LIS 141 Ma.

Criselda Roque

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Neuroscience
Neuroscience is the study of the human nervous system, the brain, and the biological basis of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning.

Etymology
[from Greek neuron nerve; related to Latin nervus]

Trivia
The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt. Evidence of trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the purpose of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial pressure, being performed on patients dates back to Neolithic times and has been found in various cultures throughout the world. Manuscripts dating back to 1700 BC indicated that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.

The nervous system and the brain are the physical foundation of the human learning process. Neuroscience links our observations about cognitive behavior with the actual physical processes that support such behavior. This theory is still young and is undergoing rapid, controversial development.

The scope of neuroscience has broadened to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system.

Related Terms
1. NEUROBIOLOGY - usually used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.

Related Terms
2. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY- branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between the different types of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated.

Related Terms
3. ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY- study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change or electric current on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons, and particularly action potential activity.

Major Branches
Affective neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Cellular neuroscience Clinical neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience Computational neuroscience Cultural neuroscience Developmental neuroscience

Major Branches
Molecular neuroscience Neuroengineering Neuroimaging Neuroinformatics Neurolinguistics Neurophysiology Social neuroscience Systems neuroscience

Reference sources:
Fundamental Neuroscience for Basic and Clinical Applications: With STUDENT CONSULT Online Publisher: Churchill Livingstone; 3 edition (December 15, 2005) Author: Duane E. Haines (Author) - illustrated, clinically oriented textbook with wellbalanced coverage of both neurophysiology and neuroanatomy - Features information based primarily on data obtained from human studies, rather than animal ones, to keep coverage relevant to clinical practice. Offers meticulous updates throughout to reflect all of the latest developments in neuroscience.

Reference sources:
Neuroscience, Fourth Edition Publisher: Sinauer Associates, Inc.; 4th edition (July 31, 2007) Edited by Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, William C. Hall, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, and Leonard E. White
- for medical students and in undergraduate neuroscience courses. Being both comprehensive and authoritative, the book is also appropriate for graduate and professional use.

Reference sources:

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Neurology
A medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.

Etymology
(from Greek , neuron, "nerve" + the suffix -, '-logia', "study of")

Trivia
There are approximately 100 billion neurons in the human brain. The average human brain weighs about 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms). The average length of the adult spinal cord is 45 cm for men and 43 cm for women. The sponge is the only multicellular animal without a nervous system. Schizophrenia affects about 1 out of every 100 people.

Trivia
Information travels in the nerves at speeds up to 268 miles per hour (429 kilometers/hour). The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that the heart, not the brain, was the seat of mental processes. Most people dream about 5 times during each 8hour period of sleep. Based on this number, people have about 1,825 dreams every year. The distance separating two neurons at a synapse is 20-40 nanometers. (1 nanometer is equal to onebillionth of a meter.)

Neurologic Diseases
Neurologic diseases are disorders of the brain, spinal cord and nerves throughout your body. Together they control all the workings of the body. When something goes wrong with a part of your nervous system, you can have trouble moving, speaking, swallowing, breathing or learning. You can also have problems with your memory, senses or mood.

There are more than 600 neurologic diseases. Major types include:
Diseases caused by faulty genes, such as Huntington's disease and muscular dystrophy Problems with the way the nervous system develops, such as spina bifida Degenerative diseases, where nerve cells are damaged or die, such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease Diseases of the blood vessels that supply the brain, such as stroke Injuries to the spinal cord and brain Seizure disorders, such as epilepsy Cancer, such as brain tumors infections, such as meningitis

Huntingtons disease
Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited disease that causes certain nerve cells in the brain to waste away. People are born with the defective gene, but symptoms usually don't appear until middle age. Early symptoms of HD may include uncontrolled movements, clumsiness or balance problems. Later, HD can take away the ability to walk, talk or swallow. Some people stop recognizing family members. Others are aware of their environment and are able to express emotions.

Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease is a disorder that affects nerve cells, or neurons, in a part of the brain that controls muscle movement. In Parkinson's, neurons that make a chemical called dopamine die or do not work properly. Dopamine normally sends signals that help coordinate your movements. No one knows what damages these cells.

Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among older people. Dementia is a brain disorder that seriously affects a person's ability to carry out daily activities.
AD begins slowly. It first involves the parts of the brain that control thought, memory and language. People with AD may have trouble remembering things that happened recently or names of people they know.

Reference sources:
Textbook of Clinical Neurology (Book with CD-ROM) Publisher: Saunders (January 15, 1999) Authors: Christopher G. Goetz MD & Eric J. Pappert MD) - excellent clinical reference that provides information on the correlation of the anatomic diagnosis with the etiologic diagnosis. Coverage includes the functional anatomy of the neurologic examination in detail and offers tests that neurologists may use beyond the bedside exam. Also describes etiologic diagnosis and the treatment of all of the major neurologic diseases. Extensively crossreferenced with tables which correlate findings and disease states. Features over 730 illustrations and includes a CD-ROM of the entire text with video segments demonstrating movement disorders, neurologic tests, etc.

Reference sources:
Textbook of Clinical Neurology Publisher: Saunders (January 15, 1999) Author: Christopher Goetz, MD,) - excellent clinical reference that provides information on the correlation of the anatomic diagnosis with the etiologic diagnosis. Coverage includes the functional anatomy of the neurologic examination in detail and offers tests that neurologists may use beyond the bedside exam. Also describes etiologic diagnosis and the treatment of all of the major neurologic diseases. Extensively crossreferenced with tables which correlate findings and disease states. Features over 730 illustrations and includes a CD-ROM of the entire text with video segments demonstrating movement disorders, neurologic tests, etc.

Reference sources:

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Pharmacology
branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function.

Pharmacology
The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.

Two main areas of pharmacology

1. Pharmacodynamics - studies the effects of the drugs on biological systems. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the interactions of chemicals with biological receptors. 2. Pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on the drugs. Also discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems.

Etymology
[from Greek , pharmakon,
"poison in classic Greek; drug in modern Greek"; and -, "Study of" -logia)]

Trivia
Dioscorides' De Materia Medica is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the history of pharmacology. The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas. Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of William Withering.

Trivia
Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.
The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.

Related Terms
1. PHARMACY - a biomedical science
concerned with preparation, dispensing, dosage, and the safe and effective use of medicines. In contrast, Pharmacology deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the reactions of the body and drug on each other, the sources of drugs, their nature, and their properties.

Divisions
Clinical pharmacology The medical field of medication effects on humans and animals. Neuropharmacology Effects of medication on nervous system functioning.. Psychopharmacology Effects of medication on the brain; observing changed behaviors of the body and read the effect of drugs on the brain.

Divisions
Pharmacogenetics Clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs. Pharmacogenomics Application of genomic technologies to new drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs. Pharmacoepidemiology Study of effects of drugs in large numbers of people.

Divisions
Toxicology Study of harmful or toxic effects of drugs. Theoretical Pharmacology Study of metrics in Pharmacology. Posology How medicines are dosed. It also depends upon various factors like age, climate, weight, sex, and so on.

Divisions
Pharmacognosy A branch of pharmacology dealing especially with the composition, use, and development of medicinal substances of biological origin and especially medicinal substances obtained from plants also known as deriving medicines from plants

Divisions
Behavioral Pharmacology Behavioral pharmacology, also referred to as psychopharmacology, is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs Environmental Pharmacology Environmental pharmacology is a new discipline.Focus is being given to understand Gene environment interaction, drug-environment interaction and toxin-environment interaction.

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Dermatology
A branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its diseases, a unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects.[A dermatologist takes care of diseases, and some cosmetic problems of the skin, scalp, hair, and nails.

Etymology
Coined in English 1819, the word dermatology originated in the form of the words dermologie (in French, 1764) and, a little later, dermatologia(in Latin, 1777). The term derives from the Greek "" (dermatos), genitive of "" (derma), "skin"(from "" dero, "to flay" + "-logy, "the study of", a suffix derived from "" (logos), amongst others meaning study.

