OPEN-LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS

The term open-loop indicates that no feedback is fed to the input from output. The op-amp functions as a very high gain amplifier. There are three open-loop configurations of op-amp, namely, i) Differential amplifier ii) Inverting amplifier and iii) Noninverting amplifier

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Open-loop Differential Amplifier

The input voltages are represented by vi1 and vi 2 . Ri1 and Ri 2 are negligibly small Vo = A(Vi1 Vi 2 ) where A is large-signal voltage gain.

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Inverting Amplifier
The output voltage is 180 out-of-phase with respect to the input and hence, the output voltage Vo is given by Vo = AVi The input is amplified by open-loop gain A and is phase-shifted by 180 .

Noninverting Amplifier
Vo = AVi The input signal is amplified by A and the output is in-phase with input

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Limitations of Open-loop Op-amp Configurations

In all the above open-loop configurations, only very small values of input voltages can be applied. Or, clipping of the output waveform can occur When operated so, the output is either in negative or positive saturation. This prevents the use of open-loop configurations of op-amps in linear applications. The open-loop gain is not constant - it varies with changing temperature and variations in power supply.

CLOSED-LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS

The op-amp can be effectively utilized in linear applications by providing a feedback, either directly or through another network. If the signal fed-back is out-of-phase by 180 , then the feedback is negative or degenerative feedback. If feedback is in-phase, then it is positive or regenerative feedback An op-amp with feedback is a closed-loop amplifier
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The most commonly used configurations are Inverting amplifier (voltage-shunt feedback) and Noninverting amplifier (voltage-series feedback).

Inverting Amplifier
Input signal drives the inverting input through R1 Because of the phase inversion, the output signal is 180 out-of-phase with the input signal This means that the feedback signal opposes the input signal and the feedback is negative or degenerative

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Virtual ground
A virtual ground is a ground which acts like a ground. It may not have physical connection to ground. This property indicates that the inverting and noninverting terminals of the op-amp are at the same potential. The open-loop gain of an op-amp is extremely high, typically 200,000 for a 741. For example, when the output voltage is 10V, the input differential voltage Vid is given by Vo 10 Vid = = = 0.05mV A 200,000

Furthermore, the open-loop input impedance of a 741 is around 2 M . Therefore, for an input differential voltage of 0.05mV, the input current is only Vid 0.05mV Ii = = = 0.25nA Ri 2 M Since the input current is so small, this can be approximated as zero. Hence, the inverting input of Fig. 3.35(a) acts as a virtual ground.
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Practical considerations
i) Setting the input impedance R1 to be too high will pose problems with the bias current, and it is usually restricted to 10k. ii)The gain can not be set very high due to the upper limit set by the gainbandwidth (GBW = Av f ) product. Av is normally below 100. iii) The peak output of the op-amp is about 2V less than supply iv) Heavy output current may damage the op-amp

Noninverting Amplifier
The feedback is negative or degenerative R1 Vi = Vo R1 + R f Rf Vo R1 + R f . = =1 + Vi R1 R1 Hence, the voltage gain is Rf Vo Av = =1 + Vi R1
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Example For the non-inverting amplifier of Fig. R1 = 1k and R f = 10 k . Calculate the closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier and feedback factor . Solution Av = 1 +

10 k = 11 1k R1 1k The feedback factor = = = 0.091 R1 + R f 1k + 10 k The closed-loop voltage gain = 1 +

Rf R1

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DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R f = R Using the superposition principle, If Vi1 = 0 , Vo 2 = Vi 2 If Vi 2 = 0 , Vo1 = [Vi1 / 2](1 + R / R ) = Vi1 If both inputs are applied, Vo = Vo1 + Vo 2 = Vi1 Vi 2 If R f ( R1 R2 R3 ) , Rf R f R3 Vo = 1 + Vi1 Vi 2 R R R3 + R2

General Description of Op-amp 741

i)
A741

is an internally frequency-compensated op-amp

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ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x)

