only. Schedules
entered for record purposes only are indicated to validation by an equipment type of
"INFO" (information).
It is possible for the dispatcher/operator to enter schedules for any future date
supported by the RDBMS. The equipment to be included in the outage may be
entered by selecting the equipment from a real-time one-line diagram.
Equipment schedules are organized into schedule groups. A schedule group is a
grouping of one or more related equipment outage schedules. The schedule group
provides for quick identification of related outage schedules for ordering, viewing and



reporting purposes. A schedule group may contain any combination of equipment
schedules, with the same or varied equipment type, equipment status, start/end date,
and schedule status.
The capabilities to duplicate, modify, and delete schedule entries and schedule
groups by the user are provided.
Schedule Viewing, Ordering, and Reporting
Schedule ordering is handled by the RDBMS. Schedules can be ordered in a number
of different ways. Examples of criteria that could be used by the RDBMS for ordering
are as follows:
Group identifier
Start date/time of schedule (day, month, year, hour)
End date/time of schedule (day, month, year, hour)
Station name, voltage level name, or equipment name
Schedule Status
Equipment type
The ordering process can sub-divide the outages into outages in effect for past,
present, and future days. A view of all schedules is also available. The following
rules are examples that could be used by the ordering subfunction:
1. Schedules whose end dates are earlier than the present day are included in
the past ordered list.
2. All schedules for which the start date is earlier than, or same as, the present
day and the end date is the same as, or greater than, the present day are
included in the lists for the present day.
3. All schedules for which the end date is later than the present day are
included in the list for future days. Thus, an outage for the present day that
continues into a future day will be included on both present day and future
day lists.
These are only a few of the criteria that can be used for selecting and ordering the
equipment schedule information for viewing and report purposes.
A report may be generated on any list of equipment schedules currently being
viewed via the user-specified ordering and viewing criteria.
Schedule Archiving
The Schedule Archiving subfunction is automatically executed periodically (once per



day) to archive schedules which have end dates expired for a user specified number
of days prior to the current day. This subfunction can also be executed by manual
request. The automatic archiving of schedules can be enabled/disabled by the
dispatcher/operator.
The capability to view, order, and report on the previously archived schedules is
provided. Similar functionality for the viewing, ordering, and reporting of on-line
schedules is provided for archived schedules. The primary difference is that the
archived schedules may be viewed for a specific range of dates, rather than the past,
present, and future subdivisions used for on-line schedules.
3.7.2 OS Interface with Other Functions
The Outage Scheduler interfaces with the following functions:
Power Flow (DPF/OPF):
Uses schedules of logical device status for a specified time and date.
Uses the primary company operating unit data for a specified time period
Unit Commitment (UC) uses the primary company operating unit data for a
specified time period.
3.7.3 OS Algorithm
The Outage Scheduler function does not involve any formalized algorithms. The
RDBMS provides the techniques that are used for the viewing, ordering, reporting,
and archive subfunctions.
3.7.4 OS User Interface
All user interactions for the Outage Scheduler function are performed through the
RDBMS user interface. Start and end times on the displays are entered, maintained,
and displayed by year, month, day, and hour.
Displays can be grouped functionally into the following areas:
Execution control
Input displays
Output displays
Execution Control Display: The Outage Scheduler execution control provides the



following capabilities:
Enabling/Disabling automatic execution of Schedule Archive subfunction.
Manual execution of the Schedule Archive subfunction.
Manual execution of the Schedule Ordering subfunction on a pre-defined
ordering and querying criteria.
Edit Outage Schedules Input Display
The Edit Outage Schedules Input Display provides the user with the capability of
adding, deleting, duplicating, or modifying equipment outage schedules and
schedule groups.
Entry of a schedule group includes specification of the following information:
Group identifier
Entry date
The following schedule group information is entered for record purposes:
Name of responsible person
Comments
All equipment schedule data is enterable or selectable via a list of values.
Additionally, equipment identifiers may be entered by selection of a network
equipment from a one-line diagram. Entry of an equipment schedule includes
specification of the following information:
Equipment type
LN (transmission line)
GU (generating unit including synchronous condenser)
XF (transformer)
PS (phase-shifter)
SD (series device)
RC (shunt reactor)
DI (DC injection)
DC (DC line)



FB (filter bank)
CP (shunt capacitor)
BRSW (breaker/switch)
INFO (information for record purposes only)
Station name
Voltage level name
Equipment name
Element name
Start date/time of schedule
End date/time of schedule
Equipment status between the start and end times
OS, IS (out of service, in service for branches and shunt equipment)
OP, CL (open, closed for logical devices)
MR, UA, FX, AV, VC, DS (must run, unavailable, fixed, available, voltage
support, and disconnected for generating units)
For generating unit outage schedules, the MW value for fixed units and the
derated high and low MW operating limits for must run and available
generators
Outage schedule status
ACTIVE
CANCELLED
The following equipment schedule information is entered for record purposes:
Remarks
Name of responsible dispatcher/operator
Name of operational dispatcher/operator
Name of field dispatcher/operator



Time when work started
Time when field dispatcher/operator arrived on-site.
Once a network equipment outage has been validated, required switching actions
are generated. The following information is available for addition, deletion, or
modification:
Switch station name
Switch voltage level name
Switching field name
Switch name
Start date/time switch status (OPEN, CLOSED)
End date/time switch status (OPEN, CLOSED)
Schedule Ordering Output Displays
The Order Outage Schedules and HFD/OS Archived Outage Schedules displays are
the query interface to all existing and archived schedules, respectively. The following
information is provided following an executed query in either form:
Group identifier
Equipment type
Station name
Voltage level name
Equipment name
Element name
Start date/time
End date/time
Scheduled equipment status between start and end times
Unit MW (for fixed)
Unit high limit (for must run and available)
Unit low limit (for must run and available)



Schedule status
Validation status (VALID, INVALID)
Date saved (HFD/OS Archived Outage Schedules only)
Queries may then be executed by the operator using the RDBMS interface to reduce
the schedule list to that of interest such as currently active schedules, current day
schedules, schedules within a specific station, or schedules ordered by user selected
criteria. Validation status provides information on the validity of the outage following
any primitive database changes. A report can be generated on the set of schedules
currently being viewed.
3.8 Short Circuit Calculations (SCC)
The Short Circuit Calculation function is designed to compute the fault levels in
electric power systems. The following fault types are considered:
Three phase to ground
Single phase to ground
Phase to phase
Double phase to ground
The Short Circuit Calculation function provides the following features:
Studies the effect of fault on current system
Alerts the operator about what can happen, before it really happens
Real-time initializes the base case to the State Estimator solution
Study initializes the base case to the Power Flow results
Simulates topology changes due to a single branch outage prior to fault
Mutual coupled lines
Input to the Short Circuit Calculation functions consists of:
Base case network from the State Estimator or the Power Flow
Fault types and locations (operator may modify interactively in study mode)
The following is a summary of available output options:



Fault Violation List violations for each fault
Bus fault currents with and without branch outages
Maximum fault current contributions on each branch and generator
SHORT CIRCUIT
CALCULATION
SOLUTION
BF2 320
TABULAR
DISPLAY
HARD COPY
OUTPUT
STATE
ESTIMATOR
INPUT
NETWORK
BUS
MODEL
POWER
FLOW
NETWORK
RETRIEVAL
INPUT
CRT
DISPLAY
FAULT
DATA
FAULT
DATA
SHORT CIRCUIT
CALCULATION
SOLUTION
BF2 320
TABULAR
DISPLAY
HARD COPY
OUTPUT
STATE
ESTIMATOR
INPUT
NETWORK
BUS
MODEL
POWER
FLOW
NETWORK
RETRIEVAL
INPUT
CRT
DISPLAY
FAULT
DATA
FAULT
DATA
Figure 3-10. Overview of Short Circuit Calculations Function
3.8.1 SCC Functional Description
The purpose of the Short Circuit Calculations function is to compute the fault currents
and fault current contributions. Fault currents at a faulted bus are compared against
all circuit breaker ratings for each circuit breaker connected to the faulted bus. Fault
current contributions from branches and generating units near the faulted bus are
also calculated and may be compared against their respective fault ratings. Any fault
current or fault current contribution which exceeds a non-zero rating appears on a
Fault Violation List. The violation checking is skipped for any rating which has a zero
value.
The Short Circuit Calculation solution makes use of symmetrical component
transformation, sparsity techniques for forming and factorizing bus admittance
matrices, and Fast Forward and Fast Backward solutions to solve for relevant
portions of the bus impedance matrices.
The symmetrical component reference frame is used to analyze any of the
unbalanced fault types (single phase-to-ground fault, phase-to-phase fault, or double
phase-to-ground fault). This method requires the construction and use of positive
sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence bus admittance matrices. The
Short Circuit Calculations function may be used to study balanced (three phase to
ground) faults only, in which case zero sequence admittance values are not required.
The real-time mode of Short Circuit Calculations utilizes the network solution



obtained from the State Estimator function as the network pre-fault condition. The
study mode of Short Circuit Calculations may utilize the network solution obtained
from either the Optimal Power Flow function or the State Estimator function as the
network pre-fault condition.
Fault Ratings
Fault ratings may be defined on any or all of the circuit breakers and/or they may be
defined on any or all of the branches or units. A branch may have a unique fault
rating defined for each end of the branch. The fault ratings that are assigned to
branches or units do not have to be associated with any specific circuit breakers. A
special value of zero is used to indicate an undefined fault rating.
Fault Selection
There are two methods available for selection of fault location(s) Multiple Fault
Selection or Individual Fault Selection. Even though multiple fault locations and fault
types may be analyzed, each fault is evaluated separately. So, the fault currents that
are to be calculated are due to only one fault being applied. Typically the Multiple
Fault Selection method is used to calculate fault current and their contributions from
a small number of buses (user enterable) apart from the fault. While the Individual
Fault Selection may be used to evaluate fault currents several buses from the fault or
examine the effects of branch outages.
The following fault types are available for either Multiple Fault Selection or Individual
Fault Selection mode:
Three phase to ground
Single phase to ground
Phase to phase
Double phase to ground
The selection of the fault types and fault locations are under operator control through
the user interface. In the Multiple Fault Selection mode, separate flags exist to
enable/disable evaluations of each fault type at each station/voltage level. In the
Individual Fault Selection mode, an individual branch name is used to identify the
fault location.
Branch Outages
The Short Circuit Calculations function can perform fault analysis with a single
branch outage. When branch outages are studied, the fault analysis is repeated for
each branch outage one at a time. In the Multiple Fault Selection mode, when a
violation occurs at the faulted bus without a branch outage, an option is available to
study the effects of branch outages of all branches connected to the faulted bus. In
the Individual Fault Selection mode, an option is available to study the effects of



selected branch outages or all branches connected to the faulted bus. For efficiency
reasons, nominal voltages at each bus (1.0 per unit and zero angle) are used as the
prefault voltages during the evaluation of a branch outage.
Mutual Coupling
The Short Circuit calculations function allows the modeling of mutual coupled lines
by including the appropriate elements in the zero sequence matrix.
One-Lines
Multiple faults and fault types may be evaluated with each Short Circuit Calculations
study. So, only the maximum value of fault current contribution associated with each
branch and unit from all of the fault types and locations is available for one-line
displays. The fault type and bus name of the fault location for each of these
maximum values are also made available.
Fault Impedances
The Short Circuit Calculations function allows the modeling of fault impedances (Z
f
)
and fault to ground impedances (Z
g
). Different values of impedances (both
resistance and reactance) may be used for each of the fault types (three phase-to-
ground fault, single phase-to-ground fault, phase-to-phase fault, and double phase-
to-ground fault). However, only one set of impedances, per fault type may be used
for all fault locations being evaluated. A three phase-to-ground fault is a balanced
fault, so the fault to ground impedance value is not required. The fault impedance for
this type of fault is the impedance seen from each of the three phases to the point of
the fault. For a single phase-to-ground fault, the faulted phase is shorted to ground,
so only the fault to ground impedance is used. For a phase-to-phase fault, ground is
not involved, so only the fault impedance is used which is the value of impedance in
between the two faulted phases. For a double phase-to-ground fault, both the fault
impedance and fault to ground impedance are used.
3.8.2 SCC Interface with Other Functions
The SCC function interfaces with the following functions:
Power Flow: To obtain the network model and solved state to be used as the
prefault network condition for SCC studies.
State Estimator: To obtain the network model and solved state to be used as
the prefault network condition for SCC studies.
3.8.3 SCC Algorithm
The SCC function uses the Thevenin Equivalent bus impedance formulation in the



symmetrical component frame of reference to compute unbalanced fault currents
and voltages. Formally:
VF = VO Z IF (49)
where:
V
F
= Voltage vector
V
O
= Prefault voltage vector
Z = Bus impedance matrix
I
F
= Bus current vector with zero everywhere except at the fault bus
The calculation of faults requires that the appropriate Thevenin equivalent for the
buses involved in the fault be available. The Thevenin voltages, V
0
, are the voltages
at these buses prior to the application of the fault. The positive sequence Thevenin
voltages can be selected to be the solved voltages or 1.0 p.u. at zero degrees, with
the zero- and negative-sequence voltages being zero.
The key to the computational efficiency of the SCC algorithm is the combined
application of the following features:
Symmetrical component transformation
Sparsity-oriented factorization of the bus admittance matrices
Use of sparse vector methods (FF-Fast Forward and FB-Fast Back)
The way in which the Thevenin impedances are obtained and the simulation of
topology changes are described later.
During the formation of the positive-sequence bus admittance matrix, the admittance
values of generator sub-transient reactance and the connected loads are
incorporated into the diagonal elements of the buses to which they are connected.
The major steps in the Short Circuit Calculations are as follows:
Step 1. Convert all solved MW/MVAR values of load, DC injections, and
DC branch values into constant impedances.
Step 2. Form and factorize the positive sequence bus admittance matrix
[Y
bus
]. If unbalanced faults are to be evaluated, also form and
factorize the zero sequence matrix bus admittance the matrix.
The negative sequence bus admittance matrix is not formed, since
it is assumed to be the transpose of the positive sequence matrix.



Step 3. Determine the list of output buses of interest. This consists of all
buses within "n" levels from the faulted bus p. The parameter "n"
is user specified, which is typically set to one for Multiple Fault
studies and set to the full network for Individual Fault studies.
Step 4. For a fault at bus p, find only column p of each of the three inverse
bus admittance matrices [Y
bus
]
-1
= [Z]. Fast Forward (FF) and
Fast Backward (FB) solutions are used to minimize the number of
arithmetic operations while calculating the minimum number of
desired elements for column p. The FB solution path is chosen in
such a way to insure all output bus elements of column p will be
found.
Step 5. For each fault type being evaluated at bus p, calculate the
sequence fault currents and voltages at bus p.
Step 6. For each sequence, calculate post-fault voltages for any of the
remaining output buses.
Step 7. Calculate fault current contributions for all branches and units
within the circle of output buses.
Step 8. The resulting sequence fault currents and fault current
contributions are transformed into a, b, c phase values. The
maximum of the three phase fault currents is retained as the Bus
Fault Current for the fault being studied. Similarly the maximum
each of the three phase values of each fault current contribution is
retained as the branch or unit Fault Current Contribution.
Step 9. Each circuit breaker connected to the faulted bus is checked for
violations. Any of these circuit breakers which have non-zero
ratings and the rating does not exceed the Bus Fault Current are
included on the Fault Violation List.
Step 10. Each of the branch and unit Fault Current Contributions is
checked for violations by comparing the value to the respective
branch or unit fault rating. Any non-zero rating which is exceeded
is included on the Fault Violation List.
Step 11. For each branch and unit Fault Current Contribution value which
exceeds the value calculated for the respective branch and unit by
all other previous fault types or locations, update the respective
one-line table and the tables containing the fault type and bus
name of the fault location.
Step 12. Repeat starting at step 3 for each bus which requires a fault to be
evaluated.



3.8.3.1 Formation and Factorization of the Bus Admittance Matrix
The initial step consists of the formation of the three sequence admittance matrices.
These are:
[Y
1
] - The positive sequence admittance matrix
[Y
2
] - The negative sequence admittance matrix
[Y
0
] - The zero sequence admittance matrix
The construction of the positive sequence admittance matrix Y
1
, is similar to the
standard bus admittance matrix used for a standard Power Flow. The exceptions
are that admittances representing generators and loads will be included in the
diagonal elements of Y
1
. Also, the asymmetries introduced by phase-shifters will be
included in Y
1
, so Y
1
is not a symmetrical matrix.
The construction of the zero sequence admittance matrix Y
0
, differs from Y
1
in the
following ways:
Zero sequence admittance values are used
The admittance for a load is assumed to be zero (no diagonal contribution)
Phase Shifter angles are assumed to be zero
Mutual coupling line impedances are included
The transformer admittances will be determined based on the winding type
It should be noted here that negative sequence admittance matrix Y
2
is actually
equal to the transpose of Y
1
and therefore the following manipulations are done only
for Y
1
and Y
0
in the actual calculation. Each admittance matrix is optimally ordered
using sparsity techniques and factorized into the following forms:
[Y] = [L] [D] [U], Y Y1, Y2, Y0 (50)
where:
[L] is a lower triangular matrix
[D] is a diagonal matrix
[U] is an upper triangular matrix



3.8.3.2 Network Modifications
The SCC function provides capability for the study of contingency cases where the
configuration of the original network changes due to a single branch outage. A
method of modeling the effects of the branch outage is used which will avoid the
refactorization of an entire bus admittance matrix. Only the elements of each
sequence bus admittance matrix that effect the Fast Back solution path are modified.
This is accomplished by performing reverse factorization along the Fast Back
solution path, adjusting the elements for the branch outage, and finally forward
factorization along the Fast Back solution path. The following steps are used on
each sequence bus admittance matrix to model the effects of the branch outage:
Step 1. Find the required changes to the bus admittance matrix due to the
branch outage.
Step 2. Set up the paths for a Fast Forward and Fast Back solution.
Step 3. Performs reverse factorization of a sparse matrix along the given
Fast Back solution path.
Step 4. Subtract the branch outage admittance elements from the
reversed factorized matrix.
Step 5. Performs forward factorization of the sparse matrix along the
given Fast Backward solution path.
Step 6. Perform the Fast Forward and Fast Back solution.
Step 7. Restore factored matrix elements along the given Fast Backward
solution path.
3.8.4 SCC User Interface
A set of displays are provided to enable the user to prepare the input to the SCC
function, control the execution and verify the specific results.
Execution Control Display: The display provides the user full control over the
execution of the SCC function. It enables users to execute the data retrieval
subfunctions and to specify the relevant execution options. The display admits
program parameters via enterable fields and has sensitized points that cause
subfunction executions. They are organized in an order reflecting the logical
sequence of the SCC steps.
Input Displays
Generating Unit



