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Solar cells are devices that convert solar energy into electricity, either directly via the photovoltaic effect or indirectly by first converting the solar energy to heat or chemical energy. The most common form of solar cells make use of the photovoltaic effect and are generally called PV cells.
Together, these needs have provided a growing market for photovoltaics and this has stimulated innovation. As the market has grown, the cost of solar cells and PV systems has decreased, and new applications have been discovered.
Almost half the silicon is lost as sawdust in the two processes mentioned above. Amorphous silicon solar cells (see Figure 1 (c)) are made by depositing a thin film of silicon from a reactive gas such as silane (SiH4) onto a low cost glass or plastic base (substrate). This is a low cost process but the cells have a much lower efficiency than crystalline cells.
a) Single crystal solar cells in a panel. Each cell is made from two crystal wafers that are chemically slightly different.
The PV Industry
The PV industry is growing rapidly as the technology becomes cheaper and concerns increase about global warming. The total international production in 1997 was 130 MW, worth more than $500 million. This is expected to double every three years as demand increases (see Figure 2). The major manufacturers of solar panels are Solarex and USSC (in the USA), Sanyo, Canon and Kyocera (in Japan) and BP Solar and Siemens Solar (in Europe). There are many other smaller manufacturers.
Figure 2. Graph showing market growth over time (IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Program).
Australia has only one commercial PV plant, BP Solar in Sydney, capable of producing 40 MW of solar cells each year for local and export markets. In addition, Pacific Solar in Sydney and Sustainable Technologies International, near Canberra, operate pilot cell lines while Origin Energy is building a cell and module line which will open in Adelaide in 2005. Pacific Solar markets Plug&Power, a fully-integrated rooftop PV system for gridconnected applications, throughout Australia. Designed as an appliance, Plug&Power comprises PV modules with module inverters, integrated rooftop mounts, plug and socket cabling plus a display/monitoring unit (Sunlogger) and computer access software.
Applications
The need for power in satellites and space vehicles provided the first impetus for the development of photovoltaics. The unit cost of electricity from PV is high but the reliability is good. Niche markets are found where the power demand is low and grid connection is expensive. Such applications include low power consumer products such as watches, toys and calculators to and telecommunications in remote areas.
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
PV systems can be used to provide power to isolated homes and communities. Storage batteries must be used for the power to be available when the sun is not shining. PV generates low voltage direct current. An inverter will change this to alternating current at the proper voltage to power regular electrical appliances. In Australia a large proportion of isolated outback stations are using solar powered Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) systems. In many States a subsidy is available for the installation of a RAPS system in a remote area. These systems are also widely used in rural electrification projects in developing countries.
SOLAR FARMS
Electricity from PV cells is expensive because of the high initial cost of the cells. In Australia and the USA the emergence of green power schemes, which permit customers to choose renewable energy options, has considerably aided the growth of the industry. Grid-connected solar farms have been established by many Australian electricity utilities as accredited green power generators. These include Western Powers PV Array at Kalbarri, WA (see Figure 3); Energy Australias Solar Farm at Singleton, NSW (Hunter Valley); CitiPowers Energy Park at East Brunswick, Victoria; Energy Australia's Homebush Park & National Innovation Centre, NSW; Country Energy's Solar Farm in Queanbeyan, NSW; and Origin Energys Queen Victoria Market in Melbourne.
ROOF-TOP PV
Rooftop PVs do not require extra space or support structures and supply power where it is needed. Power is at a maximum on hot, sunny days when air conditioning demand is high. However, power from other sources is needed for night time. Rooftop PVs are now driving the development of the market in Japan, Europe and the USA. Japan aims to build 70,000 solar homes, installing 400 MW of PV by the year 2000 and 4,600 MW by 2010. Several countries In Europe support the construction of solar homes, with the European Parliament proposing a 1,000 MW scheme. In the USA in 1997 President Clinton announced a Solar Roofs Program, which aimed to install solar energy systems, either PV or solar hot water, on one million roofs in America by 2010. Australia has a Photo Voltaic Rebate Program to support the installation of rooftop PVs.
ELECTRIC FENCES
Electric fences are widely used in agriculture to prevent stock or predators from entering or leaving an enclosed field. These fences usually have one or two 'live' wires that are maintained at about 500 V DC. The wires give a painful, but harmless shock to any animal that touches them and this is generally sufficient to prevent stock from pushing the fences over. Electric fences are also used in wildlife enclosures and secure areas. They require a high voltage but very little current and are often located in remote areas where the cost of electrical energy is high. This DC voltage can be met by a PV system involving solar cells, a power conditioner and a battery.
Figure 5. Electric Fence. (Image courtesy of Katrina Lyon, Murdoch University)
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Other significant applications include portable power supplies for camping and fishing and vaccine and blood storage refrigerators for remote areas.
PV Research in Australia
Photovoltaics are an active research area in Australia and there are several groups involved with the work. They include: Photovoltaics Special Research Centre, University of NSW Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University Murdoch University - Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell Research.
Abbreviations
MW mega watts kw kilowatts DC direct current
Further Information
For more information on How do Solar Cells Work and Arrays and Systems visit the RE-Files Australian Cooperative Research Centre for Renewable Energy (ACRE) Murdoch University Energy Research Institute (MUERI) PV Research Centre, UNSW Western Power (Kalbarri PV installation) CitiPower Energy Park Energy Australia Country Energy (Was Great Southern Energy) Australia and New Zealand Solar Energy Society (ANZES) CREST International Solar Energy Society (ISES) National Renewable Energy Laboratory (USA)
Publications
BOOKS
Green, Martin. A., Solar Cells: Operating Principles, Technology and System Applications, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Sydney: Prentice Hall, 1992 Komp, Richard, J. Practical Photovoltaics, Electricity From Solar Cells. Kampmann & Company, Inc. New York, 1984 Koltun, M.M. Solar Cells, Their Optics and Metrology. Allerton Press Inc. 1988. Markvart, Tomas (ed.), Solar Electricity, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, 1995. Zweibel, Kenneth., Harnessing Solar Power: The Photovoltaics Challenge, Plenum Press, New York, 1990 8
Acknowledgements
This information was developed by Anna Carr, Serena Fletcher, Katrina Lyon and Mark Rayner with assistance from John Todd (University of Tasmania) and Philip Jennings of Murdoch University (June 1999). It was reworked by Christine Creagh (2004, Murdoch University) and edited by Philip Jennings (Murdoch University) and Mary Dale (Australian Institute of Energy).