(approx. 4 hours) no start and end time because I left it half way sorry its so long!

g! Drive theory: chapter 5 y Concept of drive introduced originally by Freud and Woodworth in the early 1900s and replaced the concept of instinct. Freud was a medical doctor who specialized in neurology who developed psychoanalytic theory and psychoanalytic therapeutic technique to treat nervous illnesses. The one he was most engaged with initially was hysteria his patients were primarily women. Woodworth was an American experimental psychologist schooled in the U.S. Both had come upon the concept of drive which refers to an energized state arising out of need that propels organisms toward a goal that satisfies the need and reduces the drive. This is the drive reduction model. Both Woodworth and Freud subscribed to this model, even though they came from different cultural, scientific, and educational traditions.

a)Drive arises out of a specific need b)Drive is channelled into a general increase in behaviour that brings the organism into contact with objects that may satisfy that need. Drive is synonymous to arousal. c)Drive induces responses that reduce need and drive. Drive Reduction Theory of Reinforcement this means that any behaviour that achieves a goal that satisfies the need and reduces the drive will be reinforced. This means that the next time a need/drive is active the organism is likely to engage in the same successful behaviour from a previous occasion. Another way of looking at this is that we do know what we did last that was successful. d)Responses that lead to drive reduction are learned modes of conduct we learn behaviours that are successful in satisfying our need and reducing our drive The importance of reducing the drive drive is synonymous with arousal. Therefore, when drive/arousal is too high it becomes uncomfortable/stressful. Therefore, we have to reduce the drive/arousal to a more manageable level. When people are not in a state of depressed immobility (seen in posture, general body language, reluctance to speech) they may reflect agitated states with co-exist with a depressed state. If someone is depressed, they may become agitated and may things that are negative, they may challenge you, and so forth. Depression is a state of low arousal and we want to help an individual overcome the depression by being re-aroused. You want to also reduce the accompanying agitation. Therefore, in clinical depression, you may try to create an arousal, yet reduce the agitation. As a result, there are psychoactive drugs that address the depression (low arousal) and the agitation (which may represent higher arousal). This helps the individual return to some stasis so that they can feel more balanced (emotionally) and no longer feels the depression or agitation/distemper.

Early formulations Freud, in the early 1900s, used drive concept as a moving force; as energy that arouses organism and initiates behaviour. Drive as psychic energy that accumulates in the personality structure of the id. Pressure builds and requires release. We try to maintain an optimal level of arousal in our personalities. When arousal becomes too high, we make efforts to reduce it; when arousal is low, we engage in efforts to increase it. Note that Freud postulated three functional structures of personality: id, ego, and superego. Psychic energy builds when a need exists; when bodily functions change so does the energy build up. As we satisfy our basic organic requirements, the energy that has been accumulating decreases. Satisfaction is synonymous with energy reduction. Why this reduction in energy? Energy beyond a certain point is unpleasant since organism governed by principle of constancy. Reduce excitation in nervous system and this is pleasurable. Increase in excitation is un-pleasurable.

Freud said that moving force (drive) has four characteristics: refer to page 136 in the Chapter 5 hand-out Pressure is strength of the force. The stronger the force, the more motivated we are to relieve ourselves of that pressure. A generic term for any medication that relieves pressure is sedative it has a calming effect. When we are under intense emotional pressure, we dont want further emotional excitement. Rather, we want relief and the return to calm we want to be sedated. When people are under pressure and agitated they often relieve this feeling by eating. It is a common way of managing tension and emotional pressure (i.e. comfort food). To enhance, there is a risk: it may bring you across the threshold to pain (i.e. eating for comfort, but overeating can lead to discomfort/pain). Opponent process theory as we increase, we have to eventually decrease we need to constantly return to a state of equilibrium. We may want to enhance, but sometimes we cross the threshold and move into the opposite of enhancement: the domain of discomfort. Aim of the moving force is satisfaction Object of moving force may be internal or external to the individual. The object may change in the course of life but moving force remains the same.

 *** Human beings are inclined to take risks for non-biological requirements. As a result, we will engage in activities that dont have any necessarily biological advantage. Yet, we are willing to take the risk for a non-biological motive. Fixation of an object or restricted range of objects may occur as we develop in age and experience, we tend to fix upon certain objects that are more satisfying than others. For example, when we are thirsty, we start to restrict our range to whatever quenches our thirst in other words, we start to show preferences, likes and dislikes. Source of moving force is the need (bodily deficit from which too much excitation hunger, thirst, fatigue, etc. arises). Biological needs that are not sufficiently or adequately met leave us in an unsatisfied and uncomfortable state. As a result, we try to find comfort in reducing excitation and the accompanying discomforts. Freuds model: y Need: o o o o

psychic energy Behaviour goal satisfaction through need reduction

For example: o o o o Source: need for water Pressure: strength of the need is great due to 36 hours of water deprivation Aim is pleasure through need reduction Object is water that can provide need reduction which may change throughout life and vary.

Once you achieve satisfaction, you become quiescent this is similar to the word quiet. You are then content.

Two classes of moving forces: Life and Death. Life force psychic energy that powers the life force is called Eros Life force consists of reproductive, sexual and life affirming functions. Libido is the name of the sexual force. Before puberty, libido is separated into different stages (psycho-sexual stages of development) representing different zones of the body (erogenous zones). At puberty and after, the separate stages are fused into one: Genital and libido shifts to interactions that reproduce and affirm life. Yet, trauma (accident, serious injury) may lead to displacement of

libido onto inappropriate objects and fixation at earlier, immature stages of psycho-sexual development. For example, we discuss being traumatized (physical assault, sexual assault, serious car accidents, loss of a loved one, etc.) which creates an overwhelming experience and destabilizes the individual and causes disequilibrium (physically and psychologically). Death force psychic energy that powers it is called thanatos. Here, the drive is to reduce energy to zero. Aggressive behaviour is an indication of death force and is a compromise between the life and death forces locked in perpetual conflict. The term that emerged from WWI that is appropriate to psychiatry is War Neurosis. This is the traumatic experience of battle, injury, of being separated from the familiar, loved ones, community, and so forth. What emerged from WWI, from a psychiatric point of view, is an element of war neurosis that beset so many soldiers. Freud became increasingly concerned with an oppositional force that seemed to operate in the human psyche. Throughout history, war and devastation have occurred. Additionally, individuals not only murder others, but they may also engage in murdering themselves/suicide. As a result, any psychologist may try to account what drives individuals to war, violence, aggression, etc. Why do individuals engage in aggression towards others and/or themselves? Suicide is one form of self aggression, while the excessive use of drugs and alcohol is another form of self aggression. The repetition compulsion we do not learn from experience and tend to engage and reengage with behaviour patterns that lead to discomfort and displeasure. Why does this occur? Eros is being counteracted by another force known as thanatos life is being counteracted by death. Notice that clinical depression, if severe enough, is a living death. The person can become inert and begins to disengage, withdraw, and becomes encapsulated into themselves. This can represent a psychological analogue of death it is complete inertia. At the other extreme, there is intense mania which may be an excess of excitement. Somewhere between inertia (deep depression) and excess excitement (mania) is a more balanced existence. We spend an awful lot of time trying to find our position between the extremes. We know when were getting too much excitement it becomes uncomfortable and we engage in behaviours to reduce it. Similarly, when we become too passive, we engage in behaviours that intensify the sensations excess activity (mania) and excess passivity (inertia). Therefore, the two forces may exist together: life and death forces. Freud maintained that the forces throughout life do not change. What changes is the expression and objects of those forces. A force may be reversed: that is the aim is altered from active (inflicting pain sadism) to passive (receiving pain masochism) a force may turn round: the object changes from others (sadism) to one self (mascochism). A force may be repressed or resisted to the point that it is not recognized, as in being contained in the unconscious. The energy of force is not gotten rid of, rather it is expressed in other (neurotic) ways. Since forces

may undergo modifications of expression, there is not a one to one correspondence b/t behaviour and the motive underlying them. Yet, some displacements may be beneficial, such as channelling forces into creative endeavours or altruistic patterns. For example, if we have a fundamental aggressive propensity (drive), how is this expressed in a family? Sibling rivalry is an attenuated/modified form of aggression (i.e. the older one telling the younger one what to do, threatening the younger one, and so forth). Rivalry may be derived from competition, and competition in the natural world is manifested in aggression. A masked form of aggression in the family with brothers and sisters may be rivalry. Sibling rivalry can later mutate into bullying later in life. It can also morph into a competitive nature i.e. competition at work, in relationships, amongst friends, etc. An individual who has a noticeable disposition towards winning even in situations where all youre doing is passing the time (i.e. playing cards, games, etc.) you can begin to look at the situation psychologically and wonder if there was a lot of competition at home, b/t parents, b/t children, etc. What we see is the morphing of an aggressive drive to rivalry between siblings, etc. But its when it becomes exaggerated that it is problematic. When the individual who is expression this inappropriate competition fails to understand the negative feedback they are receiving and do not process the suggestions b/c it is antithetical to their self-image, it may result in an individual who is very uncertain and extremely insecure. In a clinical context, this is referred to as narcissistic personality character. Criticisms of Freuds Theory Theory is empirically weak relies on clinical evidence and interpretation Theory makes for a number of possible interpretations of same phenomenon this means that we cant identify the relevant variables that account for a particular outcome Theory cannot predict behaviour theory explains behaviour after the fact and cannot predict behaviour Drive Revisited Drive is a motivational construct associated with the concept of homeostasis: when there is an imbalance, an organism is motivated to take action to correct the imbalance. Drive is seen as tied to bodily needs (re: rat in a maze to find food to correct the imbalance of hunger with satiation). Organic deficiency or excess motivates the organism to bring the body back into balance (homeostasis) Note the word excess traditionally, motivation is seen as correcting deficiencies, whereas in this context, it is looked at in correcting excesses. For example, headaches result in experiencing excesses of unpleasant sensations. As a result, you take medication to abolish the excess.

Whereas in hunger, you eat to correct the deficiency. Therefore, we are motivated to correct deficiencies AND excesses. Drive concept is also necessary because some needs exist without activating drive, and some drives exist even though no need exists in the sense that the absence of fulfillment is life threatening. Finally, all drives energize behaviour the presence of a drive causes the organism to do something, and behaviours that reduce needs reduce the drive (organism becomes inactive). Many times when were in a state of well-being, we are not motivated to do anything else we try to preserve that state of well-being.

Drive revived Drive replaced instinct approaches to motivation Drive, like instinct concept, is biologically based

Drive, unlike instinct concept, had identifiable physiological basis. For example, Cannon (1920s) said that hunger drive results from peripheral cues (hunger pangs) and thirst drive results from dry mouth. However, researchers showed that removal of stomach and organism still hungry and let organism drink and have water removed and organism still thirsty. Thus, the search for central determinants of drive, such as the role of the hypothalamus, and other brain structures in biological motivation Richters (1920s) work showed that there is a correlation between drive and activity. Working with sex hormones he showed a predictable relationship between estrus cycle (controlled by hormones) and increased activity levels. This relationship held for hunger and thirst as well. Operating from an evolutionary perspective, Richter hypothesized that organisms that became more active in a drive state would more likely survive than those who remained inactive Wardens work: examined different drive states and make comparisons between the different motivational states. o He used an obstruction box: crossing an electrified grid floor to measure the strength of a drive state, such as hunger, thirst, exploration, sex, maternal behaviour. Motives were established through deprivation and as deprivation becomes more severe the number of grid crossings increases up to a point beyond which the crossings begin to become fewer even though deprivation time is lengthened. Thus, the independent variable is length of deprivation to establish more motive state, and the dependent/behavioural variable is a number of grid

crossing as a function of deprivation. As the organism moves from a dissatisfied to a satisfied state, there will be a change in the organisms motivation. Thus, Warden was able to operationally define drive or motive state in terms of actual deprivation time, and measure the motive in terms of behaviour change number of times crossing the grid. Drive is given empirical status as it is created and measured objectively. Drive is no longer defined in subjective, hypothetical terms. The drive state not only induced behaviour but so did the desirability of the object sought has incentive value. Thus, incentive value may be greater than the actual deprivation. For example, we work for salary to buy things. But after we satisfy it, we still continue to work the work may then satisfy some other motive (social motive, curiosity motive, exploratory motive, and so forth). The original impetus for work is changed because other motives are then being served by work. The effects of learning are noted, because organisms learn about the value of certain goal objects. Organisms also learn not to cross the grid if the pain derived from such behaviour is too great. Drive induction model: the stimulus properties of a goal object can be drive reducing. Thus, stimuli associated with the goal response create excitement or drive incentive induction. For example, rats that are permitted to eat once a day and before eating takes place, auditory and visual cues accompany the eating. In future, they will be elicited when the cues again reappear. Thus, the rats learned to correlate the change in the environment with the arrival of food and these cues can activate or induce motivation. In contrast, control animals which do not have cues preceding the arrival of food do not show an increase in activity over time (see figure 5.6, p. 148). Thus, the cues associated with a consummatory response (i.e. eating) and which have been previously associated with reinforcement may have the effect of increasing motivation. Behaviours occurs even though no drives are reduced. Further, drive can be induced by cues other than need related or drive cues. It must be remembered that under ordinary circumstances the cues which activate behaviour usually lead to responses that eventually produce drive reduction. Sheffield concludes that a large proportion of the increase in activity noted in deprivation situations results from the association of external cues with food arrival rather than from some internal drive state. Sexual motivation hypothalamus monitors changes in sex hormones and this in turn influences sexual motivation For Freud, sex was an organically based drive, with drive properties: sexual tension increased and libido acted as a moving force to initiate behaviour direct and displaced to reduce this tension. Too much repression of sexual drive, or the incomplete reduction of the force led to neurosis. By neurosis, he meant symptoms of personality disorder. In effect, he was saying that sex was no different than any other drive state and needs to be satisfied. However, given that

there are social taboos regulating its expression, individuals need to learn to cope with those drives through the initiation of various ego defense mechanisms. Studies of the sex drive in lower animals indicates that as sexual deprivation increases so does general activation of behaviour increase. This indicates that deprivation tends to create a drive state which energizes and activates the animal.

Hormonal Cycles and Sex Drive The hypothalamus is a central nervous system structure that directs the pituitary gland to release certain chemicals known as gonadotropins. These in turn influence the secretion of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) which stimulate gonads sex glands of males and females to produce androgens, estrogens, and progesterone. o Androgens are male sex hormones, and testosterone is the major contributor to sex drive. It is produced in the testes but also in smaller amounts in adrenal glands of males and females. Males and females have opposite sex hormones in their system, but to a lesser amount. o Estrogens are female sex hormones, and estradiol is a major contributor to sex drive, along with progesterone. o Although testosterone is a major contributor to sex drive, the lack of production in sexually experienced males does not diminish after castration following surgery due to medical complications. This is because sexual behaviour is not exclusively under hormonal control. In other words, the more advanced species of animal, the more other extra physical variables come into play in the determination of sexual behaviour. o When estrogen levels are highest in female primates (at ovulation) sexual activity peaks o Androgens may be important for female sex drive since removal of ovaries does not diminish sex drive. However, if adrenal glands are removed, sexual interest decreases dramatically (adrenals produce androgens) When Freud and others talked about the inherent bisexuality of human beings, what they were talking about in part, was the fact that males possess female sex hormones although lesser represented, and females possess male sex hormones but lesser represented in their system. In summary, what we can say is that the sex drive is influenced by hormones, experience, and by drive induction. Given the opportunity to be in the presence of stimuli associated with sexual activity, the organism can learn sexual responses, and its general activity level is increased by the external cues associated with the consummatory response rather than some internal drive state.

Sex does not necessarily arrive from some internal drive state, exclusively. Sexual excitement and sexual behaviour is influenced by other variables, notably learning and cues in the environment. For Hull, Learning requires drive reduction. However, Sheffield showed that learning can occur without reduction in drive. The organism becomes conditioned to cues associated with the consummatory response, and in the absence of drive reduction, there is drive induction the activation of behaviour by external cues. Since sexual activity is not essential for personal survival, it is not clear, in spite of Freud, how sexual deprivation leads to any homeostatic imbalance (in other words, celibacy is not life threatening) and how reduction in sexual drive leads to re-establishment of homeostasis. Drive theory needs to be amended in light of the theoretical and empirically based developments in drive theory.