Notes - Chemistry Form 4

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Acid Meets Base Alkaline Aqueous Atom Conductive Concentration Of Solution Elements Forming Theories Ions In Solutions Isotopes Identified Kinetic Theory Of Matter Particles In Motion Periodic Table Of Elements The Enthalpy Of Change Two-way Conversion

1) [Chemistry Form 4] Acid Meets Base One easy way to distinguish acid and base from one another is through indicators. An example is the litmus indicator.

Alkali solution: YELLOW

*** Indicator: Bromothymol Blue

Also, many natural dyes found in fruits vegetables, and flowers can act as indicators. For example, red cabbage extract is red in an acidic solution and blue in a base solution.

Acid solution: YELLOW Neutral solution: GREEN Alkali solution: BLUE

When an acid reacts with a base, the reaction yields water and an ionic compound known as salt. This acid-base reaction is called a neutralisation reaction.

*** Indicator: Cresol Puple Acid solution: YELLOW Neutral solution: GREEN

*** Indicator: Litmus Acid solution: RED Neutral solution: PURPLE Alkali solution: BLUE

Alkali solution: PURPLE

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*** Indicator: Phenolphthalein Acid solution: Colourless Neutral solution: Colourless Alkali solution: PINK

*** Indicator: Methyl Orange Acid solution: PINK Neutral solution: ORANGE

2)[Chemistry Form 4] Alkaline Aqueous Hydroxides of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium are bases. Bases have many common features: they have a bitter taste, are slippery to the touch, change the colour of indicators, etc. Aqueous solutions of soluble bases are called alkalis. Solution vs Ionisation Some strong bases like calcium hydroxide aren't very soluble in water. That doesn't matter as what does dissolve is 100% ionised into calcium ions and hydroxide ions. Thus, calcium hydroxide still counts as a strong base because of that 100% ionisation. *******

Equation to show dissociation: CH3COOH -> CH3 COO- + H+ Potassium hydroxide Formula: KOH Equation to show dissociation: KOH -> K + + OHSodium hydroxide Formula: NaOH Equation to show dissociation: NaOH -> Na+ + OHCalcium hydroxide Formula: Ca(OH)2 Equation to show dissociation: Ca(OH)2 -> Ca2+ + 2OH*******

Hydroxide that are alkalis:

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NaOH Mg(OH)2 KOH LiOH NH4OH

The following the dissociation of acids and base. Hydrochloric acid Formula: HCl Equation to show dissociation: HCL -> H+ + ClNitric acid Formula: HNO3 Equation to show dissociation: HNO3 -> H+ + NO3Ethanoic acid Formula: CH3COOH

3) [Chemistry Form 4] Atom The word 'atom' comes from a Greek word that means 'something that invisible'. However, atom can be split! According to modern atomic theory, subatomic particles like protons and neutrons form the nucleus of an atom, while electrons whirl around the nucleus in different orbits with such a tremendous speed that they seem to form layers of shells around it. Scientist And His Findings John Dalton (1766 - 1844) i) All elements are made up small indivisible particles called atoms. ii) The atoms of an element are alike but differ from those of other elements. J.J. Thompson (1856 - 1940) Suggested the the atom is positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it. Ernest Rutherfold (1871 - 1937) Discovered protons, and suggested thet protons are concentrated in the nucleus - the centre of an atom - which is surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Niels Bohrs (1885 - 1962) Proposed that electrons are arranged in orbits surrounding the nucleus. James Chadwick (1891 - 1974) Discovered neutrons, and proposed that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, with electrons moving in orbit surrounding it.

4)[Chemistry Form 4] Conductive

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anode, where they will be discharged by donatingelectrons.

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Conductors are substances that can conduct electricity in a solid or molten state, and are not chemically changed. Electrolytes are substances that can conduct electricity either in a molten state or an aqueous solution, as well as undergo chemical changes at the same time. Non-electrolytes are substances that cannot conduct electricity either in a molten state or an aqueous solution. Electrolysis is the decomposition of a chemical compound into its constituent elements when an electric current passes through an electrolyte. An electrolytic cell ia a device that uses electrical energy to generate chemical reactions. Electrodes are conductors that transmit electricity through the electrolyte during electrolysis. Cathode is the electrode that is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. Anode is the electrode through which the electrons leave the electrolyte and move to the external circuit. Molten compounds or aqueous solutions can conduct electricity due to the presence of free moving ions. During electrolysis, cations move towards the cathode, where they will be discharged by accepting electrons, whereas anions move towards the

