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A Basic Classification Derived From the Simple Ideal Model

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS:
Theory of Classification Basic (this page) Reading Ternary Diagrams: Clastic: >> QFL Key >> QFL Ternary Carbonate

How You Classify It, Is How You Think About It

A Basic Sedimentary Rock Classification

A good classification is based on some theory that explains how the rocks form, and are related to each other. We want to group together rocks that form by similar processes. The most general theoretical model we have for sedimentary rocks is the simple ideal model. The basic classification is based on that model. The complication with sedimentary rocks is they form from IDENTIFICATION KEYS: such a diversity of processes that straight forward Basic classifications are difficult. They are unlike igneous rocks Clastic Rock where a relatively straight forward Texture and Composition Chemical/Biochemical classification leading directly to interpretation is possible. Carbonate For the basic sedimentary rock classification you can use Alphabetical List of Rocks the table at the top (go to enlarged clickable version), or use the key (also linked in the box above left), or go to the alphabetical listing to directly study individual sedimentary rocks. An explanation of the theory behind the basic classification is below. More sophisticated classifications are described in other pages (Clastic {QFL key, or QFL ternary}, and Carbonate).

Reasoning Behind the Basic Classification

The simple ideal model for the evolution of sedimentary rocks says there are three end products, three attractors, that all sedimentary processes are working to reach - quartz sandstone, shale, and limestone. {html version of all illustrations on this page combined; pdf version for
printing}

The three attractors in the simple ideal model are not isolated, however; each one stands for a class of weathering products. For example: Quartz sandstone = all visible grains, including such ones as incompletely weathered feldspar from the granodiorite in the simple ideal model.

Shale = all clay sized grains (clay is a generic name; there are many kinds of clay minerals
as well as other minerals that are clay sized)

Limestone = all dissolved minerals, including not only calcite CaCO3, but also halite (table
salt; NaCl), and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) among others. On the chart below we can see these additional weathering products.

OBSERVE: A source of confusion is the switch from mineral names to rock names. Clay is a mineral that forms from the weathering of feldspars such as orthoclase. Clay is extremely fine grained; it is the mud on your shoes, or the mud (suspended clay) in a river or pond. When clay is deposited it becomes the rock shale Calcite (CaCO3) is a mineral with rhombohedral cleavage that reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. As a sedimentary mineral it exists either as micrite (" lime mud", that is as fine grained as clay) or large pieces such as animal skeletons. These together form the rock limestone. Quartz sand is, or course, just quartz sand. It is released as grains from the parent rock by weathering, and after that is little changed. See the grains in this alkali granite. All but the quartz will weathering into something else. In addition, some mineral names also refer to the rock, so gypsum the mineral is also gypsum the rock. Sometimes we also make a distinction, such as dolomite the mineral and dolostone the rock, or halite the mineral and rock salt the rock.

So far, so good. But now we have to do some mixing and splitting. Sedimentary rocks are generally divided into three great categories, siliciclastic (or simply, clastic) rocks, chemical rocks and biochemical rocks. Their relationships to the three divisions from the simple ideal model are shown in the figure below. Observe how visible grains and clay sized grains mix together to form clastic rocks, while minerals in solution split to form chemical and biochemical rocks.

(Silici)Clastic rocks are composed of weathering products that do not dissolved into water, have silica (SiO2) as one of their major components, and are transported either by rolling along the bottom, or in suspension. Because of this the VISIBLE GRAIN and CLAY SIZED GRAIN weathering products in the chart above tend to be mixed, and deposited together. So we group them together as SILICICLASTIC rocks. (Further explanation below). Minerals IN SOLUTION on the other hand tend to be deposited together, and are not generally deposited in the presence of siliciclastic rocks. Indeed, these rocks are so different from clastic rocks that geologists often specialize in studying either one group or the other. Thus we split these out from clastics. To deposit minerals that are in solution, they must some how come out of solution and this happens two ways. Either they precipitate directly from sea water (usually because it is evaporating and concentrating the salts) - CHEMICAL ROCKS. Or " plants" and " animals" extract the dissolved minerals from the sea water to make skeletons, their skeletons eventually becoming part of the sediment as BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS. So, minerals in solution split into two categories. Note that we still end up with a classification with three main categories, it is just a slightly different three categories than the simple ideal model.