Unit impedance X"d
Unit zero-sequence impedance X0
Fault rating associated with unit's breaker(s)
Transmission Line
Line zero-sequence impedance (including charging)
Fault ratings associated with each end of the line
Transformer
Transformer winding types
Transformer grounding impedance
Transformer zero-sequence impedance
Fault ratings associated with each end
Phase-Shifter
Phase-shifter zero-sequence impedance
Series Device
Series devices zero-sequence impedance
Circuit Breaker
Fault rating
Mutual Coupled Lines
Line names and impedances
The following data items may be input:
Flag to enable/disable the use of solved voltages
Fault impedances and fault to ground impedances
Fault locations and fault types are required. There are two methods available to



provide fault location and type information. An input flag is available to select one of
the following two methods:
Individual fault selection
Multiple fault selection
The following data is required for an individual fault selection:
Flags for selection of fault type (choice of any or all of 3-phase, phase-to-
phase, 2-phase to ground and 1-phase to ground
Station name
Equipment name
Equipment type
Line
Transformer
Phase shifter
Series Device
For Transformers, Phase shifters, or Series Devices faults are calculated at both
ends of each branch
Flag to specify type of branch outage study (N = none, S = selected, A = All
branches)
When selected branch outages are being used, the following data is required
for each outaged branch:
Station name
Equipment type
Equipment name
The multiple fault selection mode requires flags to be set at each station and voltage
level where fault analysis is to be performed. For each station/voltage level there are
four flags to enable/disable the four fault types (3-phase, phase-to-phase, 2-phase to
ground, 1-phase to ground). A fault study will be performed for each electrical bus at
a given station/voltage level which has a flag enabled to perform a fault study.
Output Displays



For every bus in the system, the following output is provided for multiple fault studies:
Station name, voltage level, and bus name where fault is located
Total Bus Fault current value for each fault type
Blank value for the buses not analyzed



For the individual fault studies, the following output is provided:
Total Bus Fault Current with and without any branch outages
Fault current for each selected branch outage is provided
The following output is available for either Multiple Fault Selection or Individual Fault
Selection mode:
1. The maximum value of fault current contribution associated with each branch
and unit (near the faulted bus) from all of the fault types and locations is
output for tabular and/or one-line displays. The fault type and bus name of
the fault location for each of these maximum values is also output.
2. Fault currents at a faulted bus are compared against all circuit breaker
ratings for each circuit breaker connected to the faulted bus. Fault current
contributions from branches and generating units near the faulted bus are
also compared against their respective fault ratings. Any fault current or fault
current contribution which exceeds a non-zero rating appears on a Fault
Violation List. The violation checking is bypassed for any rating which has a
zero value. The following output is provided:
Station and equipment name
Equipment type (Circuit Breaker, Line, Transformer, Phase Shifter,
Series Device or Unit)
Fault current
Fault rating
Percent violated
Fault type (3-phase, phase-to-phase, 2-phase to ground, or 1-phase
to ground)
Branch Outage and type of branch being outaged (blank for non-
branch outage faults)
3. A Branch Outage summary with the following output is provided:
type and bus name of fault location
Outaged branch station and equipment name and type of branch
Outaged branch pre-outaged fault current contribution
Fault current contributions with and without branch outage



3.9 Network Analysis Execution Control
The Real-Time Network Analysis Execution Control display (Figure 3-11) provides
control over the execution frequency of all of the functions of the Real-Time Network
Analysis sequence. It also provides the capability to manually execute any function
of the Real-Time Network Analysis sequence. The sequence shown in Figure 3-11
flows from top to bottom after being initiated by one of the trigger sources.
Each Real-Time function has an associated enable/disable switch frequency
parameter and a counter. The frequency parameter specifies what the number of
executions of the State Estimator function must be before the associated function
executes. Each counter is reset to the parameter value after executing the
associated function and decremented by one every time the State Estimator is
executed. When the counter is zero, if the function is enabled, the next function is
bid.
The Real-Time Sequence can be initiated in one of three ways: Manual, Event or
Periodic. These triggers are described below.
Manual Run Request: A manual run request causes any existing sequence to abort
after the function presently being executed completes. The manually requested
function is then executed, followed by functions according to the normal sequence.
Event Request: The sequence can also be triggered in response to specific events,
unless the event run switch is opened. An event trigger has priority over a periodic
trigger and terminates and restarts a sequence already running from a periodic
request or a prior event request. This event trigger is not initiated until a user-
specified amount of time (typically, one minute or less) has elapsed since the last
status change affecting the network model, thereby allowing the system to stabilize.
Periodic Request: The Real-Time Sequence may be initiated periodically unless
the periodic run switch is opened. The periodic initiation has the lowest priority and
may be interrupted due to a manual or event request.
The Real-Time Sequence Execution Control display has two other executable control
functions, RESTART and CLEAR.
RESTART provides the ability to execute the real-time sequence initialization
subfunction to obtain a totally re-initialized bus model. The circuit breakers and taps
can be initialized back to database values. The Real-Time Sequence then continues
as normal except for the fact that all stations will have their bus model rebuilt. This
provides the operator with a known starting point for the network model.
If a sequence aborts (due to hardware or software failure) before completion, the
operator is notified that the sequence has halted via the display pending feature.
The Real-Time Sequence may also be locked by a non-cleared request flag if a
sequence aborts. To provide recovery capability, a CLEAR request flag capability is
also provided in the Execution Control display. By clearing all flags, it restores the



Real-Time Sequence control to a normal status in which no functions are executing
and no functions are waiting to be executed. This clearing is also done automatically
when a system failover occurs.





Figure 3-11. Real-Time Sequence Execution Control

4. Forecast/Scheduling Application Software
The forecasting and scheduling application software includes tools for forecasting
system load, scheduling generation, and analyzing the feasibility and cost of
proposed interchange transactions. As shown in Figure 4-1, forecasting and
scheduling functions interact with each other as well as with other application
software.

Forecasting and
Scheduling Application
Software
Forecasting and
Software
Operating
System
Software
Unit
Commitment
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Transaction
Evaluation
Load
Forecast
Case
Comparison
Energy
Management
Applications
Power
Application
Software
Network
Analysis
Application
Software
BF2 113
Forecasting and
Software
Forecasting and
Software
Operating
System
Software
Unit
Commitment
System
Support
Software
SCADA
Application
Software
Transaction
Evaluation
Load
Forecast
Case
Comparison
Energy
Management
Applications
Power
Application
Software
Network
Analysis
Application
Software
BF2 113

Figure 4-1. Forecasting and Scheduling Application Software



The common sequence of operator job tasks includes the following steps in order.
Update the load forecast for weather forecast changes, or known load
deviations and save the load forecast if desired.
Update generation schedule for forced maintenance or for maintenance
schedule deviations. Based upon the unit commitment results, reschedule
unit outages, or
Evaluate interchange transactions to cover any capacity or energy
deficiencies, or to improve economics.
UNIT
COMMITMENT
LOAD
FORECAST
NETWORK LOSS
PENALTY
FACTORS
TRANSACTION
EVALUATION
CASE
COMPARISON
POWER
FLOW
LOAD
DATA
WEATHER
DATA
WEATHER
FORECAST
INTERCHANGE
TRANSACTION
SCHEDULES
AGC
DATA
BF2 328
UNIT
COMMITMENT
LOAD
FORECAST
NETWORK LOSS
PENALTY
FACTORS
TRANSACTION
EVALUATION
CASE
COMPARISON
POWER
FLOW
LOAD
DATA
WEATHER
DATA
WEATHER
FORECAST
INTERCHANGE
TRANSACTION
SCHEDULES
AGC
DATA
BF2 328

Figure 4-2. Forecast/Scheduling Applications Interfaces

Survey of Forecast and Scheduling Applications
Both the Load Forecast and Unit Commitment/Transaction Evaluation/Case
Comparison functions are Oracle based. Input data and results for each function
reside in an Oracle database. Furthermore, the user interface consists entirely of
Oracle forms.
Load Forecast
The Load Forecast function assists the dispatcher/operator in forecasting the hourly
loads for the total system and for individual forecast areas within the system. Load
Forecast supports multiple forecast algorithms and provides tools for the
dispatcher/operator to manually enter or manipulate the forecast.
Unit Commitment



An important aspect of operating a power system is the scheduling of thermal
generating units to supply the load with minimum operating cost. The minimum cost
is achieved by determining the most economical start up and shut down times for the
thermal units, and their associated generation.
Unit Commitment also supports Transaction Evaluation and Case Comparison tools
to provide the operator all of the information needed to make scheduling decisions.
Case Comparison
The Case Comparison (CP) function compares data items in two completed study
cases and reports to the operator significant differences. Case Comparison
compares both the study input data and output data and allows the operator to enter
in the thresholds used to determine what a significant difference is.
BF2 958
Unit Commitment
Interchange
Transaction
Evaluation B
Short Term
Load Forecasting
Interchange
Transaction
Scheduling
H
i
s
t
o
r
i
c
a
l

D
a
t
a

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Data Acquisition and Control
U
s
e
r

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Case
Comparison
Reserve
Monitor
Automatic
Generation
Control
AGC
Performance
Monitor
Production
Costing
Economic
Dispatch
Constrained
Economic
Dispatch
Interchange
Transaction
Evaluation A
Energy
Accounting
BF2 958
Unit Commitment
Interchange
Transaction
Evaluation B
Short Term
Load Forecasting
Interchange
Transaction
Scheduling
H
i
s
t
o
r
i
c
a
l

D
a
t
a

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Data Acquisition and Control
U
s
e
r

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Case
Comparison
Reserve
Monitor
Automatic
Generation
Control
AGC
Performance
Monitor
Production
Costing
Economic
Dispatch
Constrained
Economic
Dispatch
Interchange
Transaction
Evaluation A
Energy
Accounting
Figure 4-3. Overview of Forecast and Scheduling and Power Applications
4.1 Short-Term Load Forecast
4.1.1 Overview
The forecasted power system load forms the basis for planning of sufficient
generation, spinning reserve, and operating reserve.



The Short-Term Load Forecast function assists the dispatcher/operator in
forecasting the hourly loads for the total system and for individual forecast areas
within the system. Short-Term Load Forecast supports the following methods of
forecasting loads:



Similar Day algorithm
Pattern Matching algorithm
Multiple Regression algorithm
Adaptive Regression Analysis (based upon Kalman Filter Theory)
Operator entry and/or modification of the forecast
Short-Term Load Forecast supports a 168-hour study horizon with one half hour or
one hour time steps.
Total System Load
1200
MW
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
981
Total System Load
1200
MW
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
981
Figure 4-4. Total System Load
4.1.2 Concept
Load Forecast is used to forecast the load for each forecast area in the system and
to provide a total system forecast. Forecast preparation is done in the working
forecast. When satisfied with the load forecast, the dispatcher/operator may transfer
the load forecast from the working forecast to the current forecast, where it may be
accessed by other functions.
Load Forecast maintains a historical file of load and weather data and a weather
forecast for use in forecast preparation. There is also a study forecast with its own
historical file, weather forecast and load forecast separate from the working forecast
data. The study forecast can be used to study hypothetical forecasting situations,
including forecasts for time periods other than the one covered by the working
forecast. In addition, there are save cases for storing study forecasts for later use.
Short term load forecast is basically structured into the following parts:
Updating/adaptation of historical data



Forecast algorithms



Very short-term prediction
After-the-fact error analysis
4.1.2.1 Updating/Adaptation of Historical Data
The Load Forecast historical data base is updated periodically for the selected time
step (e.g., half hourly) via Data Acquisition functions.
If the power system load of a particular day is essentially influenced by special
events, the historical data should be adapted to match the load level without
disturbing influences. Via a correction schedule the operator can manually enter
additive correction terms for the time interval in question.
4.1.2.2 Forecast Algorithms
Similar Day Load Forecast
The similar day forecast is based on predefined load patterns and weather increment
patterns. There are load and increment patterns for each forecast area, for each day
type and for each month of the year. Each pattern consists of hourly MW values for
one day. The similar day patterns are defined initially through data base generation.
Subsequently, they can be reviewed, and edited through displays.
The load patterns are non-weather sensitive, that is, they provide the average load
values given normal weather for that time of year. The weather increment patterns
are the expected load change under hot weather conditions. Positive increments
indicate that load increases in hotter than normal weather. Negative increments
indicate the reverse. Under cold weather conditions, the increments are subtracted
rather than added to the non-weather sensitive load pattern values. The
dispatcher/operator enters the predicted weather for each forecast day, hot (H),
normal (N) or cold (D).
Pattern Matching Forecast
The pattern matching forecast uses the high and low weather data values for the
forecast day and compares them with the high and low values for the days in the
history file. The search is normally confined to historical days of the same day type
as the forecast day, but it can be expanded to include other day types as specified
by the dispatcher/operator. The search can also be limited as to how much of the
available historical data is used. For example, the dispatcher/operator may limit the
search to the past eight weeks, ignoring earlier data.
The pattern matching algorithm computes a difference index for valid historical day
searched using a weighted sum-of-squares formula. There are separate weighting
factors for the high and low values of every weather data value, so that more
significance can be attached to differences in, for example, high temperature over



ns Siemens Power Transmission & Distribution, Inc. Confidential and Propri

4-8
Time
24:00
. . . measured temperature
T
p.m.
T
T'
p.m.
T
forecasted
temperature
T'
a.m.
T
a.m.
0:30
BF2 982
Time
24:00
. . . measured temperature
T
p.m.
T
T'
p.m.
T
forecasted
temperature
T'
a.m.
T
a.m.
0:30
BF2 982
This document contai etary Information

Volume II, Section 4 Siemens EMA
low temperature. Other separate factors may be used to also account for differences
in the significance of different types of weather data. There are also weighting
factors for the age of the data, in number of days before the current day and for the
difference in time of year, as represented by the number of days between the
calendar dates of the historical day and the forecast day.
The output of the pattern matching search is a list of valid historical dates and their
associated difference indices. The list is sorted from lowest index (best match) to
highest index. The dispatcher/operator can choose one of the candidate historical
dates for the forecast, in which case the actual load data is transferred into the load
forecast for the appropriate forecast date and forecast area. The dispatcher/operator
can also choose to use a weighted average of the candidate dates as the forecast.
Once the data is transferred into the load forecast, the dispatcher/operator can alter
it using any of the usual modification tools, such as scaling.
Regression Analysis
By means of multiple regression analysis or adaptive regression analysis the
statistical relationship between total system load and the influences of time, day
type, and weather conditions are calculated. The selected data analysis is started
daily and on operator request.
It is possible to treat each day of the week separately for the purpose of data
analysis or to define clustered day types.
The assumptions for the applied load model are similar weekly load patterns on the
one hand and influencing factors to explain the differences between the weekly load
patterns on the other hand. The load model is based on polynomial functions of the
influences and day type dummies.
The regression coefficients are computed by an equally or exponentially weighted
least squares estimation using the defined amount of historical data. A bandwidth
check is applied to eliminate non-typical historical data.
In case of considerable weather sensitivity of the load, a good load forecast requires
a good weather data forecast. The operator gives minimum and maximum
temperature, average humidity, average cloud covering, and average wind velocity
for each day of the study horizon.
To calculate hourly temperature values a standardized temperature curve is
determined from the historical data and adapted to the min./max. values.
Continuous model updating is performed by automatically correcting the forecast
temperature curve of the actual day using the most recent measured temperature
values.

Figure 4-5. Temperature Adjustment

The light intensity is calculated for a given geographic position under the assumption
of no cloud situation. The expected degree of cloud covering reduces this brightness
curve.
Using the regression coefficients and the forecasted weather variables as well as the
type of day, the forecast load is calculated.
Operator Manipulation
To assist the operator in generating the load forecast, the Short-Term Load Forecast
function supports direct data entry of forecast values by the operator and tools to
assist the operator in making changes to the forecast as easily as possible. Included
are:
Total daily energy scaling
Peak load scaling
Addition by a constant
Subtraction by a constant
Multiplication by a constant
Forecast copy
4.1.2.3 Very Short-Term Prediction
This special feature provides a feed-forward load correction term. A moving average
model is applied to the time series of the most recent forecast errors. By means of
the predicted errors the short term load forecast can be considerably improved.
4.1.2.4 After-the-Fact Error Analysis
Comparing the measured load with the forecasted load provides information
concerning the accuracy of the power system load forecast. Absolute error, mean
deviation, mean absolute deviation, and standard deviation are calculated for each
day and displayed.



4.2 Unit Commitment
4.2.1 General
An important aspect of operating a power system is the scheduling of thermal
generating units and power transactions to supply the load with minimum operating
cost. The minimum costs are achieved by determining the most economical start up
and shut down times for the thermal units and power transactions, and their
associated output power levels.
The study period is usually divided into hourly intervals, and the Unit Commitment
(UC) is treated as a discrete time problem. At every time interval decisions of
starting up and shutting down of units are made.
To assure the determination of realizable schedules, the unit commitment has to
recognize a variety of operating constraints which arise from
Units
Plants
Total system
In addition to providing generation to meet the load, scheduled units must also
provide reserve margins to meet uncertainties of the forecasted load or to cover
equipment failure. The provision of these reserve margins and satisfying other
constraints means that additional cost must be incurred.
The characteristics of the Unit Commitment function are:
Costs to be minimized: include fuel cost, unit startup cost and unit operating
and maintenance cost and power transactions cost.
Transmission losses: are taken into account by means of penalty factors.
Commitment schedule: The resulting commitment schedule regards all
relevant operating constraints of the generating units and the system.
Time step: Basic unit of time 1 hour or half of hour
Study horizon: Usually from 1 to 168 hours (maximum: up to 31 days for
hourly time setup)
Starting point in real-time mode: Current time (next time step)
Starting point in study mode: Selectable by the operator
End point: End of current or next study horizon, always given by end of an
energy limitation, if applicable



The algorithm provides the on/off status, as well as the power outputs of thermal
units at every time step. The utilization of interchange transactions is also provided.
In addition, the amount of fuel used by each unit and each group of units and
detailed and total costs are available. The amount of spinning and standby reserves
carried on each unit and the total system reserve are also displayed.
4.2.2 Concept
The objective of the Unit Commitment function is to determine the startup and
shutdown schedule of available generating units as well as the schedule of power
transactions, to meet system load and reserve requirements at minimum cost for the
entire period, subject to a variety of equipment, system, and environmental
constraints.
The UC function requires a wide array of input data including:



Unit data
Unit group data (e.g., plant data)
Interchange data
System data
The input data can be divided into the following two classes:
Constant over the study horizon
Variable over the study horizon
Variable data can be specified by a schedule.
Unit Information
Unit Status
The unit status can be specified for each unit for each time step.
Available units:
These units may be committed or decommitted. This decision is made by the
UC optimization algorithm.
Fixed generation units:
These units are not considered by the optimization algorithm. These units
are usually nuclear or very large steam units.
Must-run units:
These units must not be decommitted but they may be dispatched to a
higher/ lower level of generation. These units must be kept on-line e.g., for
voltage control purposes.
Not available units:
These units are scheduled for maintenance or they are off-line due to a
forced outage.
Unit Types
The following unit types are supported:
Nuclear units
Fossil fueled steam thermal units





Multi-fueled units
Gas turbines
Unit constraints
Unit generation limits:
The following limits are used for each unit: (Figure 4-6)
Maximum capacity: physical limit
Maximum generation limit: operating limit
Minimum capacity: physical limit
Minimum generation limit: operating limit
P
P_Cap_max
P_Max
P_Min
P_Cap_Min
k
BF2 983
P
P_Cap_max
P_Max
P_Min
P_Cap_Min
k
BF2 983
Figure 4-6. Unit Generation Limits

The minimum and the maximum generation limits constrain the operating
range.
These limits can be changed by the operator via UC displays. The maximum
capacity is used as the unit's capability only for reserve calculations.
Derated capacity (specified by a schedule):
Partial outages of a unit (e.g., a feed mill being out) can limit its maximum
output to a value below its full maximum capacity
Minimum up-time:
If the unit is turned on-line it must stay on for a certain period of time.
Minimum down-time:



If a unit is shut down it must stay down for a certain period of time.



