Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
The project presented here is is based on words most powerful micro-controller based on intels mcs51 family, generally known as intel-8051. We have used its derivative atmel-89c2051. This project Automatic Event Counter using microcontroller is a reliable circuit that takes over the task of controlling the events as well as counting the number of events in the room very accurately. When some kind of events takes place the LDR sensor sense it and the value is incremented by one in the microcontroller and the result as the number of events is displayed on 7 segment LED. The microcontroller does the above job. It receives the signals from the sensors, and this signal is operated under the control of software which is stored in ROM. Microcontroller Atmel-89c051 continuously monitor the sensor, obstruction is sensed by the Microcontroller.

Fig 1.1- Microcontrller based event counter

Sensor Circuit
1

Fig 1.2 LDR Sensor

Fig 1.3 Microcontroller at89c2051

Working of the project2

Any type active or passive switch or sensor can be connected to the con1 connected. Whenever that switch closes or the sensor sense any obstruction event will be counted inside the microcontroller and would be displayed on the 7 segment LED. In case of switch, it can be capacitive, inductive or any other type which suits to our construction. Ic3 an optocouplor will receive incoming counter pulse at pin3 and output from pin 5 is connected to p3.4 pin of the ic2 microcontroller. Two line by 16 character on each line (2*16) is used in nibble mode and maximum count can reach upto 65536 there after it will reset to 00000. SW 1 is manual reset switch to make the counter to reset to zero. Circuit is driven by 9V, 1amp transformer connected to PCON1. Diode D1-D4 forms bridge circuit c1, c2, c3 are filter capacitors and are part of power supply section. Capacitor C4 and R2 gives the required reset pulse to microcontroller.

Chapter-2

MICROCONTROLLER
The Intel 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller which means that most available operations are limited to 8 bits. There are 3 basic "sizes" of the 8051: Short, Standard, and Extended. The Short and Standard chips are often available in DIP (dual in-line package) form, but the Extended 8051 models often have a different form factor, and are not "drop-in compatible". All these things are called 8051 because they can all be programmed using 8051 assembly language, and they all share certain features. Some of the features that have made the 8051 popular are:

128KB on chip program memory.

3

128 bytes on chip data memory(RAM). 4 reg banks. 128 user defined software flags. 8-bit data bus 16-bit address bus 32 general purpose registers each of 8 bits 16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less). 3 internal and 2 external interrupts. Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes. Four 8-bit ports, (short models have two 8-bit ports). 16-bit program counter and data pointer. 1 Microsecond instruction cycle with 12 MHz Crystal.

Typical applications8051 chips are used in a wide variety of control systems, telecom applications, robotics as well as in the automotive industry. By some estimations, 8051 family chips make up over 50% of the embedded chip market.

Pin Configuration-

Fig.2.1- Pin diagram of the 8051 DIP

Basic PinsPIN 9: PIN 9 is the reset pin which is used to reset the microcontrollers internal registers and ports upon starting up. (Pin should be held high for 2 machine cycles.) PINS 18 & 19: The 8051 has a built-in oscillator amplifier hence we need to only connect a crystal at these pins to provide clock pulses to the circuit. PIN 40 and 20: Pins 40 and 20 are VCC and ground respectively. The 8051 chip needs +5V 500mA to function properly, although there are lower powered versions like the Atmel 2051 which is a scaled down version of the 8051 which runs on +3V. PINS 29, 30 & 31: As described in the features of the 8051, this chip contains a built-in flash memory. In order to program this we need to supply a voltage of +12V at pin 31. If external memory is connected then PIN 31, also called EA/VPP, should be connected to ground to indicate the presence of external memory. PIN 30 is called ALE (address latch enable), which is used when multiple memory chips are connected to the controller and only one of them needs to be selected. We will deal with this in depth in the later chapters. PIN 29 is called PSEN. This is "program store enable". In order to use the external memory it is required to provide the low voltage (0) on both PSEN and EA pins.