CHEMICAL/BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS

Chemical/biochemical rocks fall into several groups, depending on how they form.

CARBONATES: These are composed

of the mineral calcite (CaCO3 - calcium carbonate), and are thus all known as carbonates. Note on the chart that there are many of these, that they form by both chemical and biochemical processes, and that they tend to be mixed together in various combinations in the rocks. They are extremely abundant and important.

OTHER CHEMICAL ROCKS: These rocks fall into two categories. Chert is a siliceous rock (composed of SiO2) that forms from the recrystalized skeletons of " animals " (single celled radiolarians, and glass sponges) or single celled " plants " (diatoms, silicoflagellates). And although the silica comes from skeletons to become chert it must be chemically recrystallized, thus putting it in the chemical category (but it is confusing). Rock salt (halite; NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) originally are dissolved in the sea water, thus making the sea salty. When sea water evaporates in a closed area, such as a lagoon, the salt concentration becomes very high, supersaturated, and precipitates out. The process is common in desert areas, with examples today in the Red Sea and Dead Sea in the Middle East, both highly saline. OTHER BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS: Peat and coal because they come from plant
remains are biochemical rocks, but unlike all the other chemical/biochemical rocks peat and coal always form in the presence of clastic rocks - sandstones and shales. This discussionillustrates part of the difficulty of developing a completely consistent classification. Sedimentary rocks form in so many different ways, from so many different processes that coming up with one scheme that is inclusive and yet straight forward is not easy. There always seem to be exceptions to the rule that have to have to be explained individually.

(SILICI) CLASTIC ROCKS

Clastic rocks (sandstones, shales, etc.) are classified on two criteria - texture (grain size), and composition (that is, QFL). Shale, of course, is both fine grained, and composed of clay, so the name "shale" incorporates both properties of texture and composition. For the coarser sizes, where the mineral grains can be seen by eye or with a handlens, a

complete name consists of two parts. For example, an " arkose sandstone " is a rock composed of sand sized particles, and a large percentage of those particles are composed of feldspar. For this basic classification we are only concerned with particle size; composition will be saved for the QFL (quartz, feldspar, lithics) classification. Clastic particles are divided into size categories based on the WENTWORTH SCALE. This scale has been in use for over a hundred years and is universally recognized. The middle size is 2 mm, the boundary between sand and gravel. Note that the size categories get geometrically larger, and smaller, from 2 mm. Sand, for example, ranges from 1/16 mm to 2 mm, while granules range from 2 mm to 4 mm, and pebbles from 4 mm to 64 mm. The reason for this is we want to group together particle sizes that can moved more or less together by running water. The Wentworth scale is straight forward, and with a ruler for scale it is relatively easy to classify the rock. One simplification, and one complication, though. The simplification is, we generally group all the greater than sand sized particles into one category - gravel, unless there is a specific need to distinguish these grain sizes. The complication is, gravel is divided into whether the grains are angular (breccia), or rounded (conglomerate).

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INTRODUCTION TO QFL
QFL stands for Quartz, Feldspar, Lithics Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the texture (grain size) of the rock, and composition. The basic classification only concerned texture, using the Wentworth size scale. But any full rock name must specify both texture and composition. Thus, an arkose sandstone is a rock of sand sized particles, with a high percentage of those particles being feldspar. It might seem that an unlimited variety of particles could end up in a sedimentary rock. After all, there are over 6000 known minerals. In addition, any incompletely weathered piece of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock can also be found in a sedimentary rock. A composition classification could become very complicated if all of these different particles were considered. But in most cases rock composition can be defined by four compositional components: >>> Quartz >>> Feldspar >>> Lithic fragments (including rock fragments and mineral grains other than quartz) >>> Matrix (a catchall for the silt and clay grains that cannot be easily seen by eye). Descriptions of each category are below. You will learn to recognize and identify them as you study the rocks. COMPONENTS OF SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK COMPOSITION

Quartz

Since quartz, for all practical purposes, does not weather into anything else, and will remain after everything else is weathered or sorted out, it is one of the most important of the four components of sedimentary rock composition. Pure quartz sandstones are rare. Usually quartz is mixed with one or more of the remaining three components. Pure quartz sandstones form only under great tectonic stability when the land is not high enough for rocks to be exposed to weathering, such as during Wilson Cycle Stage A and Stage I. Feldspars are some of the most abundant minerals in the earth's crust. With only a few exceptions all igneous rocks have large amounts of feldspar; e.g. calcium plagioclase in gabbro, and sodium plagioclase and orthoclase in granite. Medium to high grade metamorphic rocks also have large amounts of feldspar. Sediments near high mountains frequently have large percentages of feldspar as batholiths and regional metamorphic rocks are uplifted and eroded (Wilson Cycle Stage F and Stage H). Rift systems (Stage B and Stage C) frequently also have large amounts of feldspar.

