ME2134-2 FLOW & ENERGY LOSS

(WS2-02-46)
SEMESTER 3
2011/2012
NOTE TO STUDENTS:
Students are requested to find out in advance the exact location and directions to the
lab. Latecomers who are more than 15 minutes late will not be permitted to perform
the experiments.
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF SYMBOLS ii and iii
INTRODUCTION 1
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 1
THEORY OF OPERATION 2
PROCEDURE 9
A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS 12
REFERENCES 13
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus 2
Figure 2 Details of flow through rotameter 7
Table 1 Raw Data Sheet 14
Table 2 Processed Data Sheet 1 15
Table 3 Processed Data Sheet 2 16
SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS 17
i
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Cross-sectional area of flow
A
O
Orifice plate opening area
C Overall coefficient of orifice plate meter
C
c
Coefficient of area contraction due to vena contracta in orifice plate meter
C
d
Discharge coefficient
D Diameter of pipe
F Fluid force acting on rotameter float
g Gravitational acceleration (=9.81 m/s
2
)
*
h
Piezometric head
g
P
Z
g
P
*

+
H
D
Head loss in wide angle diffuser
H
E
Head loss in 90
o
elbow
H
O
Head loss in orifice plate meter
H
R
Head loss in rotameter
H
V
Head loss in venturi-meter
Rotameter reading
m Mass of rotameter float
N
R
Reynolds Number =

VD
P Pressure
*
P
Piezometric pressure = P +
gZ
Q
A
Actual volume flow rate
Q
T
Theoretical volume flow rate
'
Q
T
Quasi-theoretical volume flow rate in orifice plate meter
R
f
Radius of rotameter float
R
t
Radius of rotameter bore at the float location
ii
V Average velocity (= Q/A)
v Local velocity
Z Potential head
Greek Symbols:
Radial gap between the rotameter float and bore
Semi-angle of rotameter tube taper
Density of fluid
Specific weight of fluid = g
Kinetic energy correction factor given by

A
3
3
dA v
AV
1

Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity =

iii
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
This experiment is prepared for students taking ME2134 - Fluid Mechanics I with the
following objectives:
a) To become familiar with several types of flow measuring devices, such as the Venturi
meter, orifice meter and rotameter.
b) To determine the coefficient of discharge, C
d
, for the Venturi meter and orifice meter,
and to calibrate the rotameter.
c) To determine the energy losses in the Venturi meter, orifice meter, rotameter, as well
as the wide angle diffuser and the 90
o
elbow, and to estimate pressure drops or losses
for the above-mentioned devices.
Scope
This manual contains a detailed description of the equipment, theory of operation and the
procedure for conducting the experiment in a systematic manner.
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
A schematic diagram of the flow measuring apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The experiment
is conducted using water, which is an incompressible fluid. Water enters the equipment
through a perspex Venturi meter having pressure tappings at inlet (A), throat (B) and exit
(C). After a change in cross-section through a diffuser and another pressure measuring station
(D), the flow continues down a settling length and through an orifice meter having pressure
tappings at (E) and (F).
After a further settling length and a 90
o
Elbow with pressure tappings at (G) and (H), the
flow enters the rotameter which consists of a transparent tapered tube having a float which
takes up an equilibrium position. The position of the float, estimated from the scale on the
wall of the rotameter, provides an indication of the flow rate. The pressure drop across the
rotameter can be derived from the pressure readings at (H) and (I). The water flowing past
the rotameter returns to the reservoir after flowing through a control valve and the weighing
tank.
All the pressure tappings are connected to a bank of vertically inverted water-air manometers
which give the piezometric pressure head. Note that the piezometric pressure head is the
same as the pressure head if the elevation head Z is zero.
1
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus.
THEORY OF OPERATION
As fluid flows through the Venturi meter, the orifice meter, the rotameter, the diffuser and
the 90 elbow, the continuity equation (which is a restatement of the principle of
conservation of mass) for a steady incompressible fluid flow between any two general
locations 1 and 2 is given by
Q A V A V
2 2 1 1
, (volumetric flow rate) (I)
where A is the cross sectional area and V is the average velocity, which is related to the local
velocity v by
A
Q
vdA
A
1
V
A

