1. Contactors maintenance on starter what is the material of contactor 1. Check for loose, missing, broken contactors, 2.

Cleaning and checking contact surfaces for improper wear or discoloration 3. Remove oxides from faces using fine files, main contacts are high conductivity copper coz they ll not heat up due to lower resistance, arcing contacts are made of sintered silver tungsten or other materials which dont weld at high temps. 2. Insulation of motor is found to be 0.5 mega ohms what we can do to bring back the insulation? Dry the motor by heating lamp and then test insulation n put fast drying varnish, check visually for any wires broken. 3. What is power factor? Power factor is the ratio of true power to the apparent power. i.e. watt/volt amp. 4. Residual magnetism Residual magnetism is the property in which certain amount of excitation remains back in the conductor even after removal of the magnets 5. What is no volt coil? No Volt coil is used in trip ckt . This is energized by one phase and if there is any dip in the voltage then this coil is insufficiently energized and hence the breaker trips. OR no volt coil can also be used in starter, when handle is on ON position motor gets supply and entire starting resistance is series with armature and field. The current thru no volt coil energize it when handle is moved to run position, the no volt coil holds the handle by attracting the soft iron piece on the handle. Hence the no volt coil is also known as hold on coil. The no volt coil is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in run position only when sufficient current is flowing for which motor can run safely. If there is loss of load current drawn by motor decreases due to which it loses its required magnetism and release the handle. Under spring load it comes back to off position, protecting the motor from over speeding. Similarly if there is any voltage decrease then also no volt coil Releases the handle. 6. Skin effect Tendency of ac current to distribute itself within a conductor with the current densities being largest near the surface. Causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the skin depth is smaller thus reducing effective cross section of the conductor 7. Why we use soft iron core in transformer Hysteresis loss reduces due to less residual magnetism 8. What is single phasing? Single phasing can occur as a result of a fuse blowing or a protective device opening on one phase of the motor

9. Cooling of alternator. Power losses typically 10% of the generator heating cause internal heating in the windings and magnetic cores of the both rator and stator. This heat must be continuously transferred out of the generator to prevent excessive temp rise. Forced air circulation in a closed ckt via an air cooler is pressurized by a fan on this rotor shaft. Cooling air is forced through ventilation ducts in the stator core, between rotor poles and through the air gap(few mm) between stator and rotor. water cooling of the circulating air may also be used for generators with a large power rating. 10. Induction motor operation. When the 3-phase a.c. supply voltages are connected to the 3 stator phase windings, the resulting phase currents produce a multi-pole magnetic flux. This flux is physically rotated around the stator core by the switched sequence of R-Y-B currents at a speed called synchronous speed. The value of synchronous stator and synchronous speed depends on how many magnetic pole pair fixed by the stator winding arrangement and by the frequency of the voltage supply connected to the stator winding. The stator rotating magnetic flux cuts through the rotor conductors to induce an alternating emf into them. Since rotor conductors are connected together at the ends, the induced emf set up the rotor currents. The rotor currents also produce a magnetic flux which interacts with the stator rotating flux which produces a torque on the rotor conductor bars. The rotor reactance varies with the rate of cutting flux which depends on the rotor speed. The direction of rotor torque causes the rotor to rotate in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. 11. Construction of induction motor. The induction motor has 2 main components the stator and rotor. The stator carries three separate insulated phase windings which are spaced 120 degree (electrical) apart and lying in slots cut into a laminated steel magnetic core. This type of stator winding is similar to the construction used for an a.c. generator. The ends of the stator windings are terminated in the stator terminal box where they are connected to the incoming cable from a 3 phase a.c. power supply. The rotor consists of copper and aluminum conductor bars which are connected together with there ends by short circuiting rings to form a cage winding. The conductor bars are set in a laminated steel magnetic core. The essential reliability of induction motor comes from having this type of simple robust rotor which has no insulation on the conductor bars and does not have any troublesome rotary contacts like brushes , slip ring or commutator. 12. Why transformer makes humming noise? Why its bad? Transformers hum because of an effect known as lamination rattle or winding rattle caused by DC voltage on the line. Electric hum around transformers is caused by stray magnetic fields causing the enclosure and accessories to vibrate. Magnetostriction is a second source of vibration, where the core iron changes shape minutely when exposed to magnetic fields. The