Feldspar

Lithics

Very simply, if a siliciclastic particle is not quartz or feldspar it is classified a lithic fragment. Lithic means "rock" and all mechanically weathered pieces of another rock, or non-feldspar minerals weathered from a rock, are included here. Frequently they are small, dark in color, and difficult or impossible to specifically identify in hand specimen. The exception to this is conglomerates and breccias. Lithic fragments are especially abundant in volcanic arc systems (Stage E), but are common in most collision mountain buildings (Stage F and Stage H). Matrix is the finer material in which larger particles are embedded. So, in a sandstone the matrix is silt and clay. In a gravel the matrix may be a sand. However, since all minerals other than quartz will eventually weather into silt or clay sized particles, silt or clay is very common in sedimentary rocks.

Matrix

QFL CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

A Key For Clastic Sedimentary Rock Identificaton
The simplest way to identify clastic rocks from composition and texture is with a key. To use the key you might need several things: >>> A handlens to identify feldspar and lithics, especially with sand sized grains. >>> A metric ruler or grain size chart (link). >>> Some experience in identifying minerals and rock fragments in a rock. Identifying QFL in a rock usually takes practice. One way to proceed is to have hand samples of quartz and the feldspars to compare with. A second option is to go to (or print out in color) Bowen's Reaction Series where the minerals are listed, with large scale pictures available for comparison. Recognizing quartz often gives new people trouble; they often want to identify it as feldspar. The problem is quartz can be clear and glassy, or rounded and frosted. It also varies in color from gray, to white, to pink, etc. But, with rare exceptions, most of the minerals in a rock will be quartz since it is the most abundant sand sized particle, and as weathering takes place it just keep increasing in abundance. Feldspars, on the other hand, have cleavage faces (quartz has no cleavage) that can sometimes be seen with careful looking, such as in Ca plagioclase, Na plagioclase, and orthoclase. The key is going to drop the rocks into relatively clear-cut categories of arkosic, lithic, and quartz rich, and further subdivide them on grain size.

A Ternary System For Clastic Sedimentary Rock Identificaton

The classification key used above seems very straight forward - until one begins to look at actual rocks. Then we begin to see that not all rocks are pure sandstone, or shale, but are often mixtures of grain sizes. Likewise, rocks are often not pure arkoses (feldspar rich) but may also have mixtures of lithics too. Thus, we need a classification system that not only can handle the pure rocks, but also all the

combinations in between. And it should be easy to use. The universal system used by geologists is based on the ternary diagram. Ternary diagrams are not hard to read, but if you are not familiar with them read the short primer to ternary diagrams. This classification requires two ternary diagrams, one for determining texture, a second for determining QFL. These diagrams are discussed separately below, but are also combined into one diagram. And sometimes we need a chart to help estimate percent abundance

QFL Diagram:
The QFL diagram is to the right. Observe the following: >>>> Quartz is at the top, feldspar on the lower left, and lithics on the lower right. It is always done this way. >>>> The ternary diagram is divided into 5 fields, here color coded. The boundaries among the fields, left and right, are at the 50% boundary, and up and down at the 75% and 90% boundaries. >>>> As you travel toward any apex the quantity of Q, F, or L increases accordingly, with 100% being, of course, right at the apex. >>>> Notice that as we travel vertically the amount of quartz in the rock increases, and at the 90% boundary and above the rock has so much quartz the rock becomes a "quartz something", such as a quartz sandstone or quartz conglomerate. >>>> The lower two fields contain rocks that are felspar (red) or lithic (blue) rich. That is, these rocks have more than 25% feldspar or lithics, that is, 25-100% feldspar or lithics. Rocks with this composition have such names as feldspathic (arkosic) sandstone (both terms are used interchangably) and lithic sandstone. >>>> Remember that all feldspar and lithic fragments are going to weather and disappear (to shale or dissolved minerals), leaving only quartz. On the QFL diagram, however, we can only plot the abundance of sand (or larger) particles of various compositions. So, on this diagram, as feldspar and lithics weather the composition of the remaining sandstone migrates toward the quartz apex. No matter where you start on the diagram the sediment is going to evolve in almost a straight line right to the top. One of the things we are very interested in is how close the sediment has gotten along its path of evolution. This is the concept of sediment maturity. Thus, above the arkosic and lithic fields, but below the quartz field are two more fields, subarkosic and sublithic. Rocks in these fields have between 10-25 % feldspar or lithics and are thus farther along in their evolution toward pure quartz than feldspathic or lithic rocks. >>>> In other classsification systems, the boundaries among the fields sometimes differ from