PortsThere are 4 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3. PORT P1 (Pins 1 to 8): The port P1 is a general purpose input/output port which can be used for a variety of interfacing tasks. The other ports P0, P2 and P3 have dual roles or additional functions associated with them based upon the context of their usage.The port 1 output buffers can sink/source
5

four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to portn1 pins are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. PORT P3 (Pins 10 to 17): PORT P3 acts as a normal IO port, but Port P3 has additional functions such as, serial transmit and receive pins, 2 external interrupt pins, 2 external counter inputs, read and write pins for memory access. PORT P2 (pins 21 to 28): PORT P2 can also be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P2 will act as an address bus in conjunction with PORT P0 to access external memory. PORT P2 acts as A8-A15. PORT P0 (pins 32 to 39) PORT P0 can be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P0 acts as a multiplexed address and data bus that can be used to access external memory in conjunction with PORT P2. P0 acts as AD0-AD7.

Oscillator CircuitsThe 8051 requires an external oscillator circuit. The oscillator circuit usually runs around 12MHz, although the 8051 (depending on which specific model) is capable of running at a maximum of 40MHz. Each machine cycle in the 8051 is 12 clock cycles, giving an effective cycle rate at 1MHz (for a 12MHz clock) to 3.33MHz (for the maximum 40MHz clock). The oscillator circuit generates the clock pulses so that all internal operations are synchronized.

Internal Architecture-

Fig.2.2- Internal schematics of the 8051.

Data and Program MemoryThe 8051 Microcontroller can be programmed in PL/M, 8051 Assembly, C and a number of other high-level languages. Many compilers even have support for compiling C++ for an 8051. Program memory in the 8051 is read-only, while the data memory is considered to be read/write accessible. When stored on EEPROM or Flash, the program memory can be rewritten when the microcontroller is in the special programmer circuit.

Program Start AddressThe 8051 starts executing program instructions from address 0000 in the program memory.

Special Function RegisterThe Special Function Register (SFR) is the upper area of addressable memory, from address 0x80 to 0xFF. A, B, PSW, DPTR are called SFR. This area of memory cannot be used for data or program storage, but is instead a series of memory-mapped ports and registers. All port input and output can therefore be performed by memory move operations on specified addresses in the SFR. Also, different status registers are mapped into the SFR, for use in checking the status of the 8051, and changing some operational parameters of the 8051.

General Purpose RegistersThe 8051 has 4 selectable banks of 8 addressable 8-bit registers, R0 to R7. This means that there are essentially 32 available general purpose registers, although only 8 (one bank) can be directly accessed at a time. To access the other banks, we need to change the current bank number in the flag status register.

A and B RegistersThe A register is located in the SFR memory location 0xE0. The A register works in a similar fashion to the AX register of x86 processors. The A register is called the accumulator, and by default it receives the result of all arithmetic operations. The B register is used in a similar manner, except that it can receive the extended answers from the multiply and divide operations. When not being used for multiplication and Division, the B register is available as an extra general-purpose register.

Chapter-3

COADING
$MOD52
8

ORG 0000H SETB P3.0;ENTRY CLR P3.5; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#00H; 7 SEGMENT MOV R0,#00H; MOV P1,#0C0H;

MAIN:MOV C,P3.0; JNC ATTI; CLR P3.5; SJMP MAIN;

ATTI: INC R0; ACALL DISATT; SJMP MAIN;

DISATT:

CJNE R0,#00H,DISLEC 1;

MOV P1,#0C0H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN; DISLEC1: CJNE R0,#01H,DISLEC2; SETB P3.5;

MOV P1,#0F9H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC2:

CJNE R0,#02H,DISLEC3; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#0A4H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC3:

CJNE R0,#03H,DISLEC4; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#0B0H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC4:

CJNE R0,#04H,DISLEC5; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#99H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC5:

CJNE R0,#05H,DISLEC6; SETB P3.5;

10

MOV P1,#92H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC6:

CJNE R0,#06H,DISLEC7; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#82H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC7:

CJNE R0,#07H,DISLEC8; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#0F8H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC8:

CJNE R0,#08H,DISLEC9; SETB P3.5; MOV P1,#80H; ACALL DELAY; SJMP MAIN;

DISLEC9:

CJNE R0,#09H,DISLEC0; SETB P3.5;

11

MOV P1,#90H; ACALL DELAY;

DISLEC0:

LJMP MAIN; RET;

DELAY:MOV R3,#0FFH; DELAY1:MOV R1,#0FFH; DELAY2:MOV R2,#07H; DELAY3:DJNE R2,DELAY3; DJNE R1,DELAY2; DJNE R3,DELAY1; RET; END

Chapter-4

12

RESISTOR
A device used in electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a circuit and to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among other uses. The electrical behavior of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.