intensity of the fields, and thus the "hum" intensity, is a function of the applied voltage. Because the magnetic flux density is strongest twice every electrical cycle, the fundamental "hum" frequency will be twice the electrical frequency. Additional harmonics above 100 Hz or 120 Hz will be caused by the non-linear behavior of most common magnetic materials. One of the problems we find on the AC line is when theres an unwanted DC component. DC (like battery voltage) leaks into most AC lines but its level is low enough not to matter. In some cases, the DC level is high enough to wreak havoc with a power transformer. When theres DC on the line, it creates an asymmetrical magnetic field in the transformer which causes greater vibrations of the laminations and windings. The laminations are pushed together in one direction because of the DC. To reduce these noises, transformer manufacturer have several tricks up their sleeves: they can varnish, or use super glue to stick the laminations together so they rattle less, and they can make bigger transformers that dont have to work so hard, even in the presence of DC. The harder a transformer has to work, the more stress and strain is placed on the laminations. But these measures dont entirely solve the problem because you need to do that at the source of the problem, the DC on the line. 13. Hysteresis The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current

applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When His reduced to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material. As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop. From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. ( The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.) Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. ( The value of H at point c on the hysteresis curve.) Permeability - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the component. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit. 14. Nickel cadmium battery The active material of positive and negative plates in each cell of a charged nickel cadmium battery, are nickel hydrate and cadmium respectively. The chemicals are retained in the supporting structure of perforated metal plates and the design is such as to give max contact between active compounds and electrolyte. The strong electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide in distilled water. The ions produced in the formation of

the potassium hydroxide solution k+ OH- acts as current carriers and take part in ion transfer. Discharging action During discharge the complicated but uncertain action at the positively plates (hydrated oxide of nickel) causes hydroxyl ions to be introduced in the electrolyte. As the action progress the nickel hydrate is changed to nickel hydroxide. Simultaneously hydroxyl ion from the electrolyte form cadmium hydroxide with cadmium of negative plate. Effectively hydroxyl ion moves from one plate to the other , leaving the electrolyte unchanged. There is no significant change on specific gravity of electrolyte in charging/discharging cycle and the state of charge cannot be found by hydrometer. Charging A direct current supply for charging is obtained from a.c.mains through transformer and rectifier in the battery charger. The positive supply is connected to positive of the battery and negative to the negative terminal. The flow of current from the charging source reverses the discharge action. The reaction is complicated but can be summarized by the simplified equation:2NiO(OH)+Cd -------------- --------hydrated oxide cadmium of nickel

2Ni(OH)2 H2O+ Cd(OH)2

cadmium hydroxide

nickel hydroxide

vent caps are non return so that gas is released but contact by the electrolyte with the atmosphere is prevented. The electrolyte readily absorbs carbon dioxide and form potassium carbonate and thus deterioration of electrolyte results therefore vent caps are kept always closed . 15. Current Transformers Current transformers supply ammeters and coils of instrument and relays. The bar type CT is used with very high primary current ratings the wound primary type being used for small step down ratios, e.g. 1000/5 A bar primary; 50/5 A wound primary. The ratios specified on a CT similarly details its inputs and outputs current e.g. 150/5 CT is used on a 150 A mains ckt and steps the current down to 5A. The associated instrument will have its scale calibrated 0-150 A and will be marked 150/5A Ct ratio. 16. How to reduce leakage inductance (flux) in transformer? Reduction of leakage inductance is equivalent to maximizing the coupling between the windings so (in theory) all of the flux generated from one winding is coupled to the other winding, or windings.
In general there are some points to note: 1. Leakage inductance energy must be absorbed by snubbers or clamps. 2. You can reduce leakage inductance by using a winding shape that maximizes the window breadth of the chosen transformer. 3. You can also reduce leakage inductance by interleaving the windings. However, when you interleave windings, you will increase the inter winding capacitance. 4. The physical distance between the windings required for high-voltage isolation increases the leakage inductance. One way to reduce this is to use highly insulated wire for the windings.