Limited ramp rate of unit loading:
The maximum allowable change of unit power output between two time steps
is limited by the sustained ramp rate. The sustained ramp rate values may
be different for load increase and load decrease.
Time to reach minimum operating limit:
The number of hours required for a unit to ramp from 0 MW to the minimum
operating limit. The unit is not dispatchable during this time, but can
contribute to total generation.
Reserve contribution limits:
As the reserves have to be available within a specified period of time the
contribution of each unit to these reserves can be limited.
Unit Operation Curves
The operator can enter the incremental heat rate curve (Figure 4-7). Each unit may
be associated with several curves to consider different fuels or different cooling
agent temperatures.
Incremental
Heat Rate (BTU/KWH)
P_Min P_Max
Output (MW)
BF2 986**
Figure 4-7. Unit Incremental Heat Rate Curve
Unit Cost Data
Fuel price
Start-up cost
Shut down cost
Start up cost: when cooling down the unit's boiler curve 1 at Figure 4-8, and
from hot stand by curve 2 at Figure 4-8. Start up cost of a unit depends on
the time interval between the last shutdown and start up.
Operating and maintenance cost



Penalty factors



Start-Up
Cost
Down time BF2 987
1
2
Start-Up
Cost
Down time BF2 987
1
2
Figure 4-8. Startup Cost

Unit Group Constraints
A group of units can be defined for units which are coupled by the primary energy
supply (e.g., gas pipe line or oil tank storage).
Plant related constraints
Maximum number of units which can be started up simultaneously (due to
crew limitations or auxiliary system limitations).
Minimum number of hours between unit startups.
Maximum number of units startups per day.
Interchange Data
All relevant data for interchange transactions with a neighboring utility are provided
from the Interchange Transaction Scheduler (ITS) function. For each utility several
transactions may exist. All transaction related data can be modified/entered by the
operator via the ITS function.
Constraints related to interchange transactions:
Start and stop time
Maximum/minimum energy per basic time steps
Cost data related to interchange transactions:
Energy price of the transaction
Penalty factor



System-Wide Constraints
Total system demand:
The total system demand is determined by the Load Forecast (LF) function or
may be specified by the dispatcher/operator.
Desired spinning reserve:
The desired spinning reserve can be specified as a fixed MW amount that is
given for each time interval (same default value for all time steps or different
values for each time step)
Desired operating reserve:
The possible data input for the standby reserve requirement is similar to the
definition of the desired spinning reserve.
Output Results
The output of the Unit Commitment function is presented to the operator in tabular
and displays to assist in the evaluation of the Study function. Output results include:
Commitment Schedule
Committed units at each time interval of the scheduling period
Generation level of each unit
Utilization of interchange transactions
Interchange power of each transaction
Production Cost
Fuel consumption and fuel cost at each time interval and over certain time
periods (e.g., day)
Start-up cost
Operating and Maintenance cost
All values of cost are presented per unit, per plant and per total system.
Reserves
Spinning and total operating reserve at each time interval:
Per unit



Per total system
4.2.3 Solution Method
The Unit Commitment problem is solved by an Augmented Lagrangian Relaxation
algorithm.
The mathematical formulation of the unit commitment problem can be represented
with the decision variables in a concise manner as follows:
The objective of the master problem for unit commitment is to minimize the total
system cost, TSC, over the entire study period:
| ( ) |
TNC P F
TSC
t i t i i
i t
, ,
+

=
where:
t = Basic time step of the study period
i = Generating unit or dispatchable transaction index
P
i,t
= Generation of unit i or MW level of dispatchable transaction i at basic time
step t
F
i
= Production Fuel cost of unit i or cost of dispatchable transaction i
TNC
i
,
t
= Transition cost that is the sum of start up and shut down costs
Subject to the coupling constraints such as generation/load/interchange balance
equality constraint, reserve inequality constraints, transmission transfer interfaces or
lines/transformers flow constraints, etc.
( ) M T R P f U
D P U
m t t i m i t i
i
t t i t i
i
,..., 1 ; ,..., 1
,..., 1
, , , ,
, ,
= =
= =
m t
t
where:
m = Coupling constraint index
M = Number of coupling constraints
T = Number of time steps in the study period
U
i,t
= Operating status of unit i at a time step t
D
t
= System demand requirement at hour t



f
i
,
m
= Contribution of unit/dispatchable transaction to constraint m
R
t
,
m
= Value of constraint requirement m at a time step t
The above system constraints requirements are relaxed and added to the cost
function using Lagrange multipliers. In addition, quadratic penalty terms associated
with system demand requirements are added to the objective function to improve the
convexity of the problem. The Augmented Lagrangian function, L, is therefore written
as:
|
(
(
|
.
|
\
|

+
(
(
(
+ |
.
|
\
|
=

(

R P
f
U
D P U
D P U TNC P F
m t t i
m i
i
t i
m
m t
t t i
i
t i t i t i i
i t
t t i
i
t i
c
L
, ,
,
,
,
2
, , , ,
, ,
2 /

where, c is a penalty factor or penalty weight. It is typically initialized based on the
difference between the largest and smallest system incremental costs divided by the
difference between load values corresponding to these system lambdas.
Except for the quadratic term, the Augmented Lagrangian function L is separable
and the master problem can be decomposed into a set of independent subproblems
each associated with its own local constraints. To overcome the non separability of
the quadratic term and maintain the separability of the problem, we utilize the
Auxiliary Problem Principle to linearize the quadratic terms around the current
operating point. Thus, the augmented Lagrange function for the subproblems in the
(k+1)th iteration, neglecting constant terms is:
|
2
, ,
, , , , ,
,
, ,
, , ,
2
1
2
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=

P P
P P D P P
P
f
P TNC P F
k
t i t i
k
t j
k
t j
j
i t
k
t j
j
t i
t i
m i m t
m
t i t t i t i i
i t
c
c
L

where is the sum of generating powers at previous iteration, and is
generating power of source i (unit or transaction) at previous iteration at time step t.
In the convex case, the convergence of the algorithm was proven when 1/e > 2 c.
P
k
t j
j
, P
k
t i,
For a given set of Lagrange multipliers, these local optimization subproblems are
solved independently using a single unit dynamic programming (DP) method. Note
that within the local optimization subproblems the coupling constraints have no direct
effect; they are represented only indirectly through the Lagrange multipliers that are
used to modify their objective functions.



The single unit DP solution must observe all local constraints, i.e., those that apply to
unit operation (maximum and minimum power limits, minimum up and down times,
ramp rates, etc.). In a single unit DP all unit characteristics can be rigorously
represented while maintaining a reasonable small state space to ensure low
execution time. The solutions of the unit problems are coordinated within each plant
to meet the plant start-up constraint by solving the unit problems in order of solution
priority, and constraining start-ups of lower priority units based on the solutions for
higher priority units.
The master problem solution is concerned with adjusting the values of the Lagrange
multipliers in order to satisfy the coupling constraints. This is done through an
iterative process. At every iteration, all subproblems are solved for a given value of
the Lagrange multipliers. Then the multipliers are updated using a subgradient
technique in which the change in the value of each multiplier is proportional to the
violation of its associated coupling constraint.
The computation of the coupling constraint violations is based on a dynamic merit
order that is changing from one iteration to another. The dynamic merit order is
utilizing the information from the dual subproblem (dual cost, MW levels, etc.) to
order the units/ transactions from the cheapest to the most expensive. Whether a
unit is committed or not at a particular time step depends on the units position in the
dynamic merit order list. Units are committed from the list one by one until the
coupling constraints are satisfied. If the number of units/transactions is not enough,
the value of the violation is computed and the corresponding Lagrange multiplier is
updated to prepare for another iteration. The commitment of units from the priority
list takes the local constraints such as minimum up and down times into account.
It should be noticed that our algorithm maximizes the dual problem while maintaining
feasibility of the primal problem. This approach is different from other Lagrangian
approaches that attempt to maximize the dual function then struggle to obtain a
feasible primal solution using different types of system dependent heuristics.
Once a solution for the commitment stage is obtained, the dispatch stage is initiated
to minimize the production costs by dispatching on-line units and committed
dispatchable transactions to the most economical MW levels. For this purpose we
have implemented very efficient algorithm base on nonlinear version of Dantzig-
Wolfe decomposition principle. The dispatch problem is formulated using nonlinear
piece wise quadratic cost functions (piece wise linear incremental cost curves), and
solution obtained have equal property.
4.2.4 Input and Output
The overview of input data and output results is given on Figure 4-9.



UNIT COMMITMENT
System Data
Unit Data
Unit Group
Data
Interchange Data
988-1098
Commitment
Schedule
Production
Cost
Spinning and
Operating
Reserve
Fuel
Consumption
Total system demand
Required spinning
and operating
reserve constraints
Status
Cost data
Constraints
Plant
related
constraints
Cost data
Constraints
UNIT COMMITMENT
System Data
Unit Data
Unit Group
Data
Interchange Data
988-1098
Commitment
Schedule
Production
Cost
Spinning and
Operating
Reserve
Fuel
Consumption
Total system demand
Required spinning
and operating
reserve constraints
Status
Cost data
Constraints
Plant
related
constraints
Cost data
Constraints
Figure 4-9. Overview of Input Data and Output Results
4.3 Case Comparison (CP)
4.3.1 General
The Case Comparison (CP) function identifies differences in two completed study
cases from Unit Commitment (UC) and/or Transaction Evaluation (TE) selected by
the operator. CP compares both the input required for the study and the output from
the study.
Selected input/output data is checked for differences which exceed a comparison
threshold. Comparison thresholds are used to filter out trivial differences in the data.
When such a difference is detected, the two actual values and their difference are
presented to the operator via Oracle Forms displays. A separate display describing
which data items contain differences exists as part of the results.
4.3.2 Concept
The Case Comparison function compares certain data items in two completed
studies from the Unit Commitment (UC) and/or Transaction Evaluation (TE)
functions. Each study must consist of both the input data required to execute the
study as well as the execution results from that input. The studies are selected from
the save cases and/or the working case of UC and TE.



Hourly Values
The selected study cases are checked for differences in the following system hourly
data values:
Load requirement
Base net interchange
Miscellaneous generation
UC generation
Net dispatchable interchange
Total net requirement
Spinning reserve
Quick-start reserve
Operating reserve
Production cost
Startup/shutdown cost
Operating cost
Dispatchable transaction cost
Total cost
Lambda
System Study Total Values
The selected study cases are checked for differences in the following study totals:
Load requirement
Base net interchange
Miscellaneous generation
UC generation
Net dispatchable interchange
Production cost




Startup/shutdown cost
Operating cost
Dispatchable transaction cost
Total cost
In addition, the following hourly values and totals are checked:
Unit hourly and study total generation
Dispatchable transaction hourly and study total MW
Following Case Comparison execution, a comparison summary can be displayed
that indicates in which of the above data categories significant differences were
found. For each data category, a threshold is used to ignore trivial differences.
Displays are available that show the values of the data in each of the above
categories for both of the selected cases side-by-side, along with the computed
difference for significant differences. Where there is no significant difference, the
difference value is zero.
In addition to the side-by-side viewing displays, for the hourly data additional
displays are available that only show hours in which there are significant differences.
When a significant difference in a system hourly quantity is found, the date and hour
along with the data category, the two actual values and their difference are written to
a comparison display. All differences for day one, hour one appear first, those for
day one, hour two second, etc.
If the study periods differ for the two cases, then Case Comparison compares only
the common period.

5. Operator Training Simulator (OTS)
5.1 OTS Executive Overview
Siemens offers the added value OTS in terms of unique features and capabilities,
which open up our product for capabilities over and beyond the initial EPRI OTS.
Robustness of OTS Power Flow and Dynamic Solution
The current OTS release has numerous corrections that provide stability of the OTS
power flow and dynamic solution to our Customers (NSP, Con-Edison, and Spain). In
several Eight hour long restoration drills the software has been put to extreme stress
tests with a wide variety of network ill conditioning and numerical stability problems.
Permanent Base Cases
Data maintenance model changes invalidate the base cases and events in most
Vendors OTS. Some users stop or limit the use of OTS due to the labor involved in
repeated recreation of the base cases and events for data base changes. The time
taken in the vendors product cycle to achieve a reliable tool to resolve the previous
database cases in the new database is in the order of eighteen months.
Robust EMS Snapshot Initialization Capability
Siemens solution offers a well tested and a unique approach of using a OTS resident
State Estimator filter prior to the OTS Power flow solution of the network model with
the real-time SCADA data. Most other OTS vendors employ a direct power flow
approach or the use of the on-line systems State Estimator results for the real-time
snapshot. The direct power flow based approach is not a reliable method as it has
the fundamental weakness of lack of consideration for data inconsistency in the parts
of network with measurement redundancy, and data in-availability for parts of
network which are not observable. On-line systems State Estimator results based
approach is certainly better than the direct power flow based approach in the
Engineering point of view. If models in the on-line system State Estimator and that of
OTS are different, either by plan or due to time lags in the maintenance cycle, the
on-line system State Estimator based approach for OTS real-time snapshot will fail.
With due consideration to the cited issues, Siemens proposed OTS solution employs
an OTS resident State Estimator based filter approach.
Siemens Value Additions to the OTS Since Delivery to EPRI
In addition to the first EPRI OTS delivery, Siemens also delivered a workstation
based OTS to EPRI in 1993. Ever since, Siemens has been expanding the EPRI
OTS based Siemens OTS continually under internally and externally funded efforts.
In over twenty implementations, Siemens OTS has been thoroughly tested by our
Customers and the corrections to the problems have been continually updated to the
Siemens base OTS software.



A list of significant enhancements Siemens has made to its OTS, following the initial
delivery of the EPRI OTS include:



Robust real-time Snapshot Initialization with the OTS resident State Estimator
filter to ensure a reliable solution.
Improved algorithm related to solution tracking and numerical stability with
respect to open ended lines and their reconnection when very huge charging
MVArs are involved. Such issues in the past always led to power flow
divergence or non-convergence.
Permanent retention of Power System Model Base cases and Instructor
Event Libraries across network model changes
Oracle based database management and UI for the primitive data
management.
Fully menu driven Instructor event creation and editing tools
Fully menu driven, Conditional Events that allow Events to be associated with
the network conditions as opposed to time.
Event type enhancements of stuck breaker events, loss of data-link, station
alarms, etc.
Collection of validated Pool models from NYPP, PJM and SPAIN which
allows us to create new pool models quickly.
Substantial improvements to enhance the calculation of processed ACE and
unit desired signals for the external AGC systems (as external models are
getting larger in the current day networks.)
Cold Load pick-up modeling (validated at least in five implementations).
Heuristic (Automatic) Scenario Builder improvements, ease of rules data
inputs, and solution stabilization following validation on different customer
databases
Transient Stability study program (EPRI ETMSP Extended Transient Mid-
term and Short-term Dynamics Program) interfaced to the OTS PSM. Along
with the real-time snapshot capability, this feature provides means to study
the stability problems of the current on-line operating conditions. The results
of the study are graphically available to the user.
Zero droop governor modeling which allows the manipulation of newly
connected load sharing by the Hydro or Gas Turbines in the islanded network
operation during System Restoration, a practice which is getting more
practical recognition.
A very rich and a more accurate set of default data collected over many
implementations for the prime mover models, based on the type and rating of
the units. The prime mover model data are very hard to obtain.



Practical simulation of Fault events that provides automatic fault isolation and
considers fault duration, isolation, and reconnection attempts.
Synchro check relay test for hot/dead buses and lines
Stability of Software: Black start capability and ill-conditioned network power
flow convergence improvements were identified and corrected as a result of
over six system restoration drills conducted by Siemens OTS customers.
The OTS typically undergoes 500-800 switching actions in a four to six hour
period by a team of three to six operators. In comparable OTSs, such use
generally led to voltage divergence or non-convergence in the past. The
multi-user stress test resulted in the identification and correction of a number
of power flow problems with regard to numerical ill conditioning of networks.
Stabilizing aspects are added to the OTS power flow to significantly improve
the robustness. We also provided realistic voltage regulation and remote
regulation during islanded conditions.
The base OTS version we use in 1999 projects is the software we provided as
Release 3.4 in the fourth quarter of 1998 from DEVELOPMENT. Release 3.4 has
very formally tested software, and is our most stable internal release from
Development to Delivery to undergo Availability (Stability) tests and Y2K tests.
Siemens Future OTS plans
Current Siemens OTS Application database is based on what we originally delivered
for EPRI OTS. Siemens has on-going development for the Oracle Based standalone
applications for Network, OTS, and other applications. Siemens vision for the
standalone applications is the use of third party Industry standard method of Oracle
Database and User Interface linked to the Oracle Database. We have Development
plans to move our OTS Application database to an Oracle Database.
5.2 Introduction and Overview
In the last two decades, power systems have become increasingly complex and the
requirements placed on Operators in all phases of system operations: normal,
emergency and restorative, have increased correspondingly. In past years, training
of power system control center Operators was done largely on the job. Experience
and skill were gradually accumulated over the years. Experience in the operation of
the power system under normal conditions was accumulated relatively quickly since
most systems are operated under normal conditions most of the time. However,
experience in alleviating emergencies and in restoring the system from total or partial
blackouts is accumulated much more slowly since on most systems, these
conditions occur much less often.
With an Operator Training Simulator (OTS), it has become possible to improve the
quality of training for power system Operators. The OTS allows Operators to be
exposed to simulated power system emergencies and to practice alleviating these
emergencies. Similarly, Operators may practice system restoration under simulated
conditions. Since Operators may be exposed to simulated emergency and



restorative conditions on the OTS, frequently and at will, as opposed to rarely and by
chance on the job; the time required to train a new operator may be significantly
shortened. Similarly, with an OTS, it becomes possible to expose existing Operators
to emergencies and restoration procedures as part of refresher training. With an
OTS, it is possible to achieve and to maintain a high level of operational readiness
among power system Operators.
The proposed OTS is designed specifically to achieve these results. It is based on
technology initially developed at Siemens as part of the Electric Power Research
Institute research project RP1915-2, "Operator Training Simulator" and RP1915-8
"UNIX based PSM for OTS" and further enhanced by Siemens. The most important
attributes of the OTS are fidelity and accuracy.