It is a monolithic IC, fabricated using planar epitaxial process It has internal short-circuit protection It has externally connected offset null capability It has large common-mode and differential voltage ranges It is useful in many applications such as integrator, differentiator, adder, subtractor, voltage follower or buffer and other feedback applications It consumes low power It suffers from no latch-up It is available in all the three types of packages, namely, 8-pin metal Can, 10-pin Flatpack and 8 or 14-pin dual-in-line package or DIP For 741C, two sets of electrical specifications are provided, where the first set is meant for operating characteristics at room temperature (25C) and the other set applies to the commercial temperature range (0 to + 70C)

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UNIT II APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS SIGN CHANGER (PHASE INVERTER) Input impedance Z1 and feedback impedance Z f The impedances Z1 and Z f are equal in magnitude Dr VSKB and phase Closed-loop voltage gain is -1 & 180 phase shift at output thus a phase inverter If two are connected in cascade, then the output from the second stage is in phase with, or the same as the input signal without any sign change Dr VSKB The outputs from the two stages are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase Such a system is an excellent paraphase amplifier.

Dr VSKB Inverting op-amp with voltage shunt feedback

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SCALE CHANGER If the ratio Z f / Z1 = k is a real constant, then the closed-loop gain is k The input voltage is multiplied by a factor k The scaled output is available at the output Z f and Z1 are precision resistors to obtain scaled value of input voltage PHASE SHIFT CIRCUITS The phase shift circuits produce phase shifts that depend on the frequency and maintain a constant gain Also called constant-delay filters or all-pass filters That is, the time difference between Dr VSKB and output remains constant when input frequency is changed over a range of operating frequencies A constant gain is maintained for all the frequencies within the operating range - thus, called all-pass The two types - lagging phase angles and leading phase angles Dr VSKB If Z1 = Z f (equal in magnitude and differ in angle), then the op-amp shifts the phase of the sine input voltage Any phase shift between -180o and +180o can be obtained by varying Z1 and Z f .
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Phase-Lag Circuit Assumed the vi drives the inverting amplifier Inverting input applied at (-) terminal Non-inverting amplifier with a low-pass filter Inverting input gain is -1 R Non-inverting gain is 1 + f = 1 + 1 = 2 , R1

Dr VSKB

since R f = R1 .
Dr VSKB For the circuit shown in Fig, it can be written as 1 Vo ( j ) = Vi + 2 Vi 1 + jRC

1 1 jRC Vo ( j ) = Vi 1 + 2 = Dr VSKB Vi 1 + jRC 1 + jRC The relationship between output and input is Vo ( j ) 1 jRC = Vi ( j ) 1 + jRC
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The phase angle = tan (RC ) tan 1 (RC ) = 2 tan 1 (RC ) When =0, = zero and when = , = -180 1 = 2 tan 1 ( f / f o ) where fo = 2RC Example 4.1 Find the phase angle and the time delay for the circuit shown in Fig. (a) , R for a frequency of 2kHz, assuming R1 = 20 k, R = 39 kDr VSKBf = R1 and C=1nF.
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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Solution The circuit is a phase-lag network. 1 1 Dr VSKB Therefore, f o = = = 4081Hz . 2RC [2 39 10 3 1 10 9 ]

2 10 3 The phase angle of 2kHz frequency is = 2 tan 1 = 52.2. 4081 Dr VSKB Phase angle is directly proportional to delay, and 360 of delay pertains to one period. t 1 1 52.2 = = d which gives t d = = 72.5s . Therefore, 360 T f 360 2 10 3 360

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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Phase-Lead Circuit

Dr VSKB

Dr VSKB

The RC circuit forms a high-pass network. jRC The output voltage Vo ( j ) = Vi ( j ) + 2 Vi ( j ) 1 + jRC Dr VSKB Vo ( j ) 1 + jRC Therefore, = Vi ( j ) 1 + jRC

= 180 tan 1 (RC ) tan 1 (RC ) = 180 2 tan 1 (RC )

(4.7)
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When the frequency = zero, the phase angle = 180. As the frequency is increased, the leading phase decreases and it finally approaches zero at high frequencies. 1 . = 180 2 tan 1 ( f / f o ) where f o = 2RC
Dr VSKB