17. Earth fault lamps. Each phase is connected between one phase and common neutral point. Closing of the test switch connects the neutral point to the earth. An earth on one phase will cause the lamp for that phase to show a dull light or go out, depending on the severity of the fault. Each earth lamp and the resistance in series with it provide the path of the current flow of the neutral. 18. What would a clamp meter indicate if clipped around a 3-core cable which is known to be carrying 100A a.c. to a motor? Zero. This is because the clamp meter monitors the magnetic flux around the cable which is produced by the current. In a balanced 3-core cable, the net flux is zero-hence no indication. This is why the clamp meter is connected around a single core. 19. Diode Test. Prove the correct instrument operation Switch the instrument to diode. If the diode is still in operation switch off the power supply discharge all capacitor and remove fuses. In this test he instrument drives a small d.c.current through the diode while it also acts as the voltmeter to measure the voltage drop across it. Connect the two probes across the diode. Read the forward drop voltage across the diode. This should be between 500mV and 900 mV for a healthy silicon diode. Reverse the probe connections and display should read over range. If the display over range in both directions the diode is in open ckt fault. If display reads less than 1V in both directions the diode may be short circuited fault. 20. Earthing system on ships. Earthed distribution system In this system the neutral is connected directly to the ships hull. If a single earth fault occurs on the live line of an earthed distribution system it would be equivalent to a short ckt fault across the generator through the ships hull. The resulting large earth fault current would immediately cause the line protective device ( fuse or ckt breaker) to trip out the faulty ckt. The faulty electrical equipment would be immediately isolated from the supply and so rendered safe. However the loss of power will create a hazardous situation. Insulated earth system. In this system the neutral is insulated. In this system earth fault on one line of an insulated distribution system will not cause any protective trip to operate and system would continue to function normally. Equipment continues to operate with a single earth fault as it does not provide a complete ckt so no earth fault current will flow. If a 2nd earth fault occurs then it would be equivalent to a short ckt fault (via the ships hull) and the large current will operate the protective devices and cause disconnection of perhaps essential services creating risk to the safety of the ship.

Thus insulated system is more effective than an earthed system in maintaining continuity of supply to essential service.. High voltage system (3.3 kV and above) on board ship is usually earthed. Such system is usually earthed via resistor connecting the generator neutrals to the earth. The ohmic value of each value of each earthing resistor is usually chosen so as to limit the maximum earth fault current to not more than the generator full load current. Such a neutral earthing resistor NER is usually assembled from metallic plates. The use of such an earthed HV system means that a single earth fault will cause current to flow to the neutral connection wire. This is monitored by and earth fault relay to create alarms and trips function. 21. Different types of single phase induction motor.

Permanent-split capacitor motor One way to solve the single phase problem is to build a 2-phase motor, deriving 2-phase power from single phase. This requires a motor with two windings spaced apart 90o electrical, fed with two phases of current displaced 90o in time. This is called a permanent-split capacitor motor in Figure below.

Fig. Permanent-split capacitor induction motor. This type of motor suffers increased current magnitude and backward time shift as the motor comes up to speed, with torque pulsations at full speed. The solution is to keep the capacitor (impedance) small to minimize losses. The losses are less than for a shaded pole motor. This motor configuration works well up to 1/4 horsepower (200watt), though, usually applied to smaller motors. The direction of the motor is easily reversed by

switching the capacitor in series with the other winding. This type of motor can be adapted for use as a servo motor. Capacitor-start induction motor In Figure below a larger capacitor may be used to start a single phase induction motor via the auxiliary winding if it is switched out by a centrifugal switch once the motor is up to speed. Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be many more turns of heavier wire than used in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate excessive temperature rise. The result is that more starting torque is available for heavy loads like air conditioning compressors. This motor configuration works so well that it is available in multi-horsepower (multikilowatt) sizes.

Fig. Capacitor-start induction motor. Capacitor-run motor induction motor A variation of the capacitor-start motor (Figure below) is to start the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high starting torque, but leave a smaller value capacitor in place after starting to improve running characteristics while not drawing excessive current. The additional complexity of the capacitor-run motor is justified for larger size motors.

Fig. Capacitor-run motor induction motor. A motor starting capacitor may be a double-anode non-polar electrolytic capacitor which could be two + to + (or - to -) series connected polarized electrolytic capacitors. Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have such high losses that they can only be used for intermittent duty (1 second on, 60 seconds off) like motor starting. A capacitor for motor running must not be of electrolytic construction, but a lower loss polymer type. Resistance split-phase motor induction motor If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns of smaller wire is placed at 90o electrical to the main winding, it can start a single phase induction motor. (Figure below) With lower inductance and higher resistance, the current will experience less phase shift than the

main winding. About 30o of phase difference may be obtained. This coil produces a moderate starting torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This simple (no capacitor) arrangement serves well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily started loads.