Fidelity and accuracy mean that the OTS behaves as the real world does. The
simulator presents results to the Operators that are as accurate as those observed
by the ECS using typical power system telemetry. Fidelity means that the operator
uses User Interface and Application functions that are identical in the OTS and in the
ECS.
The OTS includes long-term dynamic models of the electrical network, loads,
generators, turbines, and boilers. The OTS also includes the control functions of the
ECS: SCADA, power applications and their UI.
In addition, an Educational Subsystem is provided with features which allow the
instructor to construct groups of one or more training events or power system
disturbances and to store and retrieve these groups of events.
The OTS is a standard software package designed to execute in a dedicated
processor with consoles dedicated to training while the simulator is running. System
Management software allows workstations to be switched into simulation mode or
back to on-line, or ECS mode.
The simulator has the capability of starting from any one of several stored base
cases. This enables the operator to study a variety of different cases by starting
from any base case and making changes if necessary to create the specific case
desired. This capability can be used by the operator to study various cases that
simulate day-to-day operations.
Other significant features of the OTS include:
The network model used by the OTS is identical to the network model of the
ECS
The user prepares a single master data base from which the OTS and ECS
data sets are generated
The user prepares and maintains a single set of displays which is used by
both the ECS and OTS
The OTS AGC, SCADA systems are identical to ECS (electrical features)
The OTS includes several levels of modeling complexity for the prime mover
models
The OTS allows the use of multiple consoles to support team training and an
instructor position
Multiple islands may be modelled
The OTS supports a load model which includes the effect of frequency,
voltage, load management and voltage regulation by subtransmission
reactive shunts and taps
The OTS supports system restoration/blackstart exercises



The OTS includes a model of DC transmission
Under frequency load shedding is modeled in the OTS
The OTS may be initialized from a snapshot of the real-time system
The OTS allows representation of a wide range of power system events or
disturbances
The OTS may include a model of the AGC systems of external companies
The OTS includes relay models for:
Over/under voltage
Inverse time overcurrent
Over/Under Frequency relays
Synchro Check relays
Time Switched
Volts/Hz
Over/under excitation
Automatic Reclosure
The OTS includes features that allow the instructor to play the role of power
plant Operators, substation Operators, and neighboring company Operators.
5.3 OTS Functional Description
The overall simulator system can be logically divided into four principle subsystems;
the Power System Model (PSM), the Control Center Model (CCM), the Educational
System and the User Interface (UI). Figure 5-1 shows the relationship of these
subsystems and their components with the exception of UI. The UI interface affects
input and output for the Control Center Model and Educational Systems.



PROTECTION
MODELING
GENERATOR
MODELING
BF2 336A
DISPLAY
AND
CONTROL
APPLICATION
FUNCTIONS
DISPATCHER LOGGING
SUPERVISORY
CONTROL
NETWORK
SIMULATION
DATA
ACQUISITION
LOAD
MODELING
TRAINING
SEQUENCE
SELECTION
SYSTEM
EVENTS
BASE
CASE
SELECTION
INSTRUCTOR
EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM
POWER SYSTEM
MODEL
CONTROL CENTER
MODEL
PROTECTION
MODELING
GENERATOR
MODELING
BF2 336A
DISPLAY
AND
CONTROL
APPLICATION
FUNCTIONS
DISPATCHER LOGGING
SUPERVISORY
CONTROL
NETWORK
SIMULATION
DATA
ACQUISITION
LOAD
MODELING
TRAINING
SEQUENCE
SELECTION
SYSTEM
EVENTS
BASE
CASE
SELECTION
INSTRUCTOR
EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM
POWER SYSTEM
MODEL
CONTROL CENTER
MODEL
Figure 5-1. Overview of OTS Function

The PSM simulates response of load, generation and network conditions (flows and
voltages) to control actions, which were initiated either from the Educational System
or Control Center Model. The PSM includes a load model function, network
modeling which is implemented as a network topology processor and a fast
decoupled load flow algorithm and a set of prime mover models and frequency
response programs.
The Control Center Model includes a replica of the control functions in the ECS.
Included are selected SCADA/AGC functions and Network Analysis functions.
The Educational Subsystem provides a means for sequences of events to be
defined, stored and retrieved by the instructor. Separate displays are used to define
each sequence and to catalog by title those presently stored.
The User Interface relates to all of the previous subsystems. It provides display and
control via the workstation display and keyboard, and logging of all system events.



5.4 OTS Capabilities
The OTS provides the trainee with the capability to perform generation and
transmission dispatching functions in simulation mode. The OTS is specifically
designed to permit training a operator in all phases of system operation: normal,
emergency and restoration.
The Control Center Model includes a replica of the Control functions in use in the
ECS. Replication means that the features and UI of these functions in the ECS and
OTS are identical, as seen by the trainee at his console. The following functions are
included in the OTS:
Data Acquisition
Data Processing
Data Dissemination
Supervisory Control
Automatic Generation Control
Power System Network Analysis functions
The ECS functions that have interaction with RTUs are altered so that they interact
with the Power System Model, but are identical from the viewpoint of the trainee.
5.5 OTS Techniques and Algorithms
This section gives an overview of the major software components of the OTS and
gives an understanding of how the simulation is executed and why certain responses
are obtained.
Figure 5-2 shows the order of execution for the major modules. The models of the
OTS can be separated into two categories: The static solution and the dynamic
solution. The static solution includes the simulation of transmission lines,
transformers, relays, circuit breakers, etc. It includes models whose dynamics are
too fast to be observed through the SCADA system data acquisition scans. The
dynamic solution includes the simulation of boilers, turbines, nuclear units and the
frequency response of the power system. The dynamic solution is accomplished
using a numerical integration (trapezoidal method) with a time step of one second.



BF2 337
STATIC SOLUTION
Network Topology Processing
Bus Load Calculations
DYNAMIC SOLUTION
N
Y
Solve power flow on full
system
Circuit Breaker Switching?
Island Load Calculations
External AGC Model
Advance Integration Time Step
Frequency Model
Power Plant Models
Transformer Model
Load Model
Protective Relay Model
BF2 337
STATIC SOLUTION
Network Topology Processing
Bus Load Calculations
DYNAMIC SOLUTION
N
Y
Solve power flow on full
system
Circuit Breaker Switching?
Island Load Calculations
External AGC Model
Advance Integration Time Step
Frequency Model
Power Plant Models
Transformer Model
Load Model
Protective Relay Model
Figure 5-2. Overview of OTS Cycle Calculation

One execution of the modules shown in Figure 5-2 is called an OTS cycle. Once
every cycle the load, relay and transformer models are updated. The static solution
and the dynamic solution are also updated once per OTS cycle. If the Educational
Subsystem or relay actions introduce changes such as breaker openings into the
electrical network, the new network topology is determined by the network topology
processing module. A power flow solution determines the flows and voltages
throughout the network.
The dynamic solution includes the calculation of island load, the effect of the
controllers of external AGC control areas, the frequency response of the system and
power plant models. The effects of island electrical frequency are taken into account
in the calculation of load (the effects of voltage on bus load is considered in the
power flow).
Major portions of the OTS are described in the following sections.



5.5.1 Topology Processor
The proposed OTS uses a special Topology Processor that is integrated with the
OTS power flow. The combined topology processor/power flow is an order of
magnitude faster than the ones previously used in simulators.
5.5.1.1 Raw Topology Processor
The OTS Topology Processor analyzes the open/close status of circuit breakers and
switches and determines the electrical configuration of the network. In the OTS, a
special purpose topology processor is used which keeps track of network
modifications over time. The OTS topology processor passes information about
network changes to the power flow which uses this information to incrementally re-
order and incrementally update the factors of the matrices used in the power flow
solution.
This special purpose topology processor was developed as part of the EPRI project
RP1915-2, Operator Training Simulator

. A key idea of the special purpose topology
processor is to accommodate the ordering in the topology processor. When a
network change occurs, the previous order is updated by flagging the discarded
buses and by appending the new buses last in the order of processing. Although the
resulting new busses are in non-optimal order which causes extra fill-ins during
processing of these new buses, the resulting processing is much quicker than re-
ordering the matrices completely. The results of topology change are introduced into
the factorization matrices using state-of-the-art factor updating algorithms.
After the OTS has been executing for some time, the effects of topology changes
accumulate. The system must be re-ordered and re-factored to avoid the buildup of
computational inefficiency. This rebuilding and refactoring is done during a cycle
when there is no topology change as opposed to during a cycle when a topology
change has occurred and the operator is highly sensitized to the response of the
OTS. An OTS cycle during which the matrices are rebuilt does take longer, but
these cycles are chosen to occur during a time when the system is quiet.
5.5.1.2 Power Flow
The proposed OTS uses a special purpose fast-decoupled power flow that has been
designed to give fast results following a topology change and to perform well under
stressed conditions. The OTS power flow is different from traditional power flows
with respect to the modeling of control strategies, such as area interchange controls
and transformer tap changing. In the OTS, representation of such control strategies
is done outside the Power Flow Solution since slower time constants such as those
of the AGC system and transformer tap mechanism must be taken into account.
The modeling of generator MVAR limiting in most power flows causes the power flow
to take additional iterations and slows the overall time to convergence.



In the proposed OTS, special modifications were introduced in the modeling of the
power flow to overcome the convergence problems normally caused by generator
MVAR limiting. In the OTS power flow, all MVAR limiting interactions are resolved
before proceeding to the next active power portion of the power flow. The net effect
of this implementation is that the power flow converges more quickly in the case
when there is MVAR limiting.
In the proposed OTS, special features were introduced into the power flow to ensure
good convergence on a customer's network. Loads may be modeled as functions of
voltage (see also Section 5.4.3). The voltage dependence of the nominal load is
included in the computation of the power flow mismatches. This has the effect of
stabilizing the power flow solution at low voltages.
5.5.2 OTS Network Model Output
Once the OTS power flow has been solved, Network Model Output function uses the
complex voltage solution of the power flow and branch impedances to calculate
branch flows. See Figure 5-3.
Analog measurement data is mapped to the appropriate data structures and are
displayed by means of the SCADA system.



BF2 338A
TOP
(TOPOLOGY
PROCESSOR)
POWER
FLOW
SOLUTION
NMO
(NETWORK
MODEL OUTPUT)
NETWORK
ELEMENT DATA &
CONNECTIONS
BREAKER
STATUS
BREAKER
CONNECTIONS
POWER
FLOW
INPUT
SOLUTION
BF2 338A
TOP
(TOPOLOGY
PROCESSOR)
POWER
FLOW
SOLUTION
NMO
(NETWORK
MODEL OUTPUT)
NETWORK
ELEMENT DATA &
CONNECTIONS
BREAKER
STATUS
BREAKER
CONNECTIONS
POWER
FLOW
INPUT
SOLUTION

Figure 5-3. OTS Network Analysis Overview



5.5.3 OTS Load Modeling
5.5.3.1 Load Models
The OTS power system model may include several companies. A load curve is
allowed for each company, which consists of load values for each five-minute
interval. At each simulation cycle, a load value is determined by interpolating
between successive points on the load curve. Bus load elements are then
calculated as a fixed percentage of the load value assuming that the system is
operating at nominal voltage and frequency. Bus loads are further distributed to
feeder loads. Feeder loads can be of conforming (following load curve) or non-
conforming (fixed load) type. The feeder load is then modified by a variable factor of
the form (1 + pf(R)) where f(R) is random variable uniformly distributed between (-
1/2, + 1/2) and p is a programmer enterable value.
In order to provide the flexibility to represent loads at different levels of detail, the
user is presented with a menu of load models of varying complexity which may be
defined at the time of data base generation. These models are summarized briefly:
Model O This is the simplest model in which load is represented as a fixed
MW, MVAR.
Model OS This model includes the effect of voltage and frequency deviations
on the load. Load can be represented as constant MVA, constant
current, or constant impedance. Variations of load due to
frequently changes are also modeled.
Model OM In this model, the effect of load management is included.
Fractions of feeder load may be removed and re-applied.
Model OSM This model includes the effect of load management in the Model
OS.
Model OSR This model includes the effect of distribution transformer tap
changes, and distribution reactive switching in the Model OS.
Model OSMR This model is the complete model. It includes the effect of load
management and feeder level reactive factors in the Model OS.
Research work as part of RP1915-2 pointed to the importance of load models in the
simulation of voltage collapse.
The effect of the "cold load" has been incorporated in the models and algorithms of
the OTS. When a feeder is de-energized for a period of time, upon reconnection to
the network, the value of the feeder load is usually higher than the value at the time
of the loss of the load. The OTS cold load model represents the long-term effect of
the cold load behavior.



5.5.3.2 Cold Load Models
The effect of the "cold load" is incorporated in the models and algorithms of the OTS.
When a feeder is deenergized for a period of time, upon reconnection to the network,
the value of the feeder load is usually higher than the value at the time of loss of the
load. The value of the load upon reconnection may be initially up to ten times the
normal value for a short period of time (less than a cycle time), and 1.5 - 2 times the
normal value very shortly afterwards. This value will gradually drop down to the
normal load value within 25-30 minutes.
The OTS cold load model represents the long term effect of the cold load behavior
since the trainee views the power system through the sampling of the telemetry data
by the SCADA system. This sampling occurs at a frequency that justifies ignoring
the initial surge of energizing a feeder.
Cold load pick up is modeled by simulating typical phenomenon that the load power
increases exponentially with the time following a load switch off. The reverse occurs
when the load is reenergized.
P
C
= P
hot
[1 + a (1 -e
-bt
)] (1)
Where: Phot is the MW value of the energized load and Pcold is the MW value of the
load "seen" immediately after the load is reconnected. Time T is the load outage
duration. The value of the load declines toward Phot when the load is reconnected
(Figure 5-5)). This decline is represented by equation 2. Since b signifies the
inverse of the time constant at which the load decays, it can be assumed that b has
the same value as in equation 1.

Ph = Pcold [1 - ah (1 -e-bt)] (2)
Time t in equation 2 is the time since the load was energized.

P
c
P
cold
P
hot
Time T

Figure 5-4. Load Switched Off



P
h
P
cold
P
hot
Time T

Figure 5-5. Load Switched On

The cold load pick-up problem formula is done for more generalized conditions which
are:
a. Load is re-energized during transit from hot to cold state before it reaches
the cold state.
b. Load is de-energized in restoration during transit from cold to hot state
before it reaches the hot state.
5.5.4 OTS Dynamic Modeling
Transient stability studies have historically used the most highly developed models of
power systems. Other system models have included analog computer
representation of simplified systems either for teaching power systems concepts or
in simulating load frequency control strategies. In addition, considerable analytical
work and some analog and digital simulation has been done by mechanical and
electrical control engineers on modeling of steam power plants, mainly for the
purpose of designing power plant controls.
The operator simulation process, and the models employed, differ from those models
primarily in the time frame considered. Transient time scales are on the order of
cycles (0.016 seconds for 60HZ systems) and longer dynamic stability runs last only
a few seconds. The time frame for response of human control actions is the
determining factor in the design of the simulation. Events which are beyond the
range of human perception are not of interest, especially when viewed by telemetry
with ten second scans and through workstations with sampling of about two
seconds. At the other extreme, it is important that the simulation be run in real-time
and be economical for "runs" of a half hour or more. These considerations result in
an emphasis on prime mover dynamics and system frequency behavior in the
structure of the simulation.



Because of the time response of AGC and operator control, we are dealing with slow
speed phenomena rather than the transient and synchronizing effects not observed
by the controller (either AGC or human). Also because of the requirement for real-
time response of the simulated power system, extensively detailed models of
components with short time constants would require a short integration time step and
a correspondingly heavy computational burden. In this case we require a rather
coarse time step (1 second) as compared to transient stability. For certain system
condition such as setting droop of some units to zero during restoration or
emergency conditions, the integration time step is dynamically adjusted to less than
one second.
During steady state operation conditions, line flows and losses are the result of
generation, excitation, and load. The network solution is therefore, more than
adequately modelled by an efficiently coded load flow.
A schematic overview of control response modeling is shown in Figure 5-6.
BF2 339
LOAD
MODEL
UNDER
FREQUENCY
RELAYING
FREQUENCY
MODEL
POWER
FLOW
GENERATION
MODEL
EXT.AGC
MODELS
SCHEDULED
FREQUENCY
INTERCHANGE
SCHEDULE
To
Governors
P Mech. P Elect.
Tie Flow
& Generations
-
+
Freq.
S
BF2 339
LOAD
MODEL
UNDER
FREQUENCY
RELAYING
FREQUENCY
MODEL
POWER
FLOW
GENERATION
MODEL
EXT.AGC
MODELS
SCHEDULED
FREQUENCY
INTERCHANGE
SCHEDULE
To
Governors
P Mech. P Elect.
Tie Flow
& Generations
-
+
Freq.
S

Figure 5-6. OTS Control Response Modeling
5.5.5 OTS System Dimensionality and Generator Coherency
The dimensionality of the dynamic frequency model is reduced from the number of
generators to one per swing-area (island), by the assumption of generator coherency
within the control area.
In transient stability studies a swing equation is written for each generator and each
may accelerate at its own rate.



dt
d
dt
d
W
H
D Pelec Pmech + =
2
2
0
2

where
Pmech = mechanical power P.U. MW
Pelec = electrical power P.U. MW
H = P.U. inertia constant (seconds)
= angular rotor position (radians)
D = machine damping constant (MW-sec.)
W = angular velocity (radians)
We reduce the order of this equation by accepting the assumption that the electrical
interconnections are so strong that the entire control area or any one island within
the system, can be characterized by a single frequency
dt
d
= f
The assumption has the effect of eliminating the synchronizing swings and transient
behavior between generators, which cannot be controlled by the operator or the
AGC. The resulting formulation is called the Long-Term Dynamic formulation.
5.5.6 The OTS Power Plant
In the proposed OTS, component models are included for all commonly used power
plant types. These models have been implemented specifically for the purpose of
operator training. The criteria used in the selection and implementation of these
models are fidelity and accuracy. Accuracy means that the models behave as the
real world does as seen through power system instrumentation and telemetry.
Fidelity means that the models respond in the same timeframe as the real world for
systems with hundreds of units.
Using these criteria, separate component models are provided for the following types
of energy sources:
Fossil Fuel Model (once through super-critical, once through sub-critical and
drum boiler units)
Pressurized Water Reactor
Boiling Water Reactor



Combustion Turbine
Hydro Turbine
In a similar manner to the load models, the user is given a menu of models of varying
accuracy for the fossil fuel models, the boiling water reactor model and the hydro
turbine model. The user may choose the level of accuracy and computation burden
for each of these three models. Figures 5-7, 5-8, and 5-9 show the three levels or
tiers that are available within the fossil fuel type of model.
The first tier fossil model is recommended for larger generating units within the
immediate service area of the main system. The second tier of models is
recommended for larger generating units in the external world which are close to the
immediate service area of the main system. The third tier of fossil model is
recommended for other units in the external world. Exact selection from the menu of
available tiers of models is left to the customer at the time of data base generation.
The first tier fossil models include the representation of the following types of
controls: boiler flow, turbine flow and coordinated control. A model is included for the
governor which includes governor deadband and non-linearity. The effects of off-
nominal voltages and frequency on plant auxiliaries are included in the model.
Moreover, this model will account for fast winddown of some generating units,
generally in release mode coordinated with pumped storage hydro units picking up
the load.
A representation is used for the turbine that is consistent with the IEEE committee
recommendations. This model, Figure 5-10 can represent separate pressure level
turbines, reheaters and crossovers by choosing the appropriate model parameters.
Hydro electric units are modeled using the energy source model. By selection of the
hydro electric unit status, the unit may generate or pump with a desired MW value.
While pumping, the unit behaves as a fixed active power load. While generating, the
unit behaves as a source of active power generation with reactive power (voltage
regulation) capability.