.
As fluid flows through the flow measuring devices, the energy equation for steady
incompressible fluid flow between any two general points 1 and 2 can be written as
2
2
2
2
2
L 1
2
1
1
1
Z
g 2
V P
H Z
g 2
V P
+ + + +

, (II)
2
where H
L
= Loss of energy, or head loss, generally expressed as
2g
V
K H
2
L

,
where K is the loss factor
= Specific weight of fluid = g
and = Kinetic energy correction factor =
dA v
AV
1
A
3
3
,
where A is the cross sectional area considered, v is the local velocity and V is the average
velocity. Note that for turbulent flow through pipes with circular cross sections, = 1.06 ~ 1.
If viscous effects and other energy losses are neglected, the energy equation (II) becomes
identical to the Bernoullis equation:
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
Z
g 2
V P
Z
g 2
V P
+ + + +

. (III)
Equations (I) and (II) are the two fundamental equations which will be applied repeatedly to
yield expressions for the head loss corresponding to the various flow measuring devices.
a) Venturi Meter
Assuming negligible energy losses between (A) and (B), Bernoullis equation
(III) can be written as
g 2
V P
g 2
V P
2
B B
2
A A
+ +

(Z
A
= Z
B
= 0)
and the continuity equation (I) for steady incompressible flow is given by:
Q A V A V
B B A A
(volumetric flow rate)
The terms P
A
/ and P
B
/ are the pressure heads at A and B, respectively. P
A
/
and P
B
/ can be, respectively, represented by piezometric heads
*
A
h and
*
B
h ,
which are the heights of the liquid column in the manometric tubes A and B,
since the elevation head Z is zero.
The above equations can be simplified to yield an expression for the
theoretical flow rate of the form:
2
1
2
B A
*
B
*
A
A T
1 ) /A (A
) h g(h 2
A Q
1
]
1

. (1)
The actual discharge Q
A
is determined from weighing tank measurements, and
is less than the theoretical discharge Q
T
due to losses. The coefficient of
discharge C
d
is defined as:
3
T A d
Q Q C
. (2)
Head Loss for Venturi Meter
The loss of energy in terms of head loss
V
H
can be found by applying the
energy equation (I) between pressure tappings (A) and (C). Applying the
energy equation (I) between (A) and (C):

V C
2
C C
A
2
A A
H Z
g 2
V P
Z
g 2
V P
+ + + + +

.
The head loss associated with the Venturi meter is thus given by

*
C
*
A
C A
V
h h
P P
H

,
since V
A
= V
C
due to continuity and Z
A
= Z
B
= Z
C
= 0. Hence,
*
C
*
A V
h h H . (3)
Also, since
g 2
V
K H
2
B
V V
, therefore:
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
B
V
V

, (4)
where K
V
is the loss factor for the Venturi meter.
b) Orifice Meter
Similarly, the actual discharge Q
A
for the orifice plate meter can be expressed
as
'
Q C Q
T A
, (5)
where
2
1
2
E O
*
F
*
E
O T
) /A (A 1
) h g(h 2
A Q'
1
]
1

, (6)
2
1
2
E O
2
d
2
E O
d
) /A (A C 1
) /A (A 1
C C
1
]
1

, (7)
and A
O
is the orifice opening area,
*
F
h is the piezometric head at the vena
contracta F.
4
The term Q
T
does not exactly represent the theoretical discharge since
*
F
h is
slightly different from the piezometric head at the orifice i.e.
*
O
*
F
h h . The
piezometric head at the orifice cannot be measured directly. Hence, C is not
exactly the same as the normally defined discharge coefficient C
d
. However
the difference between C and C
d
for high values of C
d
and low values of
A
O
/A
E
is small. This may be verified in the present experiment.
Head Loss for Orifice Meter
Similarly, applying the energy equation (II) between (E) and (F), the head loss
in the orifice meter is given by
0 Z Z since
P P
2g
V V
H
F E
F E
2
F
2
E
O