Fig. Resistance split-phase motor induction motor. This motor has more starting torque than a shaded pole motor (next section), but not as much as a two phase motor built from the same parts. The current density in the auxiliary winding is so high during starting that the consequent rapid temperature rise precludes frequent restarting or slow starting loads. starting torque of single phase induction motor Capacitor start / induction run motors typically deliver 250 to 350 percent of full load torque when starting. Motors of this design are used in compressors and other types of industrial, commercial, and farm equipment. 22. Define armature reaction? All current-carrying conductors produce magnetic fields. The magnetic field produced by current in the armature of a dc generator affects the flux pattern and distorts the main field. This distortion causes a shift in the neutral plane, which affects commutation. This change in the neutral plane and the reaction of the magnetic field is called armature reaction. Ideally the magnetic field being cut by the armature conductor ends sharply at the edge of the poles and current flow in the armature conductors would also cease at the gap before starting again in the opposite direction. In practice the main magnetic field is distorted by an incidental magnetic field produced by the current flow in the armature winding. This armature reaction means that current continues to be generated as coil side pass into the physical gap between poles, and unless brushes are set further around on the commutator they would be short circuiting the coil in which the current was till being generated. This effect would to cause arcing between brushes and the commutator segment. 23. Electric Fuse. In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of sacrificial overcurrent protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or device failure is often the reason for excessive current.

A fuse interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Overcurrent protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to human life and property damage. Fuses are selected to allow passage of normal current and of excessive current only for short periods. A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit. The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum, or alloys to provide stable and predictable characteristics. The fuse ideally would carry its rated current indefinitely, and melt quickly on a small excess. The element must not be damaged by minor harmless surges of current, and must not oxidize or change its behavior after possibly years of service The fuse element may be surrounded by air, or by materials intended to speed the quenching of the arc. Silica sand or non-conducting liquids may be used. High rapture capacity fuses : High rapture capacity fuses have a silver wire enclosed in a quartz powder filled ceramic tube with metal end caps. Arcing when this type of fuse blows is buried in the powder, fusion of which in the arc path helps to extinguish it. HRC fuses can be used for very high fault levels; deterioration is negligible; they have accurate time/current characteristics and reliability for discrimination; they are safer if they are accidentally inserted on a fault; there is no issue of smoke and flame; cartridges are seized to ensure that the correct value fuse is fitted. 24. What is power factor and how it can be improved? The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load over the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment. 25. Capacitor. A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount ofleakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. 26. Reverse power trip in alternator, function, on which conditions it operates? Alternator intended for parallel operation are required to have a protective device which will release the breaker and prevent motoring if a reversal power occurs. Such a device would prevent damage to a prime mover which had shut down automatically due to a fault such as loss of oil pressure. Reversal of current flow cannot be detected with an a.c. supply but power reversal can and protection is provided by a reverse power relay. The reverse power relay is similar in construction to a household electricity supply meter. The light weight non magnetic aluminum disc mounted on a spindle which has low friction bearings is positioned in a gap between 2 electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has a voltage coil connected through a transformer between one phase and artificial neutral of the alternator output. The lower electromagnet has a current coil from the same phase through a transformer. The voltage coil is designed to have a high inductance so that the current in the coil lags voltage by an angle approaching 90 degree. Magnetic field produced by the current similarly lags the voltage and also lags the magnetic field of the lower electromagnet. Both field pass through the aluminum disc and causes eddy current.

The effect of the eddy current is that the torque is produced in the disc. With normal power flow, trip contacts on the disc spindle are open and the disc bears against the stop. When power reverses the disc rotates in the other direction, away from the stop and the contacts are closed so that the breaker trips ckt is energized. A time delay of 5 secs prevent reverse power tripping due to surges in synchronizing. Reverse power settings are 2-6% for turbine prime mover and 8-15% for diesel engines. 27. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) OPERATION An SCR in the ckt will resist current flow in the working direction, apart from leakage because the middle junction is np or reversed biased. Leakage is somewhat greater than with a simple diode because the pn junctions on either side of the centre one are sources of extra minority carriers when forward biased. If the applied voltage is increased more minority carriers are emitted from the outer junctions and leakage increases more than in a diode. When external voltage reaches a certain level, carrier multiplication reaches avalanches proportions and complete break down occurs. Once breakdown is brought about the previous high resistance disappears and current flow with little voltage drop. The SCR will remain switched on unless current flow drops below a certain holding value. During normal operation in SCR is turned on by the gate signal or trigger with the anode/cathode voltage much lower than that required for breakdown. This working voltage could be anywhere along the range of breakdown voltages. Low working voltage requires higher trigger current and vice versa. Obviously working voltage will be very less than breakdown voltage to avoid the risk of the device turning itself on. The gate signal or trigger is needed for a time measured only in micro seconds. Its application is as to the base of an npn transistor formed by the bottom three layers of the thyrisitor. This npn transistor includes the middle reverse biased junction, which it therefore switches on. The top junction is already forward biased and triggering of the middle junction causes flow to be initiated through the device. 28. Synchroscope. The synchroscope is a small motor with coils on 2 poles connected across red and yellow phase of the incoming machine and the armature winding supplied from red and yellow of the switchboard bus bar. The later ckt incorporates a resistance and inductance coil in parallel. The inductance has the effect of delaying current flow through itself by 90 deg relative to the current in the resistance. The dual currents are fed slip rings to the two armature windings and produce in them rotating magnetic field. Polarity of the poles will alternate north/south with changes in red and yellow phases of the incoming machine, and the rotating field will react with the poles by turning the rotor clockwise and anticlockwise. Direction indicates if the generator is running to fast or to slow. The breaker is closed just before the pointer reaches the twelve oclock position at which the incoming machine is in phase with the switchboard bus bar.