1.0
0
1
R
LVG
1
TS+1
K
1-K
1
S
KP1
KI1
S
1
T1S+1
1
S
PI
PI
K1
1
TfwS+1
1
S
1
CD
aux
DKS
1
S
1
Csh
K2
S

Ds
TfuS+1
1-QT
OT
KP
KI
S
K S
D
PEB

MEB
Throttle
Pressure
Set Point
PI
PRLOLM
FD
pedb
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
DLMT
0
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
e
Frequency
Voltage
Boiler Control
-
+
Throttle
Pressure
Valve
Area
Input to TURBIN
Valve
Rate
Limit
Valve
Rate
Limit
Valve
Non-
linearity
vtr
0
vop
voc
DLT
(load
limit)
Steam Flow Rate
Backlash
+
+
+ +
+
+
-
PSLM
0
morl
mcrl
Rate
Limit
Load
Demand
Mechanical
Power
Output (uag)
Rate
Limits
Demand Accumulator
AGC
pulse
Pressure Controls
Coordinated Control
Throttle Pressure
Fuel Supply Path
Feed Water Path
BF2 341
1.0
0
1
R
LVG
1
TS+1
K
1-K
1
S
KP1
KI1
S
1
T1S+1
1
S
PI
PI
K1
1
TfwS+1
1
S
1
CD
aux
DKS
1
S
1
Csh
K2
S

Ds
TfuS+1
1-QT
OT
KP
KI
S
K S
D
PEB

MEB
Throttle
Pressure
Set Point
PI
PRLOLM
FD
pedb
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
DLMT
0
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
e
Frequency
Voltage
Boiler Control
-
+
Throttle
Pressure
Valve
Area
Input to TURBIN
Valve
Rate
Limit
Valve
Rate
Limit
Valve
Non-
linearity
vtr
0
vop
voc
DLT
(load
limit)
Steam Flow Rate
Backlash
+
+
+ +
+
+
-
PSLM
0
morl
mcrl
Rate
Limit
Load
Demand
Mechanical
Power
Output (uag)
Rate
Limits
Demand Accumulator
AGC
pulse
Pressure Controls
Coordinated Control
Throttle Pressure
Fuel Supply Path
Feed Water Path
BF2 341
Figure 5-7. First Tier Fossil Model



1.0
0
1
R
LVG S K
1-K
1
S
S
1
S
S PI S
PI
1
TfwS+1
S aux
S
S
Ds
TfuS+1
1-QT
OT
KP
KI
S
PEB
S S
Throttle
Pressure
Set Point
GPL
S
PRLOLM
FD
+
-
+
+
-
-
DLMT
0
+
+
+
-
-
e
Frequency
Voltage
Throttle
Pressure
Input to
TURBIN
DLT
(load
limit)
Steam Flow Rate
+ +
+
+
-
PSLM
0
morl
mcrl
Rate
Limit
Load
Demand
Mechanical
Power
Output (uag)
Rate
Limits
Demand Accumulator
AGC
pulse
Throttle Pressure
BF2 342
+
Governor
Motor
KC
S
S
-
+
1
CAS
KB
Steam Flow Rate
1.0
0
1
R
LVG S K
1-K
1
S
S
1
S
S S PI S S
PI
1
TfwS+1
S S aux
S S
S S
Ds
TfuS+1
1-QT
OT
KP
KI
S
PEB
S S S S
Throttle
Pressure
Set Point
GPL
S S
PRLOLM
FD
+
-
+
+
-
-
DLMT
0
+
+
+
-
-
e
Frequency
Voltage
Throttle
Pressure
Input to
TURBIN
DLT
(load
limit)
Steam Flow Rate
+ +
+
+
-
PSLM
0
morl
mcrl
Rate
Limit
Load
Demand
Mechanical
Power
Output (uag)
Rate
Limits
Demand Accumulator
AGC
pulse
Throttle Pressure
BF2 342
+
Governor
Motor
KC
S S
S S
-
+
1
CAS
KB
Steam Flow Rate
Figure 5-8. Second Tier Fossil Model
BF2 343
1
R
K1
S
Turbine
FD
-
Deadband
+
AGC
pulse
Raise
Lower
Power
Output
Boiler
Model BF2 343
1
R
K1
S
Turbine
FD
-
Deadband
+
AGC
pulse
Raise
Lower
Power
Output
Boiler
Model

Figure 5-9. Third Tier Fossil Model



BF2 344
Shaft #1
Power Output
UAG
Shaft #2
Power Output
1
1+TT1S
TK1
+
TK3 TK5 TK7
1
1+TT2S
1
1+TT3S
1
1+TT4S
TK4 TK6 TK8
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Steam
Flow
Rate
Steam
Chest
1st
Reheater
2nd
Reheater
Crossover
High
Pressure
Turbine
Intermediate
Pressure
Turbine
Low
Pressure
Turbine
Low
Pressure
Turbine
+
+
+
+
BF2 344
Shaft #1
Power Output
UAG
Shaft #2
Power Output
1
1+TT1S
TK1
+
TK3 TK5 TK7
1
1+TT2S
1
1+TT3S
1
1+TT4S
TK4 TK6 TK8
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Steam
Flow
Rate
Steam
Chest
1st
Reheater
2nd
Reheater
Crossover
High
Pressure
Turbine
Intermediate
Pressure
Turbine
Low
Pressure
Turbine
Low
Pressure
Turbine
+
+
+
+

Figure 5-10. Generalized Turbine Model
5.5.7 VAR Resources
The OTS includes modeling of automatic control of VAR resources such as
synchronous condensers.
5.5.8 HVDC Model
The OTS includes modeling of the HVDC transmission lines. The DC transmission
line is modeled as an injection at the corresponding nodes of the modeled AC
electrical network
5.5.9 OTS Relays
In the proposed OTS, models are available for those relays that act in the timeframe
of long-term dynamics. Other relays that act in a transient timeframe may be
modeled as events in the OTS Event Scheduler. The following relay models are
available in the OTS.
Over/Under Voltage
Volts/Hz
Inverse time overcurrent
Over/Under Frequency



Over/under Excitation
Synchro Check
Automatic Reclosure
The relay outputs will not occur until after a timer associated with each relay
has expired. The time delay of each relay is specified separately for each
relay model.
5.5.10 External Generation Control Areas
The OTS includes the ability to define a group of companies as an external control
area. The capability is provided to define an AGC controller for each external control
area. The external AGC controller includes an Interchange Transaction Scheduler
for that control area, an Economic Dispatch function and a load frequency controller.
The Economic Dispatch and AGC for external companies although simplified,
contain the features of modern ECS. The instructor is provided with the ability to
change scheduled frequency, the frequency line bias factor, the AGC control status
and interchange ramp rates for each external control area. The instructor may
schedule the interchange transactions among external companies.
5.5.11 Simulation of Voltage Collapse
The following are key features of the proposed OTS that allow the simulation of
voltage collapse in the OTS.
On-load tap changing with time constraints
Over or under excitation capability of generators represented by fast MVAR
limits as opposed to that of steady-state limits.
Bus loads split into feeders and feeders selectively, including the effects of
distribution tap changes, distribution reactive switching, and load
management factors, selective feeder factors for constant Z, I and P portions
of any load.
Bus load variation as a quadratic function of voltage included in power flow
mismatch computations, stabilizing the power flow solution at low voltages.
Network islanding is demonstrated easily in the OTS with the help of tools provided
to the instructor by means of events, displays, and OTS power flow.
Partial or total blackouts happen in the OTS as in real life due to island abnormal
speeds or voltages and relays. The Power System Model and Control Center
Models continue to run after a blackout. Power plants can be started up one by one
and loads can be restored to parts or the entire network by using the tools provided
to the role-playing instructor and trainee.





5.5.12 OTS Sizing Considerations
The size of the OTS system model is as follows:
Maximum
Number
Item Allowed

Bus 1000
Nodes 10000
Voltage Levels 10
Companies 40
Zones 100
Generators 600
Turbines 600
Boilers 600
Branches (Lines+Transformers+Phase+Shifters+Series Devices) 3000
AC Transmission lines 2000
Transformers 400
LTC Transformers 400
Phase Shifters 20
Series Devices 100
Shunts Capacitors/Reactors 1000
Protective Relays 8000
Switches, Beakers, Disconnects 7000
AC Substations 1500
Loads (each load is allowed MW & MVAR components) 3000
AGC Areas 40
Islands 10
Base Cases 20
Event Groups 250
Events/Group (Each Event Group is a page long display) 20
Snapshots 20

All of the OTS PSM and IP software is very well modularized. Dimension changes
can be made with minimum effort, as the OTS PSM and IP software is flexible for
any future expansion.
5.5.13 OTS Performance
The OTS cycle time will be within an average of five seconds. Usually hardware
selections are made to closely match the scan time of the SCADA system. OTS
supports NA studies of one DPF per 15 minutes, one SCOPF per 30 minutes, one
SA per 30 minutes, and one FL per 30 minutes.



5.6 OTS Educational Subsystem
The proposed OTS includes an Educational Subsystem which allows the instructor
to set up the event groups which make up the scenarios (pre-session activities), to
participate in the scenario (session activities) and to debrief the trainee (post-session
activities).
The OTS provides the instructor with the ability to conduct pre-session activities.
These include the preparation, editing and saving of a base case. A base case may
be retrieved from a previously stored base case, may be obtained from a real-time
snapshot or may be created interactively during simulation.
Groups of events or system malfunctions may be created and implemented along
with a base case to create a scenario. Events are scheduled to occur based on the
time specified in the scenario. Once a group of events is defined, the group of
events may be saved, edited or restored. Multiple event groups may be activated
concurrently. The following are some examples of events:
Simulation stop
Simulation pause
Total or partial loss of a generator output
Total or partial loss of a bus loading
System load changes (spikes, steps)
Unit derating
Change in scheduled interchange transaction between the AGC control areas
Change the desired voltage controlled by generators
Change minimum and maximum voltage regulation limits of LTCs
Change in unit status (automatic, manual, etc.)
Circuit breaker trip
Circuit breaker close
Circuit breaker trip with successful reclosure; this can be used to simulate the
occurrence of temporary faults on transmission lines
Circuit breaker trip with unsuccessful reclosure; this can be used to simulate
the occurrence of permanent faults on transmission lines, bus faults, or
generator faults



Breaker disableDisables any Supervisory Control action on a specific
breaker
Breaker enableEnables any Supervisory Control action on a specific
breaker
Stuck BreakerDisables breaker specified and identifies up to six breakers
that operate due to breaker failure
Relay disable
Relay enable
LTC disableDisables voltage regulation of LTC
LTC enableEnables a previously disabled LTC
Loss of RTU
Restore RTU
Loss of a single point of an RTU
Saturation
RTU telemetry failure
Restore of a single point of an RTU
Replace analog points (bad data)
Replace digital points (bad data)
Blocking of control signals from AGC to generating units
Messages to the instructor to take certain actions or contact the trainee at
certain times
A relative or absolute event is executed when the simulation time becomes equal or
larger than the time of the event. A conditional event, however, is executed
whenever the result of a "logical function" becomes true.
The Event Scheduler provides a menu-driven method of selecting event types,
equipment names and actions while creating event scenarios. The instructor is not
required to manually type in any Event data. Event equipment data may be selected
from a one-line display and "dropped" into the event window. By using this feature, it
is not required that the instructor knows the names of every piece of equipment since
the equipment can be selected from the one-line diagrams or the menu.



5.6.1 Conditional Events
OTS events can be triggered based upon one of three criteria:
Time relative to the activation of the event group
Absolute time
The evaluation of user-defined conditions
Classical events are defined as functions of time in a relative or absolute term.
Conditional events are defined as logical expressions comprising:
Several global variables
Several network variables
Values for comparison
Arithmetic and logical operators
Each "variable" represents an individual condition, which is grouped along with
several other conditions by means of logical operators to form a condition boolean
expression. This powerful feature can also be exploited to automate certain role-
playing actions of instructor. The conditions that are used to trigger events are
defined through the Conditional Event Editor. These conditions are Boolean
expressions combining multiple individual network conditions.
Most of the analog values and digital values calculated by the Power System
Modeling can be used in these expressions. The terms in the expression can be
grouped using parenthesis to form more complex condition boolean expressions.
The active condition boolean expressions are evaluated during each modeling
sequence cycle. When it is found to be true, the associated events will be executed.
Associated events are edited using the Event Editor. The Event Editor allows
maintaining an Event Library, where each event(s) can be associated with the time
or with the condition expression created in the Conditional Event Editor.
5.6.2 Session Support
The OTS provides the instructor with the ability to participate during the scenario or
training session. The instructor may start/stop or pause/resume the OTS. An event
may be inserted or over-ridden during the scenario. A snapshot may be demanded
manually or set up to occur periodically. The instructor is provided with features that
allow him to play the role of operators outside the control room such as: power plant
operators, substation operators and operators of neighboring companies.
The OTS provides the instructor with facilities to be used in the debriefing of the
trainee. The OTS may be reinitialized to a periodic or manual snapshot and the
simulation may be resumed to review part of the scenario with the trainee. Key data



is saved and presented to the instructor on instructor and trainee logs to assist the
instructor with analyzing the scenario.
The Instructor Position Man-Machine Interface (IPMMI) is a workstation-based full
graphics interface that takes advantage of the latest in graphics technology. Multi-
windowing choice of several fonts and colors are some of these technologies used,
as well as the use of icons and pull-down menus are supported in IPMMI.
The purpose of Instructor Position is to allow an instructor to control Power System
Modeling of the Operator Training Simulator and to allow the instructor to perform
control actions normally done by power plant operators and dispatchers of
neighboring companies. The instructor through Instructor Position Man-Machine
Interface (IPMMI) can initiate, execute and terminate an OTS training session. The
instructor through IPMMI can create and control OTS training scenarios.



5.6.3 Base Case Creation
OTS simulation can be initialized to any of the following:
Base case
Snapshot
EMS Power Flow or State Estimator Solution
EMS Real-time snapshot
A snapshot is an intermediate step in creating a base case or a base case in its
evolution. Snapshots can be automatic or on demand.
5.6.4 PSM Reports
PSM includes the following report facilities:
Instructor logs that report instructor and trainee control actions
Performance evaluator that tracks the specified bus, branch, frequency and
ACE violations and their recoveries with the associated time stamps
Snapshot capability which allows the session to be restored to an earlier
system condition, for any review purposes
PSM displays, logs and performance evaluation displays can be printed any
time for report purposes
The CCM report facilities are also available to the instructor as they are.
5.7 Heuristic Scenario Builder (HSB) [Optional]
In addition to capability of building a scenario interactively by the instructor. An
automatic way of building scenarios is available. Heuristic Scenario Builder (HSB)
enables an instructor to automatically build a training scenario to be subsequently
used by the Operator Training Simulator (OTS) during training sessions.
The HSB builds and validates scenarios using information about the type of trainee,
the complexity of the training exercise, the training goal, and the power system
conditions prevailing during the training session. Knowledge about scenario creation
is introduced in the form of rules. Thus, the methodology used by the HSB falls
within the realm of expert systems applications.



5.8 Transient Stability [Optional]
The instructor position can provide a Transient Stability function to assist the
instructor in building and verifying training scenarios.
The instructor can choose to pause the simulator, transfer the PSM data onto EPRI-
ETMSP transient stability program input case and request a transient stability run.
Transient stability comprised relay operations are added as additional breaker
operation events. Thus, the OTS PSM is enhanced to include the long-term effects
of topology changes occurred during the short-term and mid-term system dynamics.
Results of the stability run for bus voltages and generator rotor angles cane be
plotted.
5.9 OTS User Interface
The UI includes most of the functions provided in the on-line system.
The simulator may include a logger and a videocopier (which includes the capability
to copy the workstation diagrams) as options. Also included, is the database
administrator function to enable on-line modifications in the database and for
construction/modification of displays.
5.9.1 Event Editor
The Event Editor is a Motif based application that provides an interface for building
event group. The Event Editor is comprised of three windows:
List Window. This is the parent window and displays an event group (a group
of 20 events). Events can be added to the list via the Edit Window. The
event description is entered via this window.
Overview Window. This window is called from the Display menu bar of the
List window. Its purpose is to display an overview of all event groups and
allow the easy retrieval of an event group by selecting it from this window.
Edit Window. This window is called from the EDIT button of the List Window.
Creating events with the event editor has the advantage of selecting the equipment
from a list of all equipment names applicable for that event type. The instructor only
needs to select the equipment from the list; no typing of equipment names is
required.
5.9.2 Event Library Maintenance
All the existing event groups are automatically revalidated for the new database.
The invalid event groups and events are flagged. The user can call up the invalid



event group and remove or correct the invalid events. An example would be a new
database where equipment was removed or had its ID changed.
5.9.3 Condition Editor
The Condition Editor is a Motif based application that provides an interface for
building conditional events. The Condition Editor is comprised of three windows:
Overview Window. This window gives an overview of all condition groups
and provides a way to bring a specific group into the editor.
Condition Group Window. This window displays the condition group and
provides an interface for deleting conditions and for grouping conditions by
parenthesis.

Condition Edit Window. This window provides an interface for creating
individual conditions. These conditions are added to the Condition Group
Window as either AND or OR conditions.
Condition groups are created by adding conditions to the Condition Group Window
from the Condition Editor Window. The Condition Editor Window will not allow
conditions to be added that are inconsistent. For example, a breaker cannot be
compared to an analog value.
Conditions in the Condition Group Window can logically be grouped by adding
parenthesis. The syntax of the condition group is checked before conditions are
saved.
5.9.4 Performance Measurement Editor
The Performance Measurement Branches and Performance Measurement Bus Bars
Editor is a Motif based application that provides an interface for entering the branch
and bus bars information for the performance measurements. These editors are
comprised of two windows:
Performance Measurement Branches or Performance Measurement Bus
Bars Window. This is the parent window and displays the branch or bus bar
information.
Edit Window. This window provides an interface to select the branch or bus
bar equipment to add to the performance measurement list.