.
For steady flow, according to the continuity equation (I), the volumetric flow
rate.
O O O C F F F E E A
A V A C V A V A V Q
. Hence,
( )
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

2
E
O
2
E
O
2
c 2 *
F
*
E
*
F
*
E 2
0
2
C
2
E
*
F
*
E
2
E
O
2
O
2
*
F
*
E 2
O
2
c
2
E
2
A
O
A
A
1
A
A
C
1
C 1 ) h (h
h h
A C
1
A
1
) h (h
)
A
A
( 1
A C
h h
A C
1
A
1
g 2
Q
H
Assuming the coefficient of area contraction C
c
= 1, since the contraction of
area due to the vena contracta is small,
( )( )
2 *
F
*
E O
C 1 h h H . (8)
Also,
2g
V
K H
2
O
O O

,
where K
O
is the loss factor for orifice meter.
Thus,
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
O
O
O

. (9)
c) Rotameter
5
From Figure 2, assuming << R
f
, the volume flow rate Q is given by :
Q = (2R
f
)V = (2R
f
l tan )V (2R
f
l)V. (10)
For steady flow, this must be equal to the flow at different cross sections of
the rotameter, where V is the peripheral velocity through the annular gap of
width . The fluid force F acting on the float depends on the drag force which
is proportional to the square of the velocity V. At equilibrium, F is balanced
by the weight of float mg. Since mg is constant, F, and thus the square of the
velocity, and hence V are all constants. To maintain a constant V with varying
Q, the cross-sectional area of the flow must vary; which explains why the
rotameter tube is tapered. Hence, from equation (10), an approximately linear
calibration curve between Q and length l is expected.
Head Loss for Rotameter
Since V
H
= V
I
, the energy equation (II) between (H) and (I) gives
*
I
*
H I
I
H
H
R
h h Z

P
Z

P
H

,
_

,
_

+ . (11)
Also,
2g
V
K H
2
H
R R
, where K
R
is the loss factor for the
rotameter.
Hence,
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
H
R
R

. (12)

Since
H
R
is dependent of V
H
, which is proportional to the peripheral
velocity V, it is therefore expected to remain constant.
6
Figure 2 Details of flow through rotameter.
d) Diffuser
The diffuser used here is a wide angle diffuser. Normally, an optimum angle
of 5-6
o
is given for a diffuser having an area ratio of 4. However, because of
space limitations, angles much larger than the optimum angle are frequently
used. Diffusers are used for the recovery of kinetic head into useful pressure
head. For the case of a steady, incompressible and inviscid flow, Bernoullis
equation (III) can be written as
g 2
V P
g 2
V P
2
D D
2
C C
+ +

.
Also, applying the continuity equation (I) gives
D D C C
A V A V
. Since A
D
>
A
C
, V
C
> V
D
. Therefore P
D
> P
C
, thus implying there is a gain in pressure and
pressure head. For the case of a real fluid, the pressure recovery is slightly less
than the theoretical value due to energy losses arising from frictional effects.
Head Loss for Diffuser
The inlet to the diffuser may be considered to be at (C) and the outlet at (D).
Thus the head loss

,
_

,
_

+
g 2
V P
g 2
V P
H
2
D D
2
C C
D

7
( )
g 2
V
g 2
V
h h H
2
D
2
C *
D
*
C D
+ , Note : Z
C
= Z
D
= 0
or
( )

,
_

+
2
D
2
C
2
A *
D
*
C D
A
1
A
1
g 2
Q
h h H
. (13)
Also,
g 2
V
K H
2
C
D D
, where K
D
is the loss factor for the diffuser.
Therefore,
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
C
D
D