A voltaic or galvanic cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

5)[Chemistry Form 4] Concentration Of Solution The concentration of a solution refers to the quantity of solute in a given volume of solution. The units can be expressed in two forms: Concentration of solution in g dm-3 = Mass of solute (g) / Volume of solution (dm3) Concentration of solution in mole dm3 (molarity) = Number of moles of solute (mole) / Volume of solution (dm3) ******* 1. 20g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 500cm3 of solution. Calculate the a) concentration of the solution in g dm-3 40g dm-3 b) molarity of the solution in mole dm-3 ( Relative atomic mass of Na = 23; O = 16; H = 1) 1 mole dm-3 2. Calculate the number of moles of calcium hydroxide in 250cm3 of 0.5 mole dm-3 calcium hydroxide solution. Hint: The number of moles = Molarity X Volume in dm3 0.5 X (250/1,000) 3. Calculate the mass of calcium hydroxide in 200cm3 of 0.4 mole dm-3 calcium hydroxide solution. (Relative atomic mass of Ca = 40; O = 16; H = 1) Hint: Find the number of moles of calcium hydroxide first. 0.4 X (200/1,000) X RMM of Ca(OH)2

4. You are required to prepare 250cm3 of 5 mole dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide required. (Relative atomic mass of Na = 23; O = 16; H = 1) Hint: Find the number of moles of sodium hydroxide first. 5 X (250/1,000) X RMM NaOH

6)[Chemistry Form 4] Elements Initially, Antoine Lavoisier classified "elements" into four groups based on theirchemical properties. He included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, heat and lightunder gases. His classification was unsuccessful because his table consisted of non-elements and compounds. Then, J.W. Dobereiner introduced the law of triads. He divided the elements into groups of three with similar chemical properties. For example, one group comprises lithium, sodium and potassium, and the other chlorine, bromine and iodine. His attempt was unsuccessful because the classification was limited to a few elements only. Further progress was made when John Newlands arranged the elements according to increasing relative atomic volume. He proposed the law ofoctaves, which stated that elements with similar properties recurred after everyeight elements. However, his pattern only worked for the first few elements. Lothar Meyer plotted the graph of atomic volume against the atomic mass of each element and found that elements that have similar chemical properties occupied equivalent position in the graph. For example Li, Na, K, Rb (alkali metals) occupied the tips of the curve plotted. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements according to increasing relative atomic mass in horizontal groups called periods. Elements with similar chemical properties were arranged in vertical columns called groups. When the pattern began to go wrong, he would leave a gas in his table. He claimed that the gaps were for elements that had not yet

been discovered. He even changed the order round when similar elements didn't line up. In the early stages, other chemists doubted his ideas but when the elementgermanium, which was discovered in 1886, matched his prediction, Mendeleev's periodic table was accepted. Years later, Henry Moseley contribute further to the development of the modern periodic table. He arranged the elements according to increasing proton number and had elements with the same number of valence electrons listed under thesame group.

7)[Chemistry Form 4] Forming Theories Man's first step in modern chemistry probably dated back to the discovery of fire. Thanks to it, man could cook food, make glass and also extract metals from ores. Man was so content with the results of what they had done that they did not try to explain what had happened or why something had happened. Only two thousand and five hundred years ago, philosophers began to question what things are made of, and what happens when things change. The following is a brief history of chemists who had pondered about matter; 1. It was the 5th century BC in Greece. Empedocles suggested that all things on Earth are made from four fundamental substances he called elements. What were these four elements?

4.

In later years, history has it that the Alexandrians were the first to devote themselves to alchemy, and they were soon followed by the Arabs, who introduced it into Western Europe. When was this?

4th century AD.

5.

Chemistry then made little headway for years. In 1525, a Swiss doctor and scientist challenged his students to tear up their books, which recorded old theories that had been developed through reasoning, and told them to find out for themselves through experiments whether a scientific theory was right or wrong. This scientist had an imposing name. Who was this scientist?

y y 2. Fire, water, air and earth.

Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus Von Hohenheim.

Another Greek philosopher, born at the time Empedocles died, proposed that nature is made up of tiny particles he called atoms, which, in Greek, means indivisible. Who was this Greek philosopher?

6.