29. Cables. Cables are made up of cholrosulphonated polyethylene(CSP or hypalon). CSP-HOFR sheathing compound is well suited to shipboard conditions. It offers good resistance to cuts and abrasions, resists weather and ozone,acid fumes and alkalis, and is flexible. Extra mechanical protection is provided by armoring with basket woven wire braid of either galvanized steel or tinned phosphor bronze. The non magnetic properties of phosphor bronze. MIMS cables: Mineral Insulated,Metal Sheathed cables are very useful in high temperatue,fore risk areas. These cables have magnesium oxide powder as insulation with a metal sheathusually copper which is further covered with PVC fir weatherproofing where necessary. A special termination is used with MIMS cables to provide a moisture proof seal for the hygroscopic insulation powder. For MICC cable this is achieved by A compound filled brass pot screwed directly on to the copper sheath . MICC cable current ratings are based upon a copper sheath temperature of 150 deg. 30. What is cycloconverter? A cycloconverter or a cycloinverter converts an AC waveform, such as the mains supply, to another AC waveform of a lower frequency, synthesizing the output waveform from segments of the AC supply without an intermediate direct-current link. They are most commonly used in three-phase applications. 31. What is proportion controller and proportion plus integral controller? In proportional control the output of controller is proportional to the deviation hence for o/p to occur a deviation has to be there i.e. an offset has to be there in proportional control, while in integral control the rate of change of output of controller is proportional to the deviation so it is able to measure the offset. 32. Rudder angle indicator working principle. There are two ac motors one transmitter and one receiver whose 3 ph stators are connected The rotors have same supply. Now when the transmitter rotor is rotated by rudder stock it causes an imbalance in the stator voltages of both transmitter and receiver stators and to remove imbalance the receiver rotor re aligns itself to a position equal to transmitter rotor. Now say pointers are connected with both rotors so this will show rudder angle at bridge same as in steering room. 33. What is positive feedback and negative feedback? Whichever way the bottom of the flapper is moved, by the deviation if the top is moved in the opposite sense this is negative fed back, if in the same sense it is positive feedback. Negative feedback- when the feedback energy(voltage or current) is out of phase with the input signal and thus opposes it, it is called as negative feedback. Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier.

Advantages: Reduction in distortion Stability in gain Increase bandwidth Improved o/p and i/p impedance. Positive feedback- when feed back energy is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it, its called positive feedback. Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier. DisadvantageIncreased distortion and instability. One important use of positive feedback is in oscillation. If positive feedback is sufficiently large it leads to oscillations. 34. How a tube light works? The starting action is initiated by a glow type starter switch which is connected between opposites end of the tube. When a supply voltage is applied to the ckt the full mains voltage appears across the starter switch. A glow discharge occurs between the starter contacts which quickly heat up, bend and touch each other. This allows current to flow through the lamp cathodes which will cause the tube ends to heat up and glow before the tube actually strikes. The tube strikes when the starter switch reopens as it cools during its closed period. When the starter switch opens it interrupts an inductive coil(choke) circuit which produces a surge voltage across the tube which then strikes. The tube is now full away and the reduced arc voltage across it is not sufficient to restart the glow discharge in the starter so its contacts remain open. 32. What will happen if u connect ammeter in parallel? An ammeter is always as low a resistance as possible. That way, the current that you measure in a circuit using the meter will be the same as if the meter were not there. So putting an ammeter in parallel with a circuit means that you just short circuited the circuit you were intending to measure 33. Construction of voltmeter and ammeter. A typical analog ammeter consists of a sensitive galvanometer with a low resistance called a shunt connected in parallel with it. The shunt allows currents to flow through the ammeter which would otherwise burn out the galvanometer. The shunt also allows the ammeter to have a low resistance so that it will have a boxes confine and control the small effect on the circuit whose current is to be measured. (Recall that to measure current in a circuit, the circuit must be broken and the ammeter inserted between the break.) A typical analog voltmeter consists of a sensitive galvanometer in series with a high resistance, known as a multiplier. Since a voltmeter is placed in parallel with the voltage to be measured, it should have a high resistance so that it does not appreciably alter the circuit being measured. The range or full-scale reading of an ammeter or voltmeter can be changed by changing the shunt or multiplier resistor. From knowledge of the full-scale galvanometer current Ig, the galvanometer resistance Rg, and the desired range of the meter, the needed shunt or multiplier resistance can be easily calculated by means of Ohm's law.