Subspecialties
Cosmetic dermatology - involves the performance of cosmetic procedures including liposuction, blepharoplasty, and face lifts. Dermatopathology - specializes in the pathology of the skin. This field is shared by dermatologists and pathologists. Immunodermatology - specializes in the treatment of immune-mediated skin diseases such as lupus, bullous pemphigoid, pemphigus vulgaris, and other immune-mediated skin disorders

Subspecialties
Mohs surgery - focuses on the excision of skin cancers using a tissue-sparing technique that allows intraoperative assessment of 100% of the peripheral and deep tumor margins developed in the 1930s by Dr. Frederic E. Mohs. Pediatric dermatology encompasses the complex diseases of the neonates, hereditary skin diseases orgenodermatoses, and the many difficulties of working with the pediatric population

Subspecialties
Teledermatology a form of dermatology where telecommunication technologies are used to exchange medical information via all kinds of media (audio, visual and also data communication, but typically photos of dermatologic conditions) usually made by nondermatologists for evaluation off-site by dermatologists).

Trivia
In 1572, Geronimo Mercuriali of Forl, Italy, completed De morbis cutaneis (translated "On the diseases of the skin"). It is considered the first scientific work dedicated to dermatology. In 1801 the first great school of dermatology became a reality at the famous Hpital Saint-Louis in Paris, while the first textbooks (Willan's, 1798-1808) and atlases (Alibert's, 1806-1814) appeared in print during the same period of time

Skin Layers

Skin Layers
Epidermis layer -the outermost layer of the skin . There are no blood vessels in the epidermis but its deepest layer is supplied with lymph fluid. It is thickest in the palms and on the bottom of the feet.
Dermis or corium layer -a tough and elastic layer containing white fibrous tissue interlaced with yellow elastic fibers.

Skin Layers
Hypodermis or subcutaneous layer - The deepest of the layers of skin. It connects or binds the dermis above it to the underlying organs. This layer is mainly composed of loose fibrous connective tissue and fat (adipose) cells interlaced with blood vessels. In females, the hypodermis is generally about 8% thicker than in males. The main functions of the hypodermis include insulation, storing of lipids, cushioning of the body and temperature regulation.

Skin Diseases
List of cutaneous conditions

Impetigo

Rubella (German measles)

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Endocrinology
A branch of biology and medicine concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them.

Etymology
(from Greek , endo, "within"; , krn, "to separate"; and -, -logia)

Endocrine System

Endocrine System
Hormones The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we call hormones. These chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism Exocrine glands (not part of the endocrine system) secrete products that are passed outside the body. Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands are examples of exocrine glands.

Endocrine System
Hormones The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we call hormones. These chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism Exocrine glands (not part of the endocrine system) secrete products that are passed outside the body. Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands are examples of exocrine glands.

Endocrine System
A. Hypothalamus-controls body temperature, blood pressure, sleep & emotion; produces secretions that stimulates the pituitary. B. Pituitary Gland-"master gland" (hypophysis) 1. secretes hormones that control the activity of other endocrine glands and regulate various biological processes. The pituitary gland is influenced both neurally and hormonally by the hypothalamus.

Endocrine System
C. Thyroid Gland- produces thyroxin which is made of iodine 1. located in the neck 2. thyroxin regulates the rate of metabolism D. Parathyroid Glands- produces parathormone, located within the thyroid 1. parathormone controls metabolism of calcium which is necessary for growth, health of bones & teeth, *BLOOD CLOTTING*, nerve functions + muscle contraction

Endocrine System
E. Adrenal Glands- secrete adrenaline causes "Flight or Fight" action 1. located on top of each kidney 2. adrenaline causes blood vessels to constrict, heartbeat, blood pressure, clotting 3. adrenaline also increases rate of metabolism and release of glucose by liver [example: slows flow of digestive juices]

Endocrine System
F. Pancreas- secrete hormones such as glucagon & insulin

Insulin- causes absorption of sugar into body cells which results in lowering blood sugar levels.. Glucagon- cause discharge of sugar from liver into blood which results in raising blood sugar levels glycogen into glucose

Endocrine Diseases
Endocrine disorders may be subdivided into three groups: 1. Endocrine gland hyposecretion (leading to hormone deficiency) 2. Endocrine gland hypersecretion (leading to hormone excess) 3. Tumours (benign or malignant) of endocrine glands

Trivia
- The study of endocrinology began in China. The Chinese were isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using them for medicinal purposes by 200 BCE.