. (14)
e) 90
o
Elbow
The inlet to the elbow is at (G) and the outlet is at (H).
Head Loss for 90
o
Elbow
The head loss is given by

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +
2g
V
Z
P
2g
V
Z
P
H
2
H
H
H
2
G
G
G
E

=
2g
V
2g
V
) h h (
2
H
2
G *
H
*
G
+

,
_

+
2
H
2
G
2
A *
H
*
G E
A
1
A
1
2g
Q
) h h ( H . (15)
Also,
g 2
V
K H
2
C
E E
, where K
E
is the loss factor for the elbow.
Hence,
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
C
E
E

. (16)
A summary of the relevant equations for analyzing the experimental results is
provided on Page 17 of this manual.
8
PROCEDURE
Experiment
1. Close the delivery valve and open the exit valve after the rotameter fully.
2. Start the pump and control the flow rate through the apparatus by opening the
delivery valve slowly.
3. Bleed the air entrapped in the apparatus completely before taking any
measurement.
4. Pressurise the vertical inverted water manometer by means of a bicycle pump
to obtain a suitable reference pressure so that the variations of piezometric
heads are within the manometer range. The magnitude of this reference
pressure need not be known since it will be cancelled out when computing the
difference between the piezometric heads.
5. Determine the maximum and minimum flow rate in terms of maximum and
minimum reading of rotameter and manometer readings. Take a total of 6
readings in this range.
6. Allow sufficient time for the flow to stabilise before taking the manometer
readings.
7. Record the time required for both 5 kg and 10 kg of water to be collected in
the weighing tank.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for another five different flow rates.
9. Close the delivery valve and then switch off the pump at the end of the
experiment.
10. Measure the temperature of the water and use interpolation to calculate its
kinematic viscosity .
T (
o
C) (m
2
s
-1
)
20
30
1.004 x 10
-6
0.801 x 10
-6
Computation
1. From the experimental data recorded in Table 1, calculate the flow rates and
head losses required in Table 2 according to the equations given in THEORY
OF OPERATION (in particular, see the SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
provided on page 17) and enter the processed data in Table 2. Also calculate
the Reynolds number and loss factors in Table 3. You are encouraged to use a
spreadsheet to process your results.
9
2. For the Venturi meter, plot Q
T
[calculated using Equation (1)] as the abscissa
and Q
A
as the ordinate, and then determine C
d
using the slope of the graph [see
Equation (2)].
3. For the orifice plate meter, plot
'
Q
T
[calculated using Equation (6)] as the
abscissa and Q
A
as the ordinate, and then determine C and C
d
. C can be
determined from the slope of the graph [see Equation (5)], whereas C
d
can be
determined using Equation (7).
4. For the rotameter, plot its reading l as the abscissa and Q
A
as the ordinate.
Hence, determine its calibration curve.
5. To compare the pressure losses, plot Q
A
as the abscissa and H
V
,

H
O
,

H
D
,
H
E
and H
R
as the ordinates.
6. Plot the loss factors K
V
, K
O
, K
D
, K
E
and K
R
against their corresponding
Reynolds number N
R
. Note that the Reynolds number is given by N
R
= VD/,
where is the kinematic viscosity. The Reynolds number should be computed
based on the average velocity and diameter at the local cross section.
7. Provide sample calculations for one set of readings.
Discussion (You will be told which are the questions you need to answer.)
1. Comment on the relative advantages and disadvantages of Venturi meter,
orifice plate meter and rotameter as flow measuring devices.
2. Comment on the head losses associated with all the flow meters studied in this
experiment, emphasising the relationship between the mechanism of loss
generation and its magnitude.
3. Explain with the aid of simple sketches what is the vena contractor of an
orifice meter?
4. How does C
d
for Venturi meter and orifice meter vary with Reynolds number
and the area ratio? Why?
5. Can Venturi meter and orifice plate meter be used for low Reynolds number
flow? If you want to avoid the low Reynolds number flow problem when
monitoring low flow rate, how would you overcome it?
6. Explain the relative advantages and disadvantages of having large area ratio in
Venturi meter and orifice plate meter.
7. Comment on the limitations and major sources of error in this experiment.
8. Why is a rotameter tappered? Explain the function of the helical groves
around the periphery of the float in the rotameter. Name another example that
utilizes the same principle.
10
9. Explain the significance of the following terms:
a. Reynolds number N
R
;
b. Kinetic energy correction factor .
10. In many applications, in addition to ascertaining the flow rate, it is also of
interest to determine the local fluid velocity v. Name and briefly describe the
principles of operation of three different experimental techniques to determine
the local flow velocity v. Explain the relative advantages and disadvantages of
each technique.