5.9.5 Instructor Message Window
The instructor is notified of any drastic changes in the PSM, such as island blackout,
relay trips, etc., through the Instructor Message Window. It shows any switching
actions that occur on the PSM or CCM. The simulation time and frequency is shown.
In addition, if there are any simulation command or data entry validation errors, this
is also shown in this window. Any simulation commands and the OTS responses are
reported in the Instructor Message Window. In some instances, the Instructor
Message Window also prompts the instructor for the correct simulation control
actions.
5.9.6 One-Line Diagrams
These displays are the SCADA one-line diagrams from the CCM system available for
the instructors. Instructors can control and perform switching actions via one-lines
for OTS sessions. Instructors can also use one-lines for Event Editing purposes.
5.9.7 Sample Displays
The following pages contain sample displays.



Figure 5-11. Initialization and Base Case Control Display



Figure 5-12. Event Group Activation Display



Figure 5-13. Event Group Editor



Figure 5-14. Event Editor Window
5.10 Base Case and Event Library Maintenance
5.10.1 Motivation and Discussion
The retention of the base case across databases has been a critical problem for the
operator Training Simulator (OTS) Instructors and Engineers. The database is
constantly updated mainly for enhancing the accuracy of the model to closely match
the actual power system. Currently, most OTS systems lose the Base Cases and
the Event Library when a new Database with network model changes is loaded in to
the OTS system. With the result, the user spends considerable amount of time
reproducing the old cases and the events with respect to the new model. Some
times the user avoids the new data base having a more accurate model, due to the
cost (time and effort) associated with reproducing the important training cases.
Solutions to save the entire OTS Power System Model (PSM) and Control Center
Model (CCM) databases, for the sake of recalling an old base case may serve the
need at times. But this method is not effective as the model is old and does not
utilize the subsequent updates made to the model towards enhancing the accuracy.
Based on the feedback received from the OTS users, Siemens has designed a
pragmatic solution to this problem.



5.10.2 Outline of Solution of Case Retention
The main entities of an old base case, which the user wants to be transferred in to
the current database will be the network configuration, and the profiles of generation,
voltage, and flows. Siemens solution involves the PSM closely reproducing the main
entities of the old base case in the new model. Subsequently, when the PSM case is
retained and restored, the CCM digitals and analogs are provided by the PSM to
synchronize the SCADA database.
Selected solution deals with reproducing the network conditions as closely as
possible, even after considerable model changes. When a Case is created, it is also
exported in to flat files for key load flow inputs along with equipment IDs. After a new
data base is brought in to the OTS, the Case Retention software compares the
equipment IDs of the last and current (new) database, and carries forward the key
load flow inputs in to the new database. The key inputs are the equipment P
SP
,
Q
SP
and V
SP
(specified active power, reactive power, and voltage respectively),
generator statuses and limits, transformer taps, and switching device positions
essential for a bus model and a load flow. The company load and interchange
schedules are saved for the purposes of producing a generation and load dispatch.
5.10.3 OTS Capability for Case and Event Library Retention
The Instructor can check the old case against the new model. Instructor displays
provide a Database Change Report for the list of equipment added or deleted in the
current model with respect to the old cases. The database defaults are used for the
added new equipment. Loads will be based on the case company load, new load
schedules, and the new model. To account for the equipment added or deleted,
adjustments are made in the new model by incremental generation dispatch for the
new load dispatch. In certain cases it is possible that the system is split in to multiple
network islands. Selected solution accounts also for islands by dispatching the load
and generation accordingly with in each island.
Essentially, the old PSM case information is used, and incremental dispatch
balances the power in the model. It is followed by a power flow with generation slack
to solve for the voltages, angles, and power flows in the new model. Invalid (power
flow rejected) cases are informed to the user. If necessary, the user can study the
report of changes in the model, adjust generators or breaker positions, and recreate
a solved case. When there are ID changes for some equipment, or for any other
adjustments, the flat PSM case file can also be edited and modified by the Instructor
or the Engineer. The flat case files become permanent and are retained even during
a Database or a software upgrade. These flat files have format definitions associated
with it to help the user interpret the case information.
The user can systematically build the base cases with the desired operating
conditions and the events to suit a scenario or training session. The base case
(operating condition) and all of the events are carried forward across databases in
spite of model changes.




The Instructor has the following displayed information for managing the retained
Base cases:
Catalog of Cases
Control of Saving or Restoring of retained cases
Database Change Report for Cases
Other standard Instructor displays to allow changes and resave the case in
the new model
Existing event groups are automatically revalidated for the new database. The
invalid events are flagged. The user can call up the invalid event groups and remove
or correct any invalid events. An example would be a new database where
equipment was removed or had its ID changed. The Database change report also
provides means of a reference, in case any additional events are required due to any
insertion of new equipment in the model.

6. DMS Applications Software
This section gives an overview of the DMS Applications. There are several key
features of the DMS that are summarized briefly below:
Unification of "islands of automation"
DMS as an extension of the system architecture described in Volume I
Consistency of Look and Feel
End User Focus
Applications
Unification of "Islands of Automation"
During the early years of the computer industry, electric utilities introduced computer
systems as separate standalone systems, each with a specific task, giving rise to the
term "islands of automation." Frequently different computer systems required entry
and maintenance of identical data that placed a substantial burden on the utility.
With the advent of networking technology and the development of LAN and WAN
standards in the 1980's, it is now possible to connect these systems together, with
resultant improvements in usability and reduction in maintenance costs. A key
feature of the DMS is its connectivity and interfaces with other utility computer
systems. With reference to Figure 6-1, DMS applications have the ability to
exchange data with the several important utility computer systems.
The DMS system has interfaces to AM/FM/GIS systems. These interfaces allow the
import of data for use by DMS and SCADA applications. An interface with a
Customer Information or Trouble Call system allows extraction of data for use by the
DMS Applications (e.g. Outage Management System). An interface is provided in
the form of ICCP (or ELCOM 90 or IDEC) data links to other SCADA, EMS, and
DMS systems within the same utility and with other neighboring utilities. This allows
the exchange of operational data in real time. Interfaces are provided to Load
Management Systems to allow the control of load in real time. Other interfaces are
provided to Engineering/Planning, and Office systems through LAN's and/or WAN's.
DMS as an Extension of the Common System Architecture
The DMS system is based on the Open Systems Architecture described in Volume I
of this proposal. The Basic System Services and User Interface Standards are the
same in the EMS and DMS systems. In certain areas, extensions have been made
to support requirements unique to DMS. These include expansion of the database
by an order of magnitude to allow for typical DMS sizing requirements. Extensions
have also been made in the User Interface to allow for the display of geographic
displays with real time performance and the correlation of geographic and schematic
diagrams. For a description of these extensions, please refer to Volume I.



Due to the use of a common architecture, it is possible to deliver DMS systems in
many forms and over a wide-ranging scale. On the low end of the scale, DMS
systems may be delivered as DMS only configurations, without SCADA functions, for
use as a replacement for a paper mapboard in a distribution office. DMS systems
may be integrated with SCADA functions and delivered as combined DMS/SCADA
systems. They may also be delivered as combined EMS/DMS/SCADA systems.
Systems may also be delivered as single site systems and as multi-site systems with
communications and coordination of maintenance through a single site.
Consistency of Look and Feel
Due to the use of a common architecture and due to the use of standards, there is a
consistency of "look and feel" across the DMS/EMS applications. This consistency
provides benefits in the areas of: reduced time on the part of operators to learn new
applications, improved productivity on the part of operators, and reduction of stress
during emergency conditions.
End User Focus
DMS applications were developed based on the requirements of the end user.
Detailed requirements were solicited from a DMS Advisory Group made up of utility
customers. During all stages of development, feedback and evaluation of the DMS
system was obtained from this Advisory Group.
Applications
The DMS applications are described in the next sections as follows:
6.1 Operation Support Applications
6.1.1 Outage Management System
6.1.2 Switching Procedure Management
6.1.3 Fault Location
6.1.4 Fault Isolation and Service Restoration
6.1.5 Free Placed Jumpers, Grounds and Cuts
6.1.6 Graphical Query

6.2 Network Applications
6.2.1 Topology Processing
6.2.2 Distribution System Power Flow
6.2.3 Volt/Var Control
6.2.4 Optimal Feeder Reconfiguration



AM/FM/GIS
Information
Systems/
Trouble Call
Load
Management
System
Office
Environment
Planning/
Design
DMS
Other
Systems
BF2 9016

Figure 6-1. DMS System Interfaces
6.1 Operations Support Applications
Operations support applications are used by the operator on a daily basis to aid in
the maintenance and support of the distribution network. These applications are
oracle based and allow for significant user interface. All of these applications are
tightly integrated into the DMS real time network.
6.1.1 Outage Management System (OMS)
The Outage Management System (OMS) expedites the execution of tasks
associated with the handling of scheduled/unscheduled outages that occur in the
electrical network and provides support to operators at all stages of the process.
OMS processing can begin with the reception of a trouble call or a SCADA indication
of a fault or an outage and continue until power has been successfully restored to
the effected customers or equipment. Operations, which occur in this process, are
documented and collected in outage records. Among other things, an outage record
consists of creation date, current stage, dispatchers name, comments, affected area
of the network, switching procedure list, authorization identification, etc. OMS



supports communications to external computer systems such as trouble call
systems, customer information systems and report analysis systems.
The OMS process starts with the indication of a fault or outage. This indication of a
fault or outage may come from a variety of sources such as the SCADA system,
operator-entered data, a trouble call center, or another DMS application. As a result
of the indication, OMS alerts the operator of the outage via alarms and status
indicators on the network diagrams. The outage information is automatically
grouped according to current network connectivity and existing outage records. An
entry is made into the outage record for transformer (or load), which has been de-
energized as a result of the indication and subsequent analysis. The outage record
proceeds through several different pre-defined states during the planned or
unplanned outage resolution process.
Once the fault has been identified, the next step in the OMS process is to locate the
problem area. The operator will use Fault Location and Topology Processing tools
to perform this task. Notes may be stored in the OMS records during this location
process.
Furthermore, the operator will want to isolate the fault and restore service to as much
of the affected network as possible. The Fault Isolation and Service Restoration
function assists the operator in determining the required switching actions. Isolation
and Restoration actions are stored as part of the outage record. As each
transformer/load is taken out of service or brought back into service, the equipment
in the OMS record will be automatically updated to reflect that service has been lost
or restored. The outage duration and load lost information is maintained in the
outage record. This information is used for quality calculations.
When the outage processing is complete, the outage record is closed. At this point,
the record is stored for historical purposes. It can also be sent to a remote site for
further processing.
The OMS process also assists in the creation, preparation, and execution of
scheduled outages. A scheduled outage may originate at an external site. From
there it is transferred to the DMS site for processing. Once in the DMS site the
request is accepted or rejected. If accepted the request changes to an OMS job and
the job preparation begins. This preparation includes the addition of any switching
actions and any authorization codes, which are needed to execute the scheduled
outage. Once the preparation is complete the request is transferred back to the
originating site for approval and authorization. Once approved the request is
returned to the DMS site for execution at the specified date and time.
During execution the state of the outage record changes and the execution steps are
tracked. The identification of the field crews and dispatchers are stored with the
outage record as well as switching times and comments. This information is used for
future analysis and problem tracking.
During the life cycle of this request OMS monitors the current state, and
authorization of the request, allowing notes to be added at any point by the
dispatcher. When completed this request is closed and stored in an archive file.



Security measures are enforced to allow some personnel to view the records at any
time without allowing them to change the data in the record. Defining the users
allowed to access the system and roles for those users once they are on the system
enforces this.
This process supports the calculation of the quality of service indices: Customer
Average Interruption Index (CAIDI), and the Service Average Interruption Index
(SAIDI). Other indices may be defined on a project basis. This information along with
the other outage record (and SPM) information is organized into daily reports which
are transmitted to the appropriate information centers.
6.1.2 Switching Procedure Management (SPM)
Switching Procedure Management provides the distribution system operator powerful
tools for creating, viewing and executing switching procedures in both process (real-
time) and simulation modes of operation.
In order to reduce time and effort to create a switching procedure, many of the fields
of the procedure are defaulted. The operator may also automatically create switching
steps in the procedure, by graphically selecting actions on the network displays.
A switching procedure can contain the following general information:
Title
Type (Normal, Daily, Weekly, Disturbance, etc.)
Scheduled Begin and End Dates
Time of Creation/Modification
Status (Notified, Planned, Active, Closed)
Work Crew Number
Name of Author/Operator
Area of Responsibility
Notes
Switching procedure entries also include supervisory control commands and
organizational steps.
Supervisory control commands contained within a switching procedure are of the
following type:
Control (Remote)



Tag
Manual Replace (Update)
These commands contain information such as time of execution, equipment
identification, dispatcher identification, field crew identification, action, etc. The
commands are used for opening and closing switches, changing tap positions,
setting and removing tags, grounding devices, etc.
Organizational steps within a switching procedure are of the following type:
Wait step
Break step
Comments
An extensive management system is provided with features that allow sorting,
selection, copying, saving, restoring and review of switching procedures.
Through the summary display, switching procedures may be sorted according to
number, type, period, status, etc. The summary also provides one-step access to the
individual switching procedures. Switching procedures contain an identifier that
associates them with outage records. They can also exist as stand alone entities.
Many switching procedures can be associated with the same outage record.
The summary displays are also used to select procedures from the procedure library
or the active procedure list. Procedures can exist in the libraries for a user-specified
amount of time at the end of which the procedure is archived to a disk file.
Dispatchers can select procedures to be copied into outage records and used for
current operations.
Switching procedure management is initiated from the man-machine interface of the
DMS system. This implies initiation from the schematic diagrams or from the outage
records.
Procedure Creation
Several features are provided to assist the operator in the preparation and
modification of the switching procedures. These features include technological
editing, and recording as well as copy, insert, delete and invert capabilities.
Switching procedures can be created automatically by applications such as Fault
Isolation and Service Restoration or manually by a dispatcher through technological
editing or recording.
Technological Editing refers to the process of selecting equipment to be controlled
via the network diagrams. By positioning the cursor on the selected equipment and
performing a Supervisor Control action or manual update, the Technological Address
and the other associated information about the equipment is entered automatically
into the switching procedure along with the desired control action. When in the
technological editing mode of operation, all commands from the network diagrams,



propagate to the switching procedure and are not sent to the real-time system for
execution. The network diagram identifier is automatically stored in the switching
procedure for each control action such that the proper display is available via Drag
and Drop during schedule execution. Technological editing can be performed in
either process or simulation mode.
The recording feature allows switching procedures to be created by recording actual
supervisory control actions or manual updates. The relevant operations performed
on the network diagrams are automatically entered into the procedures. When
recording, the operations are executed in network control. Record, Stop and Resume
features are provided allowing the operator to choose only the desired actions to be
recorded in the switching procedure.
In Technological editing mode, the same procedure is followed but no information is
sent to the Supervisory Control.
After creation, the switching procedure appears in the summary display.
Viewing and Execution
After the desired switching procedure has been selected, if the operator has the
proper authorization, he can execute it in a simulation mode, or in a real time mode.
In either mode, the effects of the procedure are shown on the schematic diagrams
through color changes in the diagrams. Network tools (trace, power flow analysis,
etc.) can be run against the network configuration which results from the switching
procedure execution.
The entire contents of the procedure may be executed via an execute all function,
or the procedure may be executed step by step.
Each action in the switching procedure has a button that provides for easy access of
the associated diagram where the action will be performed and the topological
results of the action can be viewed.
The dispatcher can send copies of the procedure to field crews and other utility
company departments for review. The procedures can also be printed.
6.1.3 Fault Location
Many primary distribution systems are designed and constructed as meshed
networks, but are operated as radial feeder systems with tie switches normally open
in the mesh network. These normally-open tie switches can facilitate transferring
unfaulted, but out-of-service load to neighboring feeders to minimize the total load
that has to be disconnected over a prolonged period in the event of a feeder fault.
Once a fault is quickly cleared by a primary protective device, such as a circuit
breaker or a recloser, the fault can be isolated by opening appropriate sectionalizing
switches. Service can then be restored to unfaulted but out-of-service sections by
closing tie switches even before repair work for the faulty feeder section begins.



Since a large portion of the faulted feeder is likely to be de-energized as a result of
tripping of the protective device, it is desirable to locate the exact faulted section in
order to limit the area to be isolated as small as possible.
The Fault Location function is designed to determine the smallest possible faulted
section based on available real-time data from SCADA and other information such
as that from the trouble call system. Another method used by the Fault Location
function is based on the bisection search, which requires systematic trial switching
operations.
Depending on the nature of the system involved, faults can be classified into
transient or permanent (persistent). Transient faults normally clear themselves, and
such faults are not considered by this function. Faults handled by the Fault Location
function are permanent in nature.
Input Data
The type of data from SCADA that will be used to locate the faulted section includes:
Status (open/close) of protective devices
Status of fault indicators (overcurrent sensing devices)
Besides the above data, other data sources include:
Outaged equipment (e.g. transformers) based on customer calls from the
Outage Management system (OMS)
Results from trial switching operations (e.g breaker opening or closing)
The fault location function uses the current network topology and the above inputs to
determine the faulted area.
Output Processing
The output of the fault location function is the switching devices and fault indicators
bounding the faulted area. The faulted area can be shown in a tabular form or shown
graphically by highlighting it on the worldmap display. The results of the fault location
can also be sent to the Outage Management System (OMS).
Fault Location Procedure
The overall procedure for locating the faulted section consists of two schemes.
Scheme 1 determines the faulted feeder and the smallest possible faulted segment
using real-time data from SCADA.
Scheme 2 narrows the faulted segment identified by Scheme 1 down through trial
switching operations.
Scheme 1: Inference Procedure



Assuming that the structure of the distribution system during normal operations is
radial, the fault location logic is based on the following observations:
A change in the status of a protective device and/or a fault indicator from a
normal status to an alarm status indicates an occurrence of a fault.
The fault location must be downstream from the tripped protective device.
Trouble callers must be served from those distribution transformers located
downstream from the tripped protective devices.
Assuming perfect coordination between protective devices, if there exist additional
protective devices located downstream from the tripped protective device, the fault
location must be between the tripped protective device and the immediate
downstream protective device.
For a group of fault indicators located on a feeder in series, the fault indicators can
be classified into two groups - those whose status has changed and those whose
status has not changed. The fault location must be between the most downstream
fault indicator whose status has changed and the most upstream indicator whose
status has not changed.
Based on the above observations, faults are located as follows. First, a feeder on
which a fault has occurred is identified. Next, using tracing tools, the smallest
possible faulted feeder segment and its boundary switches are determined. If there
are multiple faults on multiple feeders, the above two steps are repeatedly applied to
all faulted feeders.
The function has an ability to identify bad fault indicators. For example, suppose that
three fault indicators are installed in series on a feeder. If the middle fault indictor
does not indicate passing of fault current while the other two indicate occurrence of a
fault, the middle fault indicator is assumed to be bad. User defined rules can be
added to the function for detecting incorrect status of indicators.
Scheme 2: Bisection Search
If there are operable switches located within the faulted segment identified by
Scheme 1, the identification of the faulted section can further be narrowed down by
trial switching operations. In case of no real-time fault indicator SCADA data that can
be used by Scheme 1, Scheme 2 can be initiated directly. The systematic trial
switching is based on the well-known bisection search technique.
The actual implementation consists of a sequence of trial switching operations which
utilize (i) the bisection search module which acts as a brain in decision making, and
(ii) SCADA for supervisory control and acquisition of status data. The major steps
may be summarized as follows:
Based on the SCADA input data, the bisection search module determines a
switching procedure to be implemented.