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Anesthesiology
A branch of medicine concerned with anesthesia and anesthetics and their application.

Etymology
The word "anesthesia", coined by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (18091894) in 1846 from the Greek -, an-, "without"; and , aisthsis, "sensation"),refers to the inhibition of sensation.

Anesthesia (or Anaesthesia)

- the condition of having sensation (including the feeling of pain) blocked or temporarily taken away. It is a pharmacologically induced and reversible state of amnesia, analgesia, loss of responsiveness, loss of skeletal muscle reflexes or decreased stress response, or all simultaneously. This allows patients to undergo surgery and other procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience.

Trivia
Nitrous oxide - At the beginning of the 19th century, as Humphry Davy described this gas as "capable of destroying physical pain", people had discovered that inhaling small amounts of it created pleasant sensations.

Acupuncture is also a method of anesthesia where very fine needles are inserted underneath the skin and twirled around rapidly.

General and local anesthetic

General anesthetic affects whole body causing unconsciousness; local affects only the part of the body to be operated on. During general anesthetic, the anesthetic first enters the bloodstream, and travels in the blood to the CNS (central nervous system). There it acts on the brain's nerve cells, causing them to lose the ability to send and receive messages. The patient falls unconscious, and can feel no sensation. A local anesthetic blocks nerves at the area to be operated on. It can either be applied to the surface of the body, which affects the nerve endings in the skin, or injected with a needle, which blocks nerve impulses from the brain.

Neuroscience Neurology Pharmacology Dermatology Endocrinology Anesthesiology Toxicology

Toxicology
A branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. It is the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of poisoning, especially the poisoning of people.

Etymology
"Toxic" and similar words came from Greek = "bow (weapon)" via "poisoned arrow", which came to be used for "poison" in scientific language, as the usual Classical Greek word (') for "poison" would transcribe as "io-", which is not distinctive enough.

Trivia
Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect. Mathieu Orfila is considered to be the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his Trait des poisons, also called Toxicologie gnrale.

Chemical (pharmaceutical) toxicology

- a scientific discipline involving the study of structure and mechanism related to the toxic effects of chemical agents, and encompasses technology advances in research related to chemical aspects of toxicology.

Toxicity
- the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ (organotoxicity), such as the liver (hepatotoxicity).

Reference sources:
Medical Toxicology
Richard C. Dart (Editor) Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Third edition (December, 2003) - definitive reference on the management of poisoned patients. More than 300 well-organized chapters written by eminent authorities guide clinicians through the diagnosis and treatment of every poisoning or drug overdose. - includes comparative commentary on toxicology practice in the United States, Europe, Australia, and Asia.

Reference sources:
Principles Of Clinical Toxicology Publisher: CRC; 3 edition (June 30, 1994) Authors: Thomas A Gossel & J Douglas Bricker - Focus on the fundamentals; helps the reader understand why events occur and why a particular treatment is selected. Each chapter presents pertinent information on classes of toxic agents, their common sources and usual methods of intoxication, incidence and frequency of poisoning, mechanisms of action, clinical signs and symptoms of poisoning and management guidance. The text includes illustrative case studies, carefully selected to reinforce the information covered.

Reference sources:
A Textbook of Modern Toxicology (Hodgson, A Textbook of Modern Toxicology) Editor: Ernest Hodgson Publisher: Wiley-Interscience; 3 edition (February 27, 2004) -a good, easy-to-read, and comprehensive reference work for students and professionals involved in toxicology -the book features chapter-ending suggestions for further reading, a helpful glossary, and a special summary section.

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