11. Apart from the flow measuring devices introduced in this experiment, several
other types of commercial flow measuring devices are also available. Provide
a brief description of the following flow measuring devices, explaining the
relative advantages and disadvantages of each:
a. Nozzle
b. Turbine meter
c. Coriolis flowmeter
d. Vortex meter
e. Ultrasonic flowmeter
f. Weir
11
A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Fluid flow measurements involve measurement of pressure, velocity, discharge, density,
viscosity and many other properties, and may be accomplished in a number of ways. These
are basically either direct or indirect methods using gravimetric, volumetric, electronic,
electromagnetic, optical and other new techniques. There are a number of parameters which
govern fluid flow. One important parameter is the quantity of flow or discharge. The flow is
generally expressed in terms of volumetric rate of flow for incompressible fluids and mass
rate of flow for compressible fluids. Direct methods of discharge measurement involve
determining the weight of fluid passing through a section in a given time interval. Indirect
methods of discharge measurement require determination of head, pressure differential, or
computing the discharge. The most precise ones are the gravimetric or volumetric
measurements in which the weight or volume is measured directly by a weighing scale or by
a calibrated tank for a time interval measured by a stopwatch.
Velocity measurements can be achieved, for example, by a simple Pitot-static tube or Prandtl
tube, current meter, hot wire anemometer, laser Doppler anemometer, etc. The flow of gas
can be measured using a gas flow meter.
Electromagnetic flow devices and laser Doppler devices are utilised for flow measurement in
conduits. For the case of free surface flows in open channels, weirs and notches are utilised
for the measurement of flow. Flow can also be measured using positive displacement meter
like disc meter or wobble meter employed in domestic water distribution systems. A number
of flowmeters like orifice meters, Venturi meters, etc. are standardised according to the test
codes given by the British Standards Institution, for example.
The following references might be useful for a better understanding of flow measurements.
12
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution: BS 1042.
Dally J.W., Riley W.F. and McConnell K.G., Instrumentation for Engineering
Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, 2
nd
Edition, 1993.
Elrod Jr H.G. and Rouse R.R., An Investigation of Electromagnetic Flowmeters, Trans.
ASME Vol. 74, 589, May 1952.
Goldstein R.J., Fluid Mechanics Measurements, Taylor & Francis, 2
nd
Edition, 1996.
Holman J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, McGraw Hill, 6
th
Edition, 2001.
Khoo B.C., Lecture notes for ME2134: Fluid Mechanics I.
Massey B.S., Mechanics of Fluids, Taylor & Francis, 8
th
Edition, 2006.
Sabersky R.H., Acosta A.J., Haupymann E.G. and Gates E.M., Fluid Flow, Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 4
th
Edition, 1998.
Streeter V.L., Wylie E.D. and Bedford K.W., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill, 9
th
Edition,
1997.
Ward-Smith A.J., Internal fluid Flow, The Fluid Dynamics of Flow in Pipes and Ducts,
Oxford, 1980.
Yuan S.W., Foundations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, SI Unit Edition, 1970, pp. 157
- 166.
13
Table 1: Raw Data Sheet
Diameters
Trial
No.
Manometer Reading
Rotameter
Reading
Weight
(kg)
Time (s)
A B C D E F G H I
DA = DC = 1 5.0
DB = 10.0
DD = DE = DG = 2 5.0
DH = DI = 10.0
3 5.0
Areas 10.0
AC = 4 5.0
AB = 10.0
AD = AG = 5 5.0
AF = 10.0
AH = 6 5.0
10.0
14
Table 2: Processed Data Sheet 1 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on Page 17)
Trial
No.
Rotameter
Reading
(mm)
QA
(mm
3
/s)
QT
Venturi
(mm
3
/s)
[Eqn. 1]
'
Q
T
Orifice
(mm
3
/s)
[Eqn. 6]
Venturi
Loss
HV
(mm)
[Eqn. 3]
Orifice
Loss
HO
(mm)
[Eqn. 8]
Diffuser
Loss
HD
(mm)
[Eqn. 13]
Elbow Loss
HE
(mm)
[Eqn. 15]
Rotameter Loss
HR
(mm)
[Eqn. 11]
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 3: Processed data sheet 2 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on Page 17)
15
Estimation of loss factors
Trial
No
Actual
flow
QA
Velocity
VB
[Eq 17]
Reynolds
No
NRB
[Eq 21]
Velocity
VC
[Eq 20]
Reynolds
No
NRC
[Eq 23]
Velocity
VO
[Eq 18]
Reynolds
No
NRO
[Eq 22]
Velocity
VH
[Eq 19]
Reynolds
No
NRH
[Eq 24]
Loss
Factor
KV
[Eq 4]
Loss
Factor
KO
[Eq 9]
Loss
Factor
KD
[Eq 14]
Loss
Factor
KR
[Eq 12]
Loss
Factor
KE
[Eq 16]
Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
Temperature of water = Reynolds No. N
VD
R