Fig 4.1- Resistor

Types of resistorsCarbon film

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 m), can provide a variety of resistances. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megaohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of -55 C to 155 C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.

Metal film
A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. Metal electrode leadless face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology, but are a cylindrically shaped resistor designed for surface mounting. Note that other types of resistors (e.g., carbon composition) are also available in MELF packages. Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though that is one such technique). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching.
13

(This is similar to the way carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K.[7] Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. Also beneficial are the components efficient tolerance, temperature coefficient and stability.[5]

Metal oxide film

Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides such as tin oxide. This results in a higher operating temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film. They are used in applications with high endurance demands.

Wirewound

Fig.4.2 Wirewound Resistor Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because of the very high surface temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to +450 C.[5] Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating layer is used. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more. Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with Ayrton-Perry winding are used.

14

Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the exception of the high frequency. The high frequency of wirewound resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.[5]

Foil resistor
The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a special alloy foil several micrometres thick. Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/C, tolerance 0.005%, longterm stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 year) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 V/C, noise -42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 H, capacitance 0.5 pF

PotentiometersA common element in electronic devices is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob. These variable resistors are known as potentiometers when all three terminals are present, since they act as a continuously adjustable voltage divider. A common example is a volume control for a radio receiver.[12] Accurate, high-resolution panel-mounted potentiometers (or "pots") have resistance elements typically wirewound on a helical mandrel, although some include a conductive-plastic resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns counter and a graduated dial. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients, and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.

Colour Coding-

15

Fig. 4.3 Colour Coding To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) band B is the second significant figure band C is the decimal multiplier band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)

Table 1- Resistor Colour Coding

Chapter-5

CAPACITOR
16

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them.

Fig.5.1 Dielectric Capacitor Capacitors may be marked with 3 or more coloured bands or dots. 3-colour coding encodes most significant digit, second most significant digit, and multiplier. Additional bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another.

Types of Capacitor1. Dielectric Capacitor

Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were a continuous variation of capacitance is required for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of movable plates (the rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates. The position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at maximum when the two sets of plates are fully meshed together. High voltage type tuning capacitors have relatively large spacings or air-gaps between the plates with breakdown voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

Variable Capacitor Symbols

17

Fig.5.2 Variable Capacitor As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors are also available called Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a particular capacitance value with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very small capacitances of 500pF or less and are non-polarized.

2. Film Capacitor
Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metallised paper, Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as large as 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage rating.

3. Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size. They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.

18

Fig.5.3 Ceramic Capacitor

4. Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance between the plates, d is very small.

Fig.5.4 Electrolitic Capacitor

Colour coding-

Tabel 2 Capacitor Colour Coding

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Chapter-6

RESET
The reset button is a simple normally-open switch that is connected to two pins on the motherboard. When the button is pressed, the switch is closed. When it is released, the system performs a hardware reset. Most newer cases have the reset switch recessed to prevent it from being pressed by accident (or by small, curious fingers.) Some put the reset switch on the back of the system, which is even safer, but can be very inconvenient.

A Fig6.1-traditional case-front reset switch.

Strangely, there are some cases on the market that do not have a reset switch at all. I am not sure what the reason is for this, but I would find it very annoying not to have a reset button. This sort of design would also increase the chances of accidental system corruption: since the only alternative to the reset button when a PC is hung up is to turn the PC off and then on again, which can (occasionally) cause system problems.

20

Chapter-7

TRANSISTER
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Transistor as a switchTransistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. In a groundedemitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the base and collector current rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistance (in this example, the resistance of the light bulb). If the collector voltage was zero, the collector current would be limited only by the light bulb resistance and the supply voltage. The transistor is then said to be saturated - it will have a very small voltage from collector to emitter. Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.

Types of transistorThere are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with TrFig.7.1 Tansistor circuit symbols different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first.

Using a transistor switch with sensors21

The top circuit diagram shows an LDR (light sensor) connected so that the LED lights when the LDR is in darkness. The variable resistor adjusts the brightness at which the transistor switches on and off. Any general purpose low power transistor can be used in this circuit. The 10k fixed resistor protects the transistor from

excessive base current (which will destroy it) when the variable resistor is reduced to zero. To make this circuit switch at a suitable brightness you may need to experiment with different values for the fixed resistor, but it must not be less than 1k . If the transistor is switching a load with a coil, such as a motor or relay, remember to add a protection diode across the load. The switching action can be inverted, so the LED lights when the LDR is brightly lit, by swapping the LDR and variable resistor. In this case the fixed resistor can be omitted because the LDR resistance cannot be reduced to zero. Note that the switching action of this circuit is not particularly good because there will be an intermediate brightness when the transistor will be partly on (not saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of overheating unless it is switching a small current. There is no problem with the small LED current, but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is likely to cause overheating. Fig.7.2 transistor switch with sensors

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Chapter-8

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators.