Later on, Robert Boyle, an Englishman, succeeded in killing off the old idea of the four elements by establishing that there are other elements - substances that cannot be formed by or broken into other substances. When was this?

Democritus. y 1661

3.

The atomic hypothesis was contested by the greatest philosopher at the time who remained faithful to the element theory. Because of his great reputation, the false element theory dominated scientific thought for two thousand years. Who was this famous Greek philosopher?

A hundred years after Boyle made his discovery, a Swede, Karl Scheele, and an Englishman, Joseph Priestley, succeeded in isolating oxygen. Modern chemistry was thus born.

Aristotle.

8)[Chemistry Form 4] Ions In Solution Swedish chemist Arrhenius defined acids as substances that, when dissolved in water, produce hydrogen ions (H+). Eg: When gaseous hydrogen chloride reacts with water, the amount of hydrogen ions in the water increases and hydrochloric acid is thus produced. HCl (g) ---> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Acid (H+ producer) Some of the food and medicines that we take contain acids. Ethanoic (acetic) acid in vinegar and acetylsalicyclic acid in aspirin, for instance. Contrary to acids, bases are defined as substances that, when dissolved in water, yield hydroxide ions (OH-). Eg: When sodium hydroxide dissolves in water, the amount of hydroxide ions in the water increases and the alkaline solution is thus produced. NaOH (s) ---> Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Base (OH- producer) Did You Know? The compounds responsible for colours in plants are often sensitive to acids and alkalis. For example, blue hydrangeas grow only in acidic soils; in neutral or alkaline soils, they turn to pink.

9)[Chemistry Form 4] Isotopes Identified Most atoms have several naturally occurring isotopes. An isotope is an atom that contains a different number of neutrons in its nucleus from that of other atoms of the same element.

Isotope Phosphorus-32 or Nitrogen15 used to traces the rate of nutrient absorptions in plants. Gamma Rays used to sterilises pests. Inhibits the sprouting of potatoes, onions and gingers.

This means that different isotopes of an element have different masses, since both protons and neutrons contribute about equally to the mass of an atom. Radioisotopes such as phosphorus-32, carbon14, sodium-24 and iodine-131 emit radiations. Thus, detectors like Geiger-Mller counter are used to trace the presence of radioactive radiations.

INDUSTRY
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Gamma Rays used to checks wear and tear in engines. Gauges or controls the content level in canned food. Strontium-90 used to gauges or controls the thickness of paper and metal in industries. Cobalt-60 used to detects crack in metal or concrete structures.

A GeigerMller counter

Radioisotopes are used in agricultural, medicinal, archaeological and industrial fields. Some examples of the various uses of radioisotopes are shown as below, in sector;

NUCLEAR ENERGY
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Isotope Uranium-235 used to produce nuclear energy.

AGRICULTURE

10)[Chemistry Form 4] Kinetic Theory Of Matter

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Matter is made up of small and discrete particles, which are constantly in motion and contain kinetic energy. Solid particles are held by strong forces of attraction, which packed them closely in an orderly manner. Thus, solid has a fixed volume and shape. Solid particles have limited motion; they can only rotate and move about a fixed position. Forces of attraction between liquid particles are weaker than those in solid particles. Thus, the particles are arranged less compact and less orderly. Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. The particles can vibrate, rotate and move throughout the liquids. Particles in gas are held by very weak forces of attraction. The particles are very far apart from each other and are in constant motion. The particles vibrate, rotate and move randomly. Gas does not have a fixed shape or volume and can be compressed easily.

11)[Chemistry Form 4] Particles In Motion Do you know that it was the ancient Greeks who first suggested that everything is made up of particles? But when Democritus introduced the particulate nature of matter around 400BC, not many were convinced by his ideas. In random Centuries later, Brown, a Scottish scientist, observed that under the microscope, tiny particles of pollen floating on water move around in a haphazard fashion. When the pollen was examined on its own, no such movement was observed. This led to the idea that particles move randomly in a liquid or gas, and the movement is called Brownian motion. Fusion of sorts If a classmate has accidentally spilled an ammonia solution in the lab, you will soon know about it. Since particles of the ammonia gas move and mix with gas particles in the air, the sharp pungent smell of ammonia quickly spreads through the lab. When perticles mix like this, it is called diffusion. Onion and tears When you cut an onion, its cells are broken, and thus amino acid sulphoxides, which form suphenic acids, escape into the air. These acids release a volatile gas (propanethiol Soxide) which, upon exposure to moisture in your eyes or the air, changes into mild sulphuric acid. Diffusion of these compounds is responsible for the burning sensation in your eyes while cutting onions. Due to the eye irritation, your brain sends out impulses to your tear ducts, which respond to dilute the acid and protect your eyes. ******* detector : pengesan diffusion : resapan

isotope : isotop particulate : bersifat zarah random : rawak sterilise : membasmi kuman *******