Kinematic Viscosity of water =

16
SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
Computation of energy loss or head loss between stations 1 and 2:

,
_

,
_

+
g 2
V
h
g 2
V
h H
2
2 *
2
2
1 *
1 12
,
where
1
A
1
A
Q
V
and
2
A
2
A
Q
V
Application of the above equations between stations 1 and 2 yields the energy or head loss between the two stations.
1. Venturi Meter (between A and C):
*
C
*
A V
h h H (3)
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
B
V
V


(4), where
B
A
B
A
Q
V
(17)
2
1
2
B A
*
B
*
A
A T
1 ) /A (A
) h g(h 2
A Q
1
]
1

(1)
T A d
Q Q C
(2)
2. Orifice Meter (between E and F):
( )( )
2 *
F
*
E O
C 1 h h H (8)
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
O
O
O


(9), where
O
A
O
A
Q
V
(18)
2
1
2
E O
*
F
*
E
O T
) /A (A 1
) h g(h 2
A Q'
1
]
1

(6)
'
Q C Q
T A
(5)
2
1
2
E O
2
d
2
E O
d
) /A (A C 1
) /A (A 1
C C
1
]
1

(7)
3. Rotameter (between H and I):
*
I
*
H R
h h H (11)
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
H
R
R


(12), where
H
A
H
A
Q
V
(19)
4. Diffuser (between C and D):
( )

,
_

+
2
D
2
C
2
A *
D
*
C D
A
1
A
1
g 2
Q
h h H (13)
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
C
D
D


(14), where
C
A
C
A
Q
V
(20)
5. 90 Elbow (between G and H):

,
_

+
2
H
2
G
2
A *
H
*
G E
A
1
A
1
2g
Q
) h h ( H (15)
) g 2 / (V
H
K
2
C
E
E


(16), where
C
A
C
A
Q
V
(20)
Reynolds Number:
17

B B
RB
D V
N (21);

O O
RO
D V
N (22);

C C
RC
D V
N (23);

H H
RH
D V
N (24)
18