The operator confirms or makes modifications to the switching procedure shown in a
Switching Procedure Management (SPM) form and then executes it.
Any change in the status of the specified protective device resulting from the
switching operation is fed back through SCADA and shown on the one-line diagram.
Such results are passed to the bisection search module and the process repeats as
the feeder section to be examined is continuously reduced. The process terminates if
there exist no switches that can be operated within the feeder segment under
investigation.
During implementation of the bisection search, not all switches may be allowed to be
operated. For example, the operator may desire to consider only remotely-
controllable switches for possible switching operations. It may be the case that
certain switches should not be considered at all for certain reasons. To
accommodate such situations, the fault location function provides a mechanism to
define and use switch classes or categories, with the user defining the classes of
switches that may or may not be used.
6.1.4 Fault Isolation and Service Restoration
Fault Isolation and Service Restoration (FISR) determines switching actions which
allow the operator to isolate areas of the network and to restore service to
customers. These switching actions are determined in a manner which will minimize
the effect of the outage.
Fault Isolation and Service Restoration is a set of tools used to support the operator
in performing the following tasks:
Isolate individual equipment or an area of the network.
Restore power to deenergized areas of the network.
Isolate outage area and immediately restore power to deenergized areas of
the network not faulted or isolated.
Restore a network to its normal state
The primary aim is to support the operator in selecting the best isolation and
restoration scenario.
The function generates possible switching procedures for isolation and/or restoration
and displays them using tabular displays. FISR interfaces with the Switching
Procedure Management (SPM) function and provides the ability to use the SPM
functionality for switching procedures generated by FISR.
FISR interfaces with the Outage Management System (OMS) function. FISR
generated switching procedures can be associated with outage records created in
OMS. In addition, input information about the faulted sections to isolate may come
from OMS.



The switching actions involved in any switching procedure can be displayed on the
network worldmaps. The effect of the switchings can be simulated to determine
equipment that would get energized/ de-energized. A power flow can be run on the
network with the switching actions simulated to determine if there will be
line/transformer overloads or bus voltage violations. The switching actions can also
be executed.
The fault isolation and service restoration functions are initiated after the location of
the faulted segment or zone has been determined. The location of the fault may be
the output of the Fault Location function.
FISR can be executed on both the real-time system and any study case system.
Isolation Tool
The Isolation tool provides an interactive environment for the operator to determine a
set of switching actions required to isolate equipment or areas of the network
specified by the isolation request, while minimizing the effect on other areas of the
network.
The tool performs topological tracing to determine the minimal set of switches to
open to completely isolate the selected equipment.
If the selected equipment is energized, the tool can be configured to generate
restoration steps before isolation steps to supply (from alternate sources) equipment
that is not isolated. This ensures that there is no unnecessary loss of load due to the
isolation. This may be used when equipment needs to taken out of service for a
future planned outage.
The Isolation tool separates the selected equipment into groups and generates a
switching procedure for each group for the isolation of all equipment in that group.
Restoration Tool
The Restoration tool provides an interactive environment for evaluating multiple
strategies for energizing portions of the distribution network that are out of service.
The Restoration tool generates all possible ways of restoring service to the de-
energized sections without violation of substation transformer capacities. The tool
first attempts to restore all the de-energized load selected for restoration without
opening switches to break up de-energized islands. If that is not successful, it tries to
restore all the de-energized load with some of the de-energized islands being split up
into smaller pieces. If this also fails, the tool tries to perform partial restoration which
involves dropping some load.
Restore to Normal Status Tool
This tool provides the operator with capability to generate a switching procedure that
returns the given network to its nominal configuration. The normal configuration is
defined by the database default switch status in the database. This function may be
initiated after the end of an emergency outage condition when all repair work is



complete and the network is ready to be brought to its normal operating
configuration.



Input Data
The input to FISR comes from user selected equipment on the worldmap displays.
The user can chose equipment to isolate, equipment to restore, equipment not to
restore, sources to use etc.
The input to FISR can also come from the Fault Location function or the Outage
Management System.
Output Processing
The output of FISR is a set of switching procedures. The switching procedures are
shown in a tabular form using the Switching Procedure Management (SPM) tool.
Each switching procedure may consist of one or more switching steps. The switching
steps can be shown graphically on the worldmap display. The effect of executing the
procedure can be simulated graphically on the worldmap display.
Quantifying Switching Procedures
Each switching procedure has associated with it the following information:
Type of the procedure (isolation, restoration, restore to normal etc.)
List of switching steps and switching actions in the procedure
Load Restored - total kW load that will be restored by executing the switching
procedure
Customers Restored - total number of customers that will be restored by
executing the switching procedure
Transformers Restored - total number of transformers that will be restored by
executing the switching procedure
Load not Restored - total kW load that will be unserved after execution of the
switching procedure
Customers not Restored - total number of customers that will be unserved
after execution of the switching procedure
Transformers not Restored - total number of transformers that will be
unserved after execution of the switching procedure
Voltage Violation Index - index reflecting the bus voltage violations that may
occur after the execution of the switching procedure
Line Overload Index - index reflecting the line overloads that may occur after
the execution of the switching procedure
Losses - total real power loss after the execution of the switching procedure



Degree of difficulty Index - index representing the degree of difficulty of
access/switching of the switches involved in the switching procedure
Some of the above values/indices are calculated based on a power flow execution
on a network with the execution of the switching procedure simulated.
Sequencing of Switching Actions
The following rules are used in sequencing switching steps of a switching procedure:
Any unnecessary loss of load is prevented by load transfer prior to isolation
(this may cause temporary loop/parallel operating conditions)
If a switching action creates a loop/parallel condition, the next switching
action will attempt to break the loop/parallel to restore radiality
Open switching actions for splitting of de-energized islands are done before
the closing actions for picking up pieces of the island load
When picking up multiple de-energized islands, the switchings to energize
islands is done before switchings to close switches between de-energized
islands
6.1.5 Free Placed Jumpers, Grounds, and Cuts
The Jumpers, Grounds, and Cuts (JGCJGC) function is a dispatchers tool use to
easily introduce temporary changes to a world map that corresponds to changes in
the field.
This feature allows an operator to change the network model to show a feeder being
cut, grounded, or attached (jumpered) to another feeder. When the repair is
completed, the change can be removed and the network model returned to its
original state.
These changes can be made without a formal DBA editing session to modify the
database.
Process Overview
The JGC function could be used to make the following changes to a world map:
Cut
When a dispatcher wishes to indicate that a line has been broken or
purposefully cut, he or she would select the "Cut" option from the JGC menu
and then indicate which line is to be cut and where on the line that cut is to
take place. A predefined switching field will be added to the line at the point
selected. This switching field consists of a main switch which is used to
disconnect the two ends of the cut and two Isolator Ground switches which



can be used to ground one or both sides of the cut. Each time this world map
is displayed, the coloring of each of the two line pieces shows whether it was
energized or not. The operator can close or open the switch to connect or
disconnect the two parts of the line and optionally close or open the Iso
Ground switches to ground one or both sides of the cut. The opening and
closing of these switches can be used to connect and disconnect the two
pieces of the line without having to remove and reenter the cut itself.



Ground
When a dispatcher wishes to indicate that a line or busbar has been
grounded, he or she would select the "Ground" option from the JGC menu
and then indicate which line or busbar is to be grounded. A ground symbol
will be placed on the line, at the point indicated by the operator. Each time
this world map is displayed, the coloring of the line and all parts of the
network electrically connected to the line will show that the line was
grounded.
Jumper
When a dispatcher wishes to indicate that two lines have been connected
together, he or she would select the "Jumper" option from the JGC menu and
then indicate which two lines are to be connected.
A line will be connected to each of the two selected feeders at the selected points.
These lines will be connected at their other ends by a pseudo switch. Each time this
worldmap is displayed, the coloring of the lines will show that they are electrically
connected. By opening and closing the switch, the operator can show connected or
disconnected feeders without having to remove the jumper wire itself.
6.1.6 Graphical Query
The Graphical Query Function (GQF) enables displaying and manipulating data for
selected components of a distribution system. It can be done in a tabular form or
directly on Spectrum UI world maps. Graphical query can retrieve both, real time and
study case data, from any data base source available to the SCADA and DMS
network applications. The function can be initiated by an operator through the
Spectrum UI world maps.
The GQF can be broken down into the following subfunctions:
Query format
Tabular graphical query
Anchored graphical query
Info query
Query format indicates to the GQF what data is available to be displayed by the
function. It provides the necessary presentation format and data access information.
Tabular query presents data in a tabular display on an MMI console. The tabular
display allows the operator to view the data, manipulate the data by sorting or
filtering.



Anchored query presents data for a single item directly on a Spectrum UI world map.
The query data becomes part of the world map and is affected by panning and
zooming like any other item on the display. Anchored queries may be built
permanently onto the Spectrum world map using the display editor or they can be
temporarily placed on the world map on demand.
Info query displays primitive attribute data and switching procedure actions for single
selected elements on a predefined data base form. Info query also can display other
predefined information on an element including raster image data.
6.2 Network Analysis Applications
This section describes applications which are more algorithmic based and run
against the network topology.
6.2.1 Topology Processing
Topology Processing consists of the following functions:
Topology Analysis
Network Tracing
Network Coloring
Topology Analysis
Topology Analysis is responsible for maintaining the real-time dynamic and study
mode topologies of the distribution network model for use by the Network and
Operations analysis functions (Fault Isolation and Service Restoration, Outage
Management System and Distribution Power Flow).
Changes in the status of logical devices, such as switches and breakers, generate
modifications to the distribution network model. In order to avoid a complete
recomputation of the model, only the sections affected are updated.
Interactive Topological Tracing
The Interactive Topological Tracing function provides the capability to perform traces
of electrically connected equipment in the Distribution Management System. The
operator requests particular kinds of trace and selects equipment on graphical
displays (schematic or geographic). Special coloring of the equipment shows the
results of the trace on the graphical display. The electrical connectivity can be based
on normal or current switch status.
The following types of traces are supported:



Type of Trace Description
All For a selected equipment, traces all electrically
connected equipment.
UpStream For a selected equipment, traces all equipment
upstream.
DownStream For a selected equipment, traces all equipment
downstream.
Between For two selected equipment elements, traces the
path between them. If more than one paths
exists, choose one arbitrarily.
Common For two or more selected equipment elements,
gives the first common upstream branch. If no
common upstream branch exists gives the true
common point.
Feeder Extent For a selected equipment, trace all connected
equipment up to the feeder head, and down to the
ends of the feeder.

The UpStream, UpStream with branch, Downstream and Common type of traces are
valid only for radial portion of the DMS network.
Selection of the Interactive Topological Tracing Facility
Selecting the TRACE menu button activates the Interactive Topological Tracing
function. This puts the displays in tracing mode. Three sub-menus, which allow
operators to perform their tracing request, are displayed:
Option menu: This is a pull-down menu allowing the operator to select the type
of trace.
Color menu: This is a pull-down menu allowing the operator to select the color
of the tracing results.
Data menu: This is a pull-down menu allowing the operator to select the use of
either normal switch statuses or current switch statuses to determine the
electrical connectivity for this trace request.
Network Coloring
Topology Analysis determines several states of the distribution network
configuration. Network Coloring provides for their representation via different colors
and indications displayed on the distribution network diagrams. These states are
defined below:
Energized (Live) Energization status of all equipment in the Distribution Network
Model. Different colors may be chosen to represent the energized state of different
feeder circuits. This allows for more efficient visualization of the individual feeder
circuits on the one-line diagrams.



De-energized (Dead) A different color than that used for other states of the
distribution equipment is used to represent the dead state. Typically, a single color
is used throughout the system to draw the operator's attention quickly to the affected
area.
Grounded (Earthed) Grounded circuits are also represented with a single color.
This indication aids in safety considerations as well as informing the operator that the
ground must be removed before re-energization is attempted.
Abnormal Devices presently in a state other than their defined normal state are
represented with a separate color.
Loop State Portions of energized DMS electrical subnetworks are considered to
be in a loop state if there exists a path from a component back to itself that may be
traced without traversing the same component twice.
Parallel State Components of energized DMS electrical subnetworks are
considered to be in a parallel site if they are connected to more than one source of
injected power.
Looped and Parallel Components meeting both the loop and parallel state criteria.
6.2.2 Distribution System Power Flow (DSPF)
The Distribution System Power Flow is used to study electric power distribution
networks under different loading conditions and configurations. The power flow
program can solve both positive sequence and three phase unbalanced
representations of the network. The Distribution System Power Flow (DSPF)
includes the following functions:
Real-time DSPF, which provides the operators with kW, kVAR, kV, Amp etc.
for the present state of the distribution network. The current electrical
connectivity information is derived from the SCADA database for telemetered
or manually updated devices. The power flow executes periodically, upon
any change in the distribution network, as well as on operator demand. The
results of the real-time DSPF reflect the actual state of the distribution
network.
Study DSPF, which provides the operators and engineers with kW, kVAR,
kV, Amp etc. for an independent copy of the distribution network. It can be
used to model what if scenarios. A number of saved cases are available to
store input parameters, which can be retrieved to be used as input base
cases for further scenarios. The study DSPF is executed on operator
demand.
The DSPF always works with a subset of the distribution network. The subnetwork
model may consist of a single feeder or a group of feeders connected to a feed
point(s) (also referred to as an injection source(s)). The subnetwork model may
include both radial and meshed configurations as the topology dictates. The



selection of the subnetwork is automatic for real-time DSPF when its execution has
been initiated by switching in the network. For demand executions of the real-time
DSPF and for study DSPF, the sub-network will be selected by the operator via
facilities provided on the one-line schematic (or geographic) displays.
Where solution of the entire distribution network model is needed, as in the periodic
real-time DSPF execution, DSPF views the entire model as being a combination of
sub-networks and performs its processing on a sub-network by sub-network basis.
6.2.2.1 Power Flow Solution
The Current Injection method is used for solving the power flow. The algorithm is
built based on phase components model to be able to solve power flow for both
three phase unbalanced and balanced power systems. In the latter case the model is
automatically simplified to single phase positive sequence. The algorithm is well
suited to handle radial and meshed configurations, wide ranges of R/X ratios, and
can take into account the presence of small generating units.
The Current Injection algorithm is based on the factorized nodal admittance matrix
and injected nodal currents. The implementation of the power flow is based on the
standard techniques for optimal ordering, factorization, and forward/back
substitution. PV buses (generators) are treated by correction of generator angles
based on node reactance matrix built for the reduced size network.
6.2.2.2 Equipment Modeling Within the Power Flow Solution
The Power Flow algorithm treats load value as voltage dependent i.e. load active
and reactive powers are modeled as a function of voltage at the bus where the load
is connected. A polynomial representation, which is a combination of constant
power/current/impedance characteristics, is used to model the load to voltage
dependence.
The power flow algorithm has a Load Scaling option which ensures that the injected
power value from power flow solution is equal to the desired (measured) value.
When the Load Scaling option is chosen, individual conforming non-telemetered load
input values are scaled by a scaling factor such that the total injected power stays at
a desired value.
Line Modeling
For three phase unbalanced power flow solution, lines are represented in phase
components according to their real phase number (three phase, two phase and
single phase) and are modeled in terms of their self and mutual impedances. For
positive sequence power flow solution (symmetric balanced power system), only
positive sequence impedance values are used for all line types. The pi-equivalent
line model is used to represent ground susceptances.
Transformer Modeling



For three phase unbalanced power flow solution, three phase transformers, banks of
three or two single-phase transformers, and single phase transformers are
represented in phase components according to their winding connections. The
following connection schemes are simulated corresponding to primary and
secondary sides: wye/wye, wye/delta, delta/wye, delta/delta, open delta/open delta,
open delta/open wye, and a single phase transformer connection. Wye connection
may be grounded or ungrounded in any connection scheme.
For positive sequence power flow solution (symmetric balanced power system),
transformers are modeled as single-phase pi-equivalents.
Voltage Regulator Controller
Voltage regulator controller may be part of load-tap-changing (LTC) mechanism in a
substation transformer or part of a step-type line voltage regulator, which is an
autotransformer and LTC mechanism built into an integral unit. All types of voltage
regulator controllers are simulated in the power flow solution taking into account
voltage limitations, line drop compensation, granularity of each step and bandwidth
of the controller.
Generator Modeling
Generators such as cogenerators (cogens), nonutility generators (NUGs),
independent power producers (IPPs), and other similar units can be modeled in the
power flow solution. Generators may be designated as either constant real
power/constant voltage units (PV units) or constant real power/constant power factor
units (PQ units). Reactive power limits for these generators are modeled as a pair of
fixed upper and lower KVAR values.
Shunt Capacitors and Reactors
Shunts are defined by their kVAR values at nominal voltage. Within the power flow
solution, they are modeled as constant admittance devices. The kW component of
the shunt, if entered, represents resistive losses in the shunt.
Capacitor Controllers
Two types of controllers are simulated for switched capacitors: time switched and
voltage control. Time switched controllers switch capacitors ON or OFF based on a
pre-defined time schedule. Voltage control capacitors are switched ON when
capacitor voltage is less than minimum voltage setting and switched OFF when this
voltage is higher than the maximum voltage setting.
Injection Sources
Distribution networks are typically connected to the high voltage network at a point
referred to as an injection source. The injection sources are modeled as slack
buses in the Power Flow Solution. The slack buses act as infinite buses with fixed
voltage magnitude and angle settings.