Fig.8.1 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other words its ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Some of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature, variations in the load and changes in the DC power supply. Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the proper selection of the components used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit to the stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits. To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency determining device to produce another types of oscillator circuit known generally as a Quartz Crystal Oscillator.

Fig.8.2- Crystal Oscillator2 23

When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz crystal, it begins to change shape producing a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect. This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an electrical charge. Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as Transducers as they convert energy of one kind into energy of another (electrical to mechanical or mechanical to electrical). This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical vibrations or oscillations which are used to replace the LC tank circuit in the previous oscillators. There are many different types of crystal substances which can be used as oscillators with the most important of these for electronic circuits being the quartz minerals because of their greater mechanical strength. The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz with the two parallel surfaces metallised to make the required electrical connections. The physical size and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final frequency of oscillations and is called the crystals "characteristic frequency". Then once cut and shaped, the crystal can not be used at any other frequency. In other words, its size and shape determines its frequency. The crystals characteristic or resonant frequency is inversely proportional to its physical thickness between the two metallised surfaces. A mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by an equivalent electrical circuit consisting of low resistance, large inductance and small capacitance as shown below. Quartz Crystal

Fig.8.3 Quartz Crystal

24

The equivalent circuit for the quartz crystal shows an RLC series circuit, which represents the mechanical vibrations of the crystal, in parallel with a capacitance, Cp which represents the electrical connections to the crystal. Quartz crystal oscillators operate at "parallel resonance", and the equivalent impedance of the crystal has a series resonance where Cs resonates with inductance, L and a parallel resonance where L resonates with the series combination of Cs and Cp as shown.

25

Chapter-9

SEVEN SEGMENT
A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays. Sevensegment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical information.

Fig.9.1 SEVEN SEGMENT Seven-segment displays may use a liquid crystal display (LCD), arrays of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or other light-generating or controlling techniques such as cold cathode gas discharge, vacuum fluorescent, incandescent filaments, and others. For gasoline price totems and other large signs, vane displays made up of electromagnetically flipped light-reflecting segments (or "vanes") are still commonly used. An alternative to the 7-segment display in the 1950s through the 1970s was the cold-cathode, neon-lamp-like nixie tube. Starting in 1970, RCA sold a display device known as the Numitron that used incandescent filaments arranged into a seven-segment display In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all of the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected and brought out to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common anode" device. Hence a 7 segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins.

26

Fig.9.2 7 Segment Structure Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of these integrated displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not each individual LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described. Multiple-digit LED displays as used in pocket calculators and similar devices used multiplexed displays to reduce the number of IC pins required to control the display. For example, all the anodes of the A segments of each digit position would be connected together and to a driver pin, while the cathodes of all segments for each digit would be connected. To operate any particular segment of any digit, the controlling integrated circuit would turn on the cathode driver for the selected digit, and the anode drivers for the desired segments; then after a short blanking interval the next digit would be selected and new segments lit, in a sequential fashion. In this manner an eight digit display with seven segments and a decimal point would require only 8 cathode drivers and 8 anode drivers, instead of sixty-four drivers and IC pins. Often in pocket calculators the digit drive lines would be used to scan the keyboard as well, providing further savings; however, pressing multiple keys at once would produce odd results on the multiplexed display.

Ttuth table for 7-segment display-

27

Table 3- Ttuth table for 7-segment display

28

RESULT

We have successfully completed minor project on MICROCONTROLLER BASED EVENT COUNTER. We have learnt about various components and also about various techniques involved in it. There are many uses of Microcontroller in designing various electronics project.

29

CONCLUSION
Working on the minor project has been exhilarating and enriching experience. Here during the development of project we came to know about all the instruments which are used in the project. Also we knew working of various electronics components. To sum up, we have gained knowledge of various electronics components which can be used to develop other electronic projects in our field.

30

REFERENCE

http://www.engineersgarage.com/electronic-components http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=transistor&sourc

31