34. Air circuit breaker maintenance. The mechanical linkage in a ckt breaker is quite complex and should not be interfered with except for maintenance and lubrication as specified by the manufacturer. The main and moving contacts are of copper (sometimes of special arc resistant alloy or silver tipped) and usually silver alloy coated. Main contacts should not be scraped or filed. If the main contacts suffer severe burning they will be probably require realignment as specified by the manufacturer. Arcing contacts normally suffer burning and may be dressed by a smooth file as recommended by the manufacturer. Carborundum or emery should not be used. The arc chutes or arc splitter boxes confine and control the inevitable arc to rapidly accelerate its extinction. These must be removed and inspected for the broken parts and erosion of the splitter plates.

35. How could you monitor the correct instant for synchronizing without the aid of synchroscope or synchronizing lamp? Connect a volt meter (expect up to 500V in a 440V system) across one pole of the open incoming generator circuit breaker. This procedure is more easily and safely performed at the synchroscope terminals behind the door of the synchronizing panel at the front of the main switch board. Adjust the generator speed until the voltmeter very slowly fluctuates from zero to maximum. Close the breaker when the voltmeter indication passes through zero. 36. Why induction motor does not run in synchronous speed? An induction motor cannot run normally at synchronous speed. This is because the rotor conductors would then be stationary with respect to the rotating magnetic field. No emf would be induced in the rotor current and there would be no torque developed. Even when the motor is on no load the rotor speed has to be slightly less than the synchronous speed so current can be induced into the rotor conductors to produce the torque to overcome the mechanical rotational losses of friction and windage. 37. Continuous rating A time rating is used to express the time during which motor can normally output the rated power. Continuous rating is that the motor can provide the rated power in this period. Continuous rated current (ICR)- the max allowance continuous current a motor can handle without exceeding the motor temp limits. Continuous rated torque(TCR)- the max allowable continuous torque a motor can handle without exceeding the motor temp limit. 38. different types of circuit breaker Instantaneous magnetic trip only ckt breaker. Thermal magnetic ckt breaker

Interchangeable trip ckt breaker. Current limiting ckt breaker.

39. How to test megger? To prove the basic operation of the tester, short 2 probes together switch to Mega ohms the pointer should indicate approx 0 ohms. 40. How many types of electrical diagrams? Block dig Wiring dig System dig Circuit dig Block dig it shows a simplified form in main interrelationships of the elements ina system and how the system works or may be operated. System dig- shows the main features of a system and its bounds without necessarily showing cause to effect. Its main use is to illustrate ways of operating system. Ckt dig- shows in full the functioning of ckts. All essential parts and connections are depicted by means of graphical symbols arranged to show the operation as clearly as possible but without regard to the physical lay out of the various items, there parts or connections. Wiring dig.- it shows the details connection between components or items of equipments and in some cases the routing of these connections and equipment wiring dig shows the components in there approx positions occupied within the actual enclosure. 41. Construction of megger. Construction : The important construction features of Megger consist of following parts:

1) Control and Deflecting coil: They are normally mounted at right angle to each other and connected parallel to the generator. The polarities are such that the torque produced by them is in opposite direction.

2) Permanent Magnet: Permanent magnet with north and south poles to produce magnetic effect for deflection of pointer. 3) Pointer and scale: A pointer is attached to the coils and end of the pointer floats on a scale which is in the range from zero to infinity. The unit for this is ohms. 4) D.C generator or battery connection: Testing voltage is supplied by hand operated D.C generator for manual operated Megger and a battery and electronic voltage charger for automatic type Megger. 5) Pressure coil and current coil: Provided for preventing damage to the instrument in case of low external source resistance.