Answers to How Granite Would Evolve on a Ternary Diagram

Look at apexes of the ternary diagram to the right. Note quartz is at the top, but feldspar and lithics are combined in the lower left; this is because both of these weather into something else - matrix. So, matrix is in the lower right. Question: >>>>> Now, assume a granite has 25% quartz and the rest feldspar and lithics (mafic minerals). Where would you plot it on the diagram? Question 2: >>>>> Now assume the granite is going to weather, but not be transported or sorted. How would the composition change on the diagram? Question 3: >>>>> Now transport and sort the sediment. What paths would the components take on the diagram? Analysis: A granite is an igneous rock, and therefore has no matrix. If it has 25% quartz then we plot granite on the left side at the 25% level. As the granite weathers, feldspar/lithics turn into matrix, so the composition moves toward the right side, the matrix side. Since there is no sorting, the feldspar/lithics and their weathering product, matrix, remain mixed with the quartz. And since quartz does not weather, its abundance must remain at 25%. Thus the evolution line can only move horizontally, and the farther it moves to the right the less feldspar/lithics there is and the more matrix, until on the right line all feldspar/lithics would be turned into matrix.

Finally, we transport and sort the sediment, such as at the shore, where quartz remains on the beach while the matrix (shale) drifts off shore to the shelf.

he point is, everything we have learned about sedimentary rocks over the past

pages and pages of text and diagrams can all be summarized in this one simple diagram - if you understand and know how to read it. Such diagrams are quick, easy, and slick, and tell a geologist at a glance a world of information - without getting mired in all the technical details.

In the Simple Ideal Model for the Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks we said that if
weathering, transportation, and sorting go to completion all that remains are three end member rock compositions. Siliciclastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks QUARTZ arenite SHALE LIMESTONE/DOLOMITE Limestones are not single composition rocks but a group of related rocks all composed of CaCO3 and reacting with dilute HCl acid. Limestone [CaCO3] is also chemically related to dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]. Because all these rocks have CO3- - in common they are called the carbonates. The composition of most carbonates is derived from a combination of biological and chemical components. Two carbonate classification systems are in common use today, one by R.L. Folk and the second by R.J. Dunham . The Dunham system is based on depositional texture (that is, the amount of matrix surrounding the grains at the time of deposition). It uses such names as mudstone, wackestone, packstone, grainstone, and boundstone. Each classification has its strengths, but we use the Folk system here.

Carbonate rock names (limestones and dolomites) consist of a conjunction of two names, one describing the ALLOCHEMS, the large pieces, the other describing the INTERSTITIAL MATERIAL. Allochems are equivalent to gravel, sand, lithics or feldspars in the siliciclastics. Interstitial material is equivalent to clay or cements in clastics. There are four kinds of allochems: Fossils - may be whole fossils, or broken and abraded fossils;
all are called "bio" fragments

Oolites - small, pearl-like spheres ALLOCHEMS Pellets - fecal pellets produced by invertebrate animals; look
superficially like oolites but are dull and not pearl-like

Intraclasts - chunks of eroded limestone deposited as a

conglomerate

Micrite and Sparite Interstitial Material

Micrite is "lime mud", the dense, dull-looking sediment made of clay sized crystals of CaCO3. Much micrite today forms from the breakdown of calcareous algae skeletons. It is not clear if all ancient micrites formed in the same way. Many carbonates are composed of nearly 100% micrite. Such rocks are simