Chemistry CH.

1 Chemistry is the science that describes matter its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes y Matter includes everything that is tangible. y carbon is the most versatile in its bonding; All forms of living matter contain compounds with carbon combined with hydrogen and sometimes with a few other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. y Qualitative Analysis is the branch of chemistry that is concerned with the detection or identification of substances present in a sample y Quantitative Analysis is with the amount of each substance that is present 1-1 Matter and Energy y Matter anything that has mass and occupies space y Mass a measure of the quantity of matter in sample of any material y Energy - the capacity to do work or to transfer heat o Kinetic energy represents the capacity for doing work directly o Potential energy is the energy an object possesses b/c of its position, condition, or composition y all chemical processes are accompanied by energy changes y Any combustion (burning) reaction is exothermic y Endothermic reactions are a result of absorbing energy from their surroundings (ex. Melting ice) y Law of Conservation of Matter y There is no observable change in the quantity of matter during a chemical reaction or during a physical change

Law of Conservation of Energy y y y Energy cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction or in a physical change. It can only be converted from one form to another In exothermic chemical reactions, chemical energy is usually converted into heat energy In endothermic reactions, heat energy, light energy, or electrical energy is converted into chemical energy

Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy y y y y y The combined amount of matter and energy available in the universe is fixed. Relationship between matter and energy (by Albert Einstein): E=mc E = amount of energy released m = mass of matter transformed c = speed of light

happens on an extremely small scale in atom smashers, or particle accelerators, used to induce nuclear reactions 1-2 Chemistry A Molecular View of Matter y Our everyday experiences with matter take place at the macroscale y Atoms and molecules exist at a nanoscale y Greek philosopher Democritus (470 400 bc) o suggested that all matter is composed of atoms o his ideas were rejected until the 1700s, scientists began to realize that the concept of atoms provided an explanation for many experimental observations about the nature of matter y John Dalton (1766-1844) o tried to explain why matter behaves in such systematic ways o ideas were based on reproducible experimental results o Dalton s Atomic Theory:  An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms  All atoms of a given element have identical properties that differ from those of other elements  Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another element in chemical or physical changes  Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with one another in small whole-number ratios  The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound o often considered to be the father of modern atomic theory y Atom - The smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity through all chemical and physical changes o Fundamental particles: electrons, neutrons, protons y Atomic Number number of protons in nucleus y Molecule - smallest particle of an element or compound that can have a stable independent existence y Diatomic molecules: o Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine y Molecules that contain two or more atoms are called polyatomic molecules y Molecules can be a single, stable atom or it can consist of many atoms (same or different atoms) y An element contains a single kind of atom y A compound contains atoms of 2 or more different elements y 1-3 States of Matter y y y Solid substances are rigid and have definite shapes Liquid the individual particles are confined to a given volume Gas occupies all parts of any vessel in which it is confined; capable of infinite expansion

1-4 Chemical and Physical Properties y y y y y Chemical properties - exhibited by matter as it undergoes changes in composition Physical properties - can be observed in the absence of any change in composition Sublimation the conversion of a solid directly to gas (without passing through the liquid state) Revers is deposition Extensive properties depend on the amount of material examined (vs. intensive properties i.e. all chemical properties)

1-5 Chemical and Physical Changes y In any chemical change: o One or more substances are (at least partially) used up o One or more new substances are formed o Energy is absorbed or released Physical change occurs with no change in chemical composition, but it may suggest that a chemical change has taken place Energy is always released or absorbed when a chemical or physical change occurs

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1-6 Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements y Mixture a combination of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own composition and properties o Heterogeneous - different portions of the sample have recognizably different properties o Homogeneous - has uniform properties throughout (aka solution)  Ex. Alloys (homogeneous mixture of metals)

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In any mixture: o The composition can be varied o each component of the mixture retains its own properties A Substance can t be further broken down or purified by physical means; it has its own characteristic properties that are different from the set of properties of any other substance. A compound is a substance that can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances (always in the same ratio by mass) An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical changes Compounds can be broken down into simpler compounds or elements Law of Definite proportions (aka Law of Constant Composition): different samples of any pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass

1-7 Measurements in Chemistry y Measurements in the scientific world are usually expressed in units of the metric system, or its modernized successor, the International System of Units (SI)

1-8 Units of Measurement

Mass and Weight y Mass o o o o

the measure of the quantity of matter a body contains Does not vary as its position changes Basic unit for mass in SI system: kilogram Basic unit in the earlier metric system: gram

Weight o Measure of the gravitation attraction of the earth for the body o Varies with distance from the center of the earth

Length y Volume y y y Measured in liters (L) or milliliters (mL) in the metric system 1 L = 1 dm = 1,000 cm (cm = cc) 1 mL = 1 cm Meter is the standard unit of length in both SI and metric system

1-9 Use of Numbers

Scientific Notation y Use scientific notation when dealing with very large/very small numbers

Significant Figures y y y y y y y y Digits believed to be correct by the person who makes a measurement Exact Numbers are numbers obtained by counting or from definitions (ex. Number of people in a closed room can be counted, and there is no doubt about the number of people) Numbers obtained from measurements are not exact (ex. Measuring the length of a page to the nearest .1 mm) In reporting numbers obtained from measurements, only one estimated digit is reported, and no more Burets are used to measure volumes of liquids when higher accuracy is required Accuracy refers to how closely a measured value agrees with the correct value Precision refers to how closely individual measurements agree with one another some simple rules that govern the use of significant figures: o nonzero digits are always significant  Ex. 38.56 mL has 4 sig figs.  Ex. 288 g has 3 sig figs. o Zeroes are sometimes significant and sometimes they aren t  Zeroes at the beginning of a number (to position the decimal point) are never significant y Ex. 0.052 g has 2 sig figs. 5.2 x 10 g  Zeroes between nonzero digits are always significant y Ex. 2007 g has 4 sig figs  Zeroes at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always significant y Ex. 38.0 cm has 3 sig figs  Zeroes at the end of a number that does not contain a decimal point may or may not be significant y Ex. 2,430 km = 2.43 x 10 km = 3 sig figs y 2.430 km = 4 sig figs. o Exact numbers can be considered as having an unlimited number of sig figs.  Ex. 1 yard = 3 feet; the numbers 1 and 3 are exact, so sig figs do not apply o In addition and subtraction, the last digit in the sum or difference is determined by the position of the first doubtful digit

In multiplication and division, an answer contains no more sig figs than the least number of sig figs used in the operation

1-10 The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis) y Using the unit factor method/dimensional analysis, we can do many conversions just by multiplying by one

1-11 Percentage y If we say that a sample is 24.4% carbon by mass, we mean that out of every 100 parts (exactly) by mass of a sample, 24.4 parts by mass are carbon.

1-12 Density and Specific Gravity y y Density = mass/volume Specific gravity = Density of substance/Density of water

1-13 Heat and Temperature y y y y y y y Temperature measures the intensity of heat Heat is a form of energy that always flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a cooler body it never flows in the reverse direction Boiling point: 212F In scientific work, temperatures are often expressed on the Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale K = 273.15 + C C = (F 32)(5/9) F = 9/5 * C + 32