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

If R1 = and R f = 0 in the noninverting amplifier, then the amplifier acts as an unity-gain amplifier or voltage follower. Dr VSKB Rf Rf That is, Av = 1 + or = Av 1 R1 R1 R Since f = 0, we have Av = 1. R1 Dr VSKB
In other words, Vo = Vi or, the circuit is called voltage follower. Offers very high input impedance of order of M and very low output impedance. Therefore, used for impedance matching applications.
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VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER (TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER) An ideal V to I source (VCCS) gives a current I L that is a constant k times an independent, controlling voltage Vi . i.e., I L = kVi Dr VSKB Two circuits: (i) V-to-I with floating load (ii) V-to-I with grounded load (i) Load Z L is floating. Dr VSKB The voltage at node a is Vi . Thus, as I B = 0 , Vi = I L R1 . i.e. I L = Vi / R1 ; (ii) Load Z L is grounded. The voltage at node a is Va . Applying KVL at node a, and with R = R f , Dr VSKB I1 + I 2 = I L ; (Vi Va ) / R + (Vo Va ) / R = I L ; Vi + Vo 2 Va = I L R Va = (Vi + Vo I L R ) / 2 The gain of this NI op-amp circuit is 1 + R/R = 2.
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Vo = 2Va = Vi + Vo I L R Vi = I L R Or I L = Vi / R Hence, it is a voltage to current transducer IL 1 Or g m = = Vi R The circuits are called VCCS since Vi I L = = Vi g m R1 where g m is the transconductance in Siemens. Dr VSKB

ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Dr VSKB

Dr VSKB

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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

I-TO-V CONVERTER (CURRENT-CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCES) A current to voltage converter is an ideal current-controlled voltage source Also called transresistance amplifier Output voltage is a constant k times an independent I i or Vo = kI i Due to the virtual ground Va = 0 , Dr VSKB The current through R1 is zero I i flows through resistor R f . Thus Vo = I i R f .
C f connected across R f reduces the high frequency possible oscillations
Dr VSKB

Noninverting I to V converter circuit I i has a return path to ground Dr VSKB Voltage at noninverting input is Vi = I i Ri . Rf Rf Then Vo = 1 + Vi = 1 + I i R1 R1 R1
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ADDER OR SUMMING AMPLIFIER

The adder is called summing amplifier. Since a virtual ground exists at node a, V1 V2 Vn I= + + ...... + R1 R2 Rn Rf Rf Rf + V2 + .... + Vn Vo = R f I = V1 R2 Rn R1 If R1 = R2 = ..... = Rn = R, then Rf (V1 + V2 + ... + Vn ) Vo = Dr VSKB R Or Vo = V1 AV 1 + V2 AV 2 + V3 AV 3 + ... + Vn AVn where

Dr VSKB

Av 1 , Av 2 ...Avn

are individual gains.

A level-shifter circuit can be realized by use of a two-input summing circuit Dr VSKB One input can be the ac signal, and the second input can be the dc value The dc value acts as the offset for the ac signal.

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SUBTRACTOR
Assume R1 = R2 = R3 = R f = R . By superposition principle, if V1 = 0 , Vo 2 = [V2 / 2](1 + R / R ) = V2 Dr VSKB Similarly, if V2 = 0 , then Vo1 = V1 Considering both inputs applied, Vo = Vo 2 + Vo1 = V2 V1 Thus, the output voltage is proportionalVSKB the difference between the two input Dr to voltages. Hence, it acts as a difference amplifier with unity gain.

ADDER-SUBTRACTOR ..?
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INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER Instrumentation amplifiers are used in monitoring and controlling of the physical quantities in the industrial processes for measurement and control of temperature, humidity, and light intensity. The major function of an instrumentation amplifier is precise amplification of low level output signal of the transducer Dr VSKB Widely used in applications where low noise, low thermal and time drifts, high input impedance and accurate closed-loop gains are required. AD521, AD524, AD624 from Analog Devices, and A725, ICL7605 , and LH0036.
The important features of an instrumentation amplifier are i) high gain accuracy ii) high CMRR iii) high gain stability with low temperature coefficient iv) low dc offset and Dr VSKB v) low output impedance The differential amplifier input impedance limited by R1 . The gain of the differential amplifier is decided by R2 / R1
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This limitation is overcome by voltage follower for each signal input. This has the disadvantage that the gain of amplifier cannot easily be changed. This offers high input impedance and a high gain. A1 and A2 are voltage follower or buffers When V1 = V2 , common mode signal=0 Dr VSKB The voltage across resistor R is zero. Since no current flows through resistors R and R, V2' = V2 and V1' =V1 (V1 V2 ) For V1 V2 , current in R is I = Dr VSKB R ' And I will flow through R
R1 V2 V1 R1

Voltage at NI terminal of A3 is

R2V1' R1 + R2

By using superposition theorem, Vo =

Dr VSKB

R2 ' R2 R2V1' V2 + 1 + R1 R1 R1 + R2

Simplifying, we get

Vo =

R2 ' (V2 V1' ) R1

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Since there is no current entering the op-amp, I =

R' (V1 V2 ) + V1 R R' and V2' = R ' I + V2 = (V1 V2 ) + V2 R ' ' Substituting V1 and V2 for Vo , R2 2 R ' Vo = R (V1 V2 ) + (V1 V2 ) R1 V1' = R ' I + V1 =

(V1 V2 ) , and I flows through R. R

R1

Dr VSKB
V1 R1

V2

i.e., Vo =

R2 R1

2 R' 1 + R (V1 V2 )

Dr VSKB

By using a variable resistor R, the gain of this instrumentation amplifier can be Dr VSKB varied.

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INTEGRATOR (or integrating amplifier)

A circuit in which the output voltage is the time integral of the input voltage waveform integrator. Integrator produces a summing action over a required time interval The circuit is based on the general parallel-inverting voltage feedback model.

Ideal Integrator
Feedback element Z f replaced by a capacitor C f The Kirchoffs current equation at node a is i1 = I B + i f Dr VSKB Since I B is negligibly small, i1 = i f dv c (t ) The iC (t ) = C dt vi (t ) va (t ) d Or, = C f (va (t ) vo (t )) dt Dr VSKB R1 However, vb (t ) = v a (t ) = 0 vi (t ) d Therefore, = C f ( vo (t )) dt R1

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Integrating both sides with respect to time, t v (t ) t d i dt = C f ( vo (t ))dt = C f vo (t ) vo (0) dt 0 R1 0 1 t Therefore, vo (t ) = vi (t )dt + vo (0 ) where vo (0 ) is the initial output voltage. R1C f 0 The output voltage is directly proportional to the Dr VSKB negative integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional to the time constant R1C f . In frequency domain, the above equation becomes 1 Vo (s ) = Vi (s ) sR1C f Dr VSKB 1 Letting s = j in steady state, Vo ( j ) = Vi ( j ) jR1C f Hence, the magnitude of the transfer function of the integrator is 1 Vo ( j ) Dr VSKB j = = A= Vi ( j ) (R1C f ) R1C f At = 0, the gain of the integrator is infinite. Also the capacitor acts as an open circuit and hence there is no negative feedback.
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Summing Integrator The summing integrator is derived from the simple integrator The output voltage for the summing integrator can be written as 1 t v1 (t ) v 2 (t ) v 3 (t ) Dr VSKB vo (t ) = + + dt + vo (0 ) C f 0 R1 R2 R3 1 V1 (s ) V2 (s ) V3 (s ) Therefore, Vo (s ) = + + sC f R1 R2 R3
Dr VSKB

Dr VSKB

Fig. 4.21 Summing integrator

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Limitations of an Ideal Integrator Even in the absence of input signal, the offset voltage and the bias current contribute for an error voltage at the output. Thus, it is not possible to get a true integration of the input signal at the output. The output waveform is distorted due to this error voltage. Dr VSKB The bandwidth of an ideal integrator is very small. To avoid this, a resistor is placed in parallel with the integrator capacitor to limit the low frequency gain. However, this limits the useful integration range at higher frequencies.
Dr along A few additional components are used VSKB with the ideal integrator circuit to minimize the effect of the error voltage. Such an integrator is called practical integrator.