12)[Chemistry Form 4] Periodic Table Of Elements The periodic table of elements presents an organised display of all known elements. It has horizontal rows, called periods, and vertical columns, calledgroups, which arrange the elements in such a way that those with similar properties fall under the same group. Element in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. Eg: Elements in the first group have one valence electron while those in the second group have two valence electrons. In addition, elements arranged along the same period share a common feature, i.e. the same number of electron shells. Eg: Elements in the first period have one shell to contain their electrons while those in the second period have two shells to contain theirs. Another arrangement evident in the periodic table is that metals are on the left and nonmetals are on the right. The need to organise elements into groups based on their properties arose when more and more elements were made known. Thus, scientists began to develop the periodic table of elements. Below are scientists with their respective contribution to the development of the periodic table; 1. Lothar Meyer (1830-1895) This German chemist recognised periodic behaviour based on his graphs of the atomic volume of elements against their atomic weight. 2. Dmitri Mendelev (1834-1907)

This Russian chemist made a table of elements and left a gap for elements that had not yet been discovered. 3. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) This French chemist classified elements into four groups - gases, non-metals, metals and earths. 4. John Newlands (1837-1898) This English chemist's law of octaves stated that when elements were placed in the increasing order of atomic weight, the properties of elements fell into a pattern at regular intervals. 5. Henry J. G. Moseley (1887-1915) This British chemist rearranged the elements in order of increasing atomic number. 6. Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849) This German chemist proposed the law of triads, which stated that elements came in groups of three.

13)[Chemistry Form 4] The Enthalpy Of Change If the amount of thermal energy needed to change one mole of substance from a solid to a liquid or vice versa is called the enthalpy change of fusion, define, then, the enthalpy change of vapourisation. It take energy to change a substance from a solid to a liquid, and then to a gas. As energy transferred to a solid, particles in the solid vibrate more until they break out of their fixed lattice positions. This is when solid melts. There is no change in temperature during this time, because all the energy transferred goes into overcoming the forces that hold the particles in the lattice. When the solid melted, a rise in temperature is needed so that particles in the liquid have more energy to move faster. At boiling point, the liquid begins to change into a gas, and the temperature again stays constant, since all the energy taken in by the liquid is used to overcome the forces that hold the particles in the liquid state. When the liquid has boiled to form a gas, the temperature is raised again to enable the particles to move faster. The process that involves changes in the state of a substance is a physical process because no chemical bonds are broken. Did you know? Solid carbon dioxide as dry ice, changes directly into a gaseous state at room temperature.

This is why it is often used to create 'fog' on stage and movie sets.

14)[Chemistry Form 4] Two-way Conversion Electrochemistry is the science that studies the relation between electricity and chemical changes. So how are they related? An electric current can bring about an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction, such as the recovery of metals from their ores and electroplating of surfaces. In the process called electrolysis, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy, which is stored in the products of the reaction. Aluminium and copper are some examples of the products of electrolysis. Conversely, chemical energy can be converted into electrical energy. This process can be seen in spontaneous chemical reactions and forms the basis for batteries and fuel cells in supplying electrical power. An electrolyte is an electrically conductive substance that contains positively- and negatively- charged particles called ions. The following are electrolytes and nonelectrolytes;
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Non-electrolytes 1. Aqueous ammonia 2. Copper (II) sulphate crystal 3. Glucose solution 4. Ethanol 5. Solid sodium chloride 6. Molten naphthalene 7. Acetamide 8. Tetrachloromethane

Did You Know?

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. In 1800, Italian physicist Alessandro Volta developed the first electric battery that generated a steady stream of electricity. His invention was called the Voltaic pile. Since then, the principles applied to the Voltaic pile have been used in batteries. In 1881, the volt (V), an electrical unit, was named after him.

Electrolytes 1. Copper (II) chloride 2. Molten aluminium oxide 3. Sodium hydroxide solution 4. Silver nitrate solution