6.2.2.3 Load Setup
The Load Setup function within the Power Flow calculates individual scheduled load
values at nominal voltage. These scheduled load values are then used as input to
the DSPF.
An individual load can be defined as either conforming or non-conforming.
Conforming loads follow a certain load curve. These loads are used in the load
scaling procedure. Non-conforming loads have fixed schedules and do not follow any
load curve and are therefore not used in load scaling.
The active power (KW) values for individual distribution transformer conforming load
are calculated based on the following data:
The maximum load supplied by its distribution transformer
Its load curve
The total injected power (kW) for the entire subnetwork
The reactive power (kVAR) component of each distribution transformer conforming
load is computed from the loads power factor once the kW component has been
calculated.
When real-time measurements are available either at the injection source, feeder
head or along the feeder, these measurements are used to scale corresponding non-
telemetered loads downstream to the measurements. Validation checking of real-
time measurements is performed.
Load Curve Data
To derive the load curve data for a distribution transformer load, the Load Modeling
subfunction supports the usage of generic load curves for different load types such
as residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural etc.
Each generic load curve is an hourly profile over several seasons and day types.
Each distribution transformer load has a load type defined. From the load curve, the
load model factor is derived for the time and date of study. The time and date is the
current time and date if the processing is in real-time, or operator entered if the
processing is in a study mode.
6.2.2.4 DSPF Executions
Real-time DSPF Execution
The real-time DSPF execution can be triggered periodically, on switch status
change, or upon operator demand



Periodic Execution: The real-time DSPF is periodically executed to provide a
real-time solutions for the entire distribution network.
Event Execution: When events occur, the real-time DSPF is initiated after a
short delay (typically 10-20 seconds, as set by the operators). This delay is
intended to allow the system to reach a stable state. When triggered by
events, the DSPF analyzes only those feeders that have been affected by
these events since the last execution of the real-time DSPF function.
Demand Execution: Operators may initiate the real-time DSPF function at
any time. In this case, no delay in execution occurs. The area to be analyzed
is selected by the operator.
Study Mode DSPF Execution
The operator can execute the DSPF in Study Mode for a selected subnetwork. The
operator can start either from the real-time distribution network model or from a
Saved Case.
The operator can perform what if studies on the selected subnetwork to determine
the loading, voltage profile, and losses. For example, the following what if
conditions might be analyzed:
Sections of an adjacent feeder were switched to it
A capacitor was switched into the circuit
A substation bus were split into two separate buses
A tie-switch between circuits fed from adjacent substations were closed,
leading to looped circuits
Load levels were changed
6.2.2.5 Input Data
In addition to the network connectivity data and the telemetered data from SCADA,
the DSPF uses the following input data.



Typified Data
Season Type - season names (e.g. summer, winter) and season start/end
day and month
Day Type - days of the week included in weekdays and weekends
Load type - load to voltage dependence data for each load type
Load Curve - 24-hours load profile for each load type
Line Type - resistance and reactance per unit length, positive and zero
sequence resistance and reactance for three phase lines, charging, ratings
(long, medium and short term) for each line type
Operational Device Data
Busbars technological names, nominal voltage and phase
Lines: - technological names, phase, line types and length or impedances
and ratings
Transformers - technological names, phase, connection type, impedances,
admittances, low and high side voltages, tap changer data for high and low
side, local controllers data
Loads - technological names, phase, conforming load data (load type,
maximum loading with respect to connected transformer) or non-conforming
load data (active and reactive power, time schedule)
Capacitors - technological names, phase, installed reactive power, percent of
active power loss, nominal voltage, local controllers data
Generators - technological names, phase, power schedule, minimum and
maximum power limits, unit type for simulation (PV or PQ)
Injections - technological names, active / reactive power and voltage
according to phases
Run-time Parameters
Solution options - selection of voltage limit type (long, medium and short
term) and values, load scaling options and simulation of local controllers
Periodicity cycle time for periodic execution
Study time specification of the time for which power flow needs to be
executed
Injection powers and voltages manual entry of powers and voltages for
injection sources



Data from the ECS System
Results of the state estimator and/or bus load forecast functions from the ECS
system may be used as inputs to the DSPF. The state estimator may provide power
and voltage values for the injection source busbars at the boundary of the
transmission and distribution systems. The bus load forecast may provide forecast
load for injection sources to be used by the power flow calculations to study future
loading conditions.
6.2.2.6 Output Data
The following output data is presented in tabular form
Busbar voltage (kV and per unit values), cumulative voltage drop and voltage
imbalance (for three phase buses, negative sequence voltage).
Slack bus active/reactive powers and voltage
Capacitor/reactor bank initial and final ON/OFF statuses (may be different
because of local controllers)
Line active/reactive power flow from and to, and current
Line power losses (kW and kVAR), no-load reactive power loss and voltage
drop
Transformer active/reactive power flow from and to, and amperes
Transformer load and no-load power losses (active and reactive)
Transformer voltage drop, voltage tap increment and initial and final tap
positions (may be different because of local controllers)
Load final active/reactive power
Small generation unit active/reactive powers and voltage
The following summary listings are presented in tabular form:
A list of all busbars which have their per-unit voltages below a low voltage
limit or above a high voltage limit. The limits can be specified by the operator.
A list of all feeder sections which have currents exceeding the conductor
rating (ampere capacity) by a limit specified by the operator (e.g., 90% or
120% of capacity).
A list of all transformers which have loading exceeding the transformer rating
(KVA rating) by a limit specified by the operator (e.g., 90% or 120% of
capacity).



Total real power losses for the subnetwork in kW and in percent.
The graphical query feature can be used to view the above tabular information
graphically on worldmap displays.
All busbars and branches that have overloads are shown in a different color on the
worldmap displays.
6.2.3 Volt/Var Control
An intelligent centralized Volt/Var control (VVC) is an important DMS function for
dealing with the complexity of the voltage and reactive power control in a modern
distribution system. This complexity usually limits the capabilities of local automatic
controllers which typically monitor voltage regulators and switched capacitors.
The centralized Volt/Var control function allows the following capabilities:
Local controllers can respond to changing system conditions
Various Volt/Var control objectives can be utilized
Volt/Var control can be optimal at the system level, not just at the local level
The Volt/Var control function provides the possibility to control transformer tap
position changers (LTC, line voltage regulators) and switchable shunt reactive
devices (typically capacitors) directly or through existing local automatic controllers.
Co-gens, NUGs and IPPs are modeled, but are not used as control resources in the
optimization.
The VVC always works with a subset of the distribution network the same way as
DSPF.
The VVC functions primary objective is to satisfy voltage and loading constraints. If
the primary objective is satisfied, secondary objectives are to minimize power loss,
or to minimize power demand, or to maximize generated reactive power, or to
maximize revenue.
6.2.3.1 Volt/Var Optimization Procedure
Method
From the mathematical point of view, the Volt/Var control optimization is a discrete
minimization (maximization) problem with inequality constraints. The oriented
discrete coordinate descent method is used for the optimization procedure. This
method is classified as a combinatorial discrete programming method. The method
suits distribution system Volt/Var optimization because control actions are discrete
and the objective function is nonlinear.



Procedure
The value to be minimized (maximized) in optimization procedure is a combination of
different types of active power variables. The objective function value is determined
from the power flow solution given the settings of the control variables. The goal of
the optimization procedure is to find the objective function extremum, while satisfying
the constraints and limits. The approach used to satisfy constraints is to include the
constraints in the objective function as penalties. It is possible that even through
there are no violations after the execution of all the controls in the final VVC solution,
there may be violations in the interim period between the execution of any two
controls. In order to prevent these violations (if needed) a special algorithm checks
and changes the sequence in which VVC controls are executed.



The constraints and limits to be satisfied are as follows:
The voltage at transformer buses must be within specified constraints
The loading of the feeder sections and transformers must be below specified
constraints
The power factor at distribution substation buses must be within specified
limits.
Distribution System Power Flow Interface
The VVC starts from the base case Distribution System Power Flow solution. Loads
are simulated as part of this solution. In real-time, they are simulated based on the
available telemetered measurements together with all statistical information
pertaining to customer consumption in the specified time, day type and season. In
study mode, user determined entries are used instead of remote measurements.
The power system model used in the VVC procedure is the same phase component
model used in DSPF. The power flow solution is used by the optimization procedure
to evaluate the effectiveness of the various possible control actions. The internal
power flow solution is based on the same factorized matrix and is very time efficient
which enables efficient calculation of the system state a large number of times.
6.2.3.2 VVC Execution
The Volt/Var control may be executed in either real-time or study mode. In real-time,
the function automatically models the current state of the power system using
telemetry where available and using historical load data where telemetry is not
available. In the study mode, the configuration as well as transformer loads are
defined by the user. Tools are provided so that the study may start either from the
real time model or a saved case.
In the real time mode, the function operates in open loop or in closed loop. In the
open loop mode, Volt/Var control generates advisory control actions that may then
be implemented by the dispatcher. In the closed loop mode, Volt/Var control
generates control action orders and requests Network Control (NC) to execute the
orders automatically without the need for operator intervention. All control orders are
logged for reviewing and analysis.
In real-time mode, the Volt/Var control may be setup such that it operates in periodic
open-loop mode, or in periodic closed-loop mode. In addition it can be executed on
user demand in open-loop mode. In study mode, the Volt/Var control can only
operate in open-loop mode.



6.2.3.3 Input Data
The input date for VVC is the same as that for DSPF with additional options for
selection of the optimization objectives. The user can select from the following
objectives:
Minimize distribution system power loss
Minimize power demand (sum of distribution power loss and customer
demand)
Maximize generated reactive power (absolute value of substation
transformer reactive power)
Maximize revenue (the difference between energy sales and energy prime
cost)
Keep the system within constraints.
6.2.3.4 Output Data
The VVC output shows specific VVC results for dispatcher review through tabular
displays and schematic maps. These results consist of two parts: summary of power
flow before and after optimization, and desired (optimal) control actions.
The summary of power flow results include the following values before and after
optimization: objective function, injected active and reactive powers, total load and
total power loss, integrated low and high voltage violations, maximum and minimum
bus voltages.
Desired control actions and their impact on the objective function improvement are
shown on a separate tabular display. If a voltage regulator is installed on the
substation transformer the control action is not to change tap positions but to change
this controller settings. The same is true for capacitor controllers. Control actions are
also sent to Switching Procedure Management (SPM) for executions through the
SPM display.
The graphical query feature can be used to view results of the VVC power flow
calculations graphically on worldmap displays. Comparison of the results (e.g. bus
voltages, line flows) of the VVC execution and the real-time power flow can also be
done graphically using the query feature.
6.2.4 Optimal Feeder Reconfiguration
The Feeder Reconfiguration function determines switching actions which allow the
operator to reconfigure distribution primary feeders. Through feeder reconfiguration,
loads on one feeder are transferred to another feeder, resulting in changes in feeder
voltage profiles, line and transformer loadings, etc. By judiciously implementing



feeder reconfiguration, the operator can eliminate adverse operating conditions such
as line/transformer overloads and low voltages that customers may experience.
Feeder reconfiguration can also provide operating benefits such as reduction in
distribution system losses.
The types of benefits that can be obtained from feeder reconfiguration may be
classified into tangible and intangible benefits. Improvement in service quality and
reliability may be an example of intangible benefit. In this Feeder Reconfiguration
function, only tangible benefits are dealt with. The primary Feeder Reconfiguration
objective is to satisfy loading constraints. Voltage constraints are considered too
because of the modeling of automatic voltage controllers as part of the internal
power flow. If primary objective is satisfied, secondary objectives are to minimize
power loss, to minimize unevenness in the supplying transformers loading
(substation transformer balancing), or a combined load balancing and loss
minimization objective (multi-objective optimization),
To implement the Feeder Reconfiguration function, the user is required to specify the
area to be considered for feeder reconfiguration. Electrically connected subsystems
and normally opened switches to be involved in feeder reconfiguration can then be
identified.



Not all switches, which create loop configuration, may be closed or opened to
implement feeder reconfiguration. For example, the operator may desire to consider
only remotely-controllable switches for possible switching operations. It may be the
case that certain switches should not be considered at all for certain reasons. Feeder
Reconfiguration function accommodates such situations.
The output from the Feeder Reconfiguration function includes a switching procedure,
and the values of the objective functions before and after feeder reconfiguration.
6.2.4.1 Solution Procedure for Feeder Reconfiguration
Problem Formulation
The overall objective function consists of up to three individual objectives: power
losses, degree of unbalance in supply transformer loading, violation indexes. Each of
these objectives is per-unitized and multiplied by its weighting factor (penalty). It is
noted that the overall objective function is to be minimized.
Power losses are calculated by summing up active power losses occurring in all line
sections and transformers within the study boundary. The value of the total power
losses is per-unitized by dividing the kW losses by the total power demand within the
study area.
The degree of unbalance in an individual transformer loading is defined as the
difference between the load on the supplying transformer and the average loading of
all transformers located within the study boundary. Loading on each transformer is
per-unitized by dividing the load by the transformer rating. The average loading in
per unit is determined by dividing the total load on all supply transformers involved
by the sum of the ratings of all those transformers.
Line/transformer loading and voltage constraints are represented as inequality
constraints. During the solution process, they are included in the objective function
as penalty terms.
Solution Approach
The feeder reconfiguration problem is formulated as an optimization problem. Since
the resulting formulation is too complicated to be solved in a single step, the solution
procedure consists of two stages:
Stage 1 A sub-optimal solution is first determined by a fast non-iterative
procedure.
Stage 2The sub-optimal solution passed from Stage 1 is improved
iteratively until no further improvement can be obtained.
In Stage 1, all normally-open switches located within the user-specified boundary of
the distribution system are assumed to be closed initially. The resulting distribution
system is of mesh network structure. The Stage-1 problem then becomes one of



determining switches to be opened in order to yield a radial distribution system. It is
to be noted that in this stage, not all terms in the overall objective function are
optimized simultaneously. Instead, a solution is found to optimize the most critical
single objective function which is to be specified by the user. The use of a single
objective can be justified since the result will be used as a mere starting solution that
will be improved in Stage 2.
In Stage 2, using the solution obtained in Stage 1 as a starting solution, the
procedure iteratively finds a better solution until no further improvement is possible.
At every intermediate iteration, the change in the overall objective function is
examined when a switch adjacent to the position of a currently open switch is
simulated to be opened while the currently open switch is simulated to be closed.
This approach is often referred to as a branch exchange scheme. It is to be noted
that switching operations are not actually performed during the two-stage solution
process.
Distribution System Power Flow Interface
The Feeder Reconfiguration starts from the base case Distribution System Power
Flow solution. Loads are simulated as part of this solution. In real-time, they are
simulated based on the available telemetered measurements together with all
statistical information pertaining to customer consumption in the specified time, day
type and season. In study mode user determined entries are used instead of
SCADA measurements.
The power system model used in Feeder Reconfiguration procedure is the same
phase component model used in DSPF. The power flow solution is used by the
solution procedure to evaluate the effectiveness of the various configurations. Power
flow is called only few times according to solution procedure logic. The power flow
solution is very time efficient which enables efficient calculation of the system state a
large number of times
6.2.4.2 Input Data
The input date for Feeder Reconfiguration is the same as that for DSPF with
additional options for selection of the optimization objectives. The user can select
from the following objectives:
To keep the system within constraints (removal of constraint violations)
To minimize distribution system power loss
To minimize unevenness in supplying transformers loading (substation
transformer balancing)
Combination of the latter objectives, where each objective is included in the
total sum with user-specified or default weighting factor



The user selects the feeder reconfiguration study area on the worldmap displays.
Options exist to select portions of the network or the entire network.
6.2.4.3 Output Data
The output data includes reconfiguration switching procedures (shown through the
SPM tabular displays) and the optimization results. A summary display shows the
following values before and after reconfiguration: objective function, total power loss,
unevenness in substation transformer loading, violation indexes: overload, low and
high voltage. The switching operations display includes: ordered list of switches to be
opened/closed (in pairs for normal conditions), and their impact on the objective
function improvement.
6.3 Planned Functions
6.3.1 Cold Load Pickup
The effect of "cold loads" is included in the load model to aid the operator in studying
flows and voltages, which occur during restoration of outaged feeders, feeder
sections, and loads. When a load is de-energized for a period of time, upon
reconnection to the network the value of the load is usually higher than the value at
the time of loss of the load. This value will gradually drop down to the normal load
value following reconnection of the load.
The load model provided is based on two operator-entered times: the time elapsed
since disconnection of the load, and the time elapsed since reconnection of the load.
The model assumes that the load power increases exponentially with the time since
disconnection, until it reaches a peak value. The load decreases from the value at
reconnection, also as an exponential function. The exponential factors are used to
adjust the normal, or "hot", load computed as in the standard load model. The case,
in which the load is reconnected before the peak value is reached, is also included.
It is assumed that only the conforming portion of the load demonstrates the "cold
load" characteristic. Initial surges and other short-term transients are not included in
the scope of this cold load model.
A number of parameters are required to define each type of cold load. These are
entered as part of the description of each type of load during data base preparation.
6.3.2 On-Line Short Circuit Calculation
The on-line short circuit function may be initialized from real time data by means of
the Distribution Power Flow. It is used to compute the short circuit flows, and to
compare these flows against current relay settings. The operator is notified if
calculated current flows are not consistent with current relay settings, so that



corrective action may be taken. This function is used following feeder
reconfiguration.
To initiate a short circuit study, the operator selects the fault type, fault location, and
impedance (if applicable). The following fault types are allowed:
Single line to ground
Line to Line
Double line to ground
Three Lines to ground
Single line open
Double line open
The solution algorithm reuses the matrices of the Distribution Power Flow. All the
modeling capabilities (symmetric and asymmetric) of the DPF are included in the
short circuit program. This function is also available for use in study mode along with
the study DPF.
6.3.3 Transformer Load Management
This function has an interface to data acquisition. For each substation, a list is
maintained of distribution transformers, current kVA loading, kVA rating, percent of
kVA loading, core temperature, and time-overload factor since initial overload. This
function allows the operator to utilize the short-term overload capabilities of the
transformer to obtain relief during emergencies.
This function also has a load-balancing feature that utilizes optimal feeder
reconfiguration. This feature comes in useful when there are several adjacent
distribution feeders, which are designed as a network but are operated radially. The
function uses heuristic searches, which transfers feeder sections from heavily loaded
transformers to lightly loaded transformers. The objective of the search is to improve
the loading on transformers so that they are more nearly equal. Extensive use is
made of the trace feature of topology processing during this search. The power flow
is utilized to check whether the proposed solution satisfies operating constraints.
Candidate switching actions are presented to the operator for review and action.
6.3.4 Load Forecasting
The Load Forecasting function allows the operator to best estimate the load at the
feeder level up to 10 days in advance.
The load forecasting for DMS is the same as the one for EMS, but contains
additional capability to distribute station loads to feeders. From the feeder head the




load is distributed geographically to individual distribution loads by means of the load
model described in the section on the power flow.
Two options are available.
1. The pattern matching approach uses feeder patterns to distribute the
substation transformer loads obtained from the EMS similar day load
forecast to feeders. If feeder measurements are available, these patterns
can be adaptively updated based on measurement data.
2. The weather adaptive load forecast is similar to the one used by the EMS. If
local weather information is available; these forecasts can be factored into
the zone load forecasts that are then distributed to the substations and
feeders as described for item # 1.
The Load Forecasting function is integrated in the DMS system and contains
archiving and retrieving facilities. Save cases can be compared and the differences
between them highlighted.

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= Real power weighting factor

Figure 5-7. First Tier Fossil Model

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