Practical Integrator Circuit Dr VSKB

The parallel combination of R f and C f dissipates power. Thus, this circuit is a lossy integrator. It provides the dc stabilization, by limiting the low frequency gain to R f / R1 .
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Vi (s ) Vo (s ) + sC f Vo (s ) + =0 Rf R1 1 Vi (s ) Or Vo (s ) = sR1C f + R1 / R f

ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Substituting s = j , Vo 1 R f / R1 A= = = 2 2 2 2 2 Vi R1 C f + R1 / R f 1 + ( R f C f

Dr VSKB

)2

When R f is very large the lossy integrator is approximately an ideal integrator. At low frequencies, the gain is approximately equal to R f / R1 . Dr VSKB At 3dB level the gain is 0.707 (R f / R11 ).

Dr VSKB

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Example Assuming R1 = 10 k, R f = 100 k and C f = 10 nF in a practical integrator circuit, determine the lower frequency limit of integration and the output response for the inputs (a) sine wave (b) square wave and (c) step input. Solution Given R1 = 10 k, R f = 100 k and C f = 10 nF . The lower frequency limit of integration is Dr VSKB 1 1 fa = = = 159 Hz 2R f C f 2 100 10 3 10 10 9 For accurate integration, input freq. must be atleast one decade above f a i.e., 1590Hz. a) For the sine wave input Dr VSKB For an input of 1V peak sine wave at 2.5kHz, the output vo is 1 v o (t ) = v c (t )dt R1C f 1 Dr VSKB = 1 sin( 2 2500t )dt 10k 10 nF 10 4 [ cos( 2 2500t )] = 0.637 cos(2 2500t ) = 10 4 sin( 2 2500t )dt = 2 2500 The output is a cosine wave with peak of 0.637V only
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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

b) For the square wave input

The input is 2.5kHz with 1V peak The output will be ramps The peak value of the output for first half cycle is Dr VSKB 0.2 ms 1 4 3 vo = 1 dt = 10 0.2 10 = 2V R1C f 0 Similarly, integration over the next half-cycle produces a positive change of 1V. c) For the step input Dr VSKB If input is a step voltage Vi = 1V for 0 t 0.6 ms, 1 0.6 ms Then vo = 1dt R1C f 0 Dr VSKB 1 t =0.6 ms = t t =0 9 3 10 10 10 10 = 10 4 0.6 10 3 = 6V
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DIFFERENTIATOR The differentiator can perform differentiation, i.e. the output voltage is the differentiation of the input voltage. Ideal Differentiator Kirchoffs Current Law at node a iC = I B + i f Dr VSKB Since I B 0 , iC = i f v a vo d C1 ( vi v a ) = Rf dt But v a = vb 0V , because A is very large.VSKB Dr dvi dvi vo Therefore, or vo = R f C1 C1 = dt Rf dt Summing Differentiator . dv 2 (t ) dv1 (t ) + C 2Dr VSKB vo (t ) = R f C1 dt dt dv1 (t ) dv 2 (t ) If C1 = C 2 , vo (t ) == R f C1 + dt dt
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Example Design a differentiator to differentiate an input signal that varies in frequency from 10Hz to about 1kHz. Solution 1 Dr VSKB The upper cut-off frequency, f a = 1kHz = 2R f C1 1 Letting C1 = 1F , we have R f = = 1.59 k ( 2 )(10 3 )(10 6 ) Limitations of Differentiator The differentiator circuits are more susceptible to noise When differentiated, the noise fluctuationsVSKB generate large noise signals Dr will This problem minimized by placing a resistor in series with the input capacitor. This modified circuit differentiates only low frequency signals with a constant high frequency gain. 1 As the frequency increases, gain increases due to the reduction of X C1 = . 2fC1 Therefore, at high frequencies, the differentiator will become unstable and may enter Dr into saturation. This VSKB makes the circuit very sensitive to noise and the stability is affected. The noise component may override the signal also.
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Practical Differentiator Vi Va Vi The input current iC = = Z1 Z1 where Z1 = (R1 in series with C1 ) . 1 1 + sR1C1 = Z1 = R1 + sC1 sC1 Dr VSKB sC1Vi (s ) IC = (1 + sR1C1 ) v a vo vo = The current i f 1 is i f 1 = Dr VSKB Rf Rf d (v a v o ) Vo (s ) dvo and i f 2 = C f It can be expressed as I f 1 = =Cf dt Rf dt Taking the Laplace transform, I f 2 = sC f Vo (s ) Applying Kirchoffs Current Law at node a, I C = I f 1 + I f 2 sC1 Vi (s ) Vo (s ) sR f C1Vi (s ) Therefore, = sC f Vo (s ); Or Vo (s ) = (1 + sR f C f )(1 + sR1C1 ) (1 + sR1CDr)VSKB R f 1
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Vo (s ) Z f sR f C1 Then, = = (1 + sR f C f )(1 + sR1C1 ) Vi (s ) Z i Vo (s ) sR f C1 sR f C1 1 Dr VSKB . where f b = = = If R f C f = R1C1 , we get 2 2R1C1 Vi (s ) (1 + sR1C1 )2 f 1 + j fb dvi When R1C1 and R f C f << R f C1 , then vo = R f C1 . dt Applications of Differentiator Differentiators are used as waveshaping Dr VSKB and edge detectors. circuits Integrators and differentiators used with adders and amplifiers in analog computers.

ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Comparison between an integrator and a differentiator

The process of integration involves the accumulation of signal over time. Hence sudden changes in signal are suppressed. Therefore, an effective smoothing of the signal is achieved, and hence, integration can be viewed as low-pass filtering. The process of differentiation involves the identification of sudden changes in the Dr VSKB input signal. Constant and slowly changing signals are suppressed by a differentiator. Therefore, the differentiator can be viewed as a form of high-pass filtering.
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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER Basic Log Circuit IE

Dr VSKB

Dr VSKB

The log-amp or a logger, is a current to voltage converter with Vo = Vi ln ( I f / I i )

Q with its base grounded and its collector at virtual ground is a transdiode.
kT I C ln q IS V kT Vi kT Vi = V I i = i and VBE Dr VSKBo ; Vo = ln R I = q ln V where V R = R1 I S Ri q 1 S R Hence, the output voltage is the logarithmic input voltage.

For the transdiode, I E = I C and VBE =

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 The emitter saturation current I S of the transistor widely varies from one transistor to the other. This problem could be eliminated by the method shown below Dr VSKB Vi & V R are applied to to two log amps Thus I S1 = I S 2 = I S
Vol = kT Vi ln q R1 I S kT VR ln q R1I S
Dr VSKB

ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Vo 2 =

Vo =

kT VR kT Vi ln ln q R1I S q R1I S kT VR kT Vi kT Vi Dr VSKB = ln ln ln = q R1I S q R1I S q VR

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 A4 compensates the effects of temperature with the temperature sensitive resistor RTC that has a positive temperature coefficient. R kT Vi VL = 1 + 2 R q ln V R TC
Dr VSKB

ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

Logarithmic amplifier using two op-amps

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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

ANTILOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER
Basic Antilog Circuit
Dr VSKB

Dr VSKB

Antilog amplifier is a decoding circuitry Converts the log-encoded signal The transistor is at the inverting input with its base grounded It converts Vi into log Ii Due to virtual ground log Ii passes through R f . The output voltage is V o = R f I i where I i = I C = I S e qVBE / kT Therefore, Vo = R f I S e qVBE / kT .
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ECE204 Analog Circuit Design

For the modified circuit shown, kT VL kT VR and V2 BE = ln ln V1 BE = q R1I S q R1I S Dr VSKB RTC kT V L ; And, V B = V A = V1BE = ln Vi R 2 + RTC q R1 I S

(4.37)

VQ 2 E = VB + V2 BE or VQ 2 E =
But, VQ 2 E = VA Therefore,

RTC kT V Vi ln R R2 + RTC q R1I S

Dr VSKB RTC kT V L kT V R = Vi ln ln q R1 I S R 2 + RTC q R1 I S kT V kT V R RTC kT V L Rearranging, Vi = ln L R I q ln R I = q ln V R2 + RTC 1 S R q 1 S V q RTC Or, KVi = log L where K = 0.4343 kT R2 + RTC V R

Hence, VL = VR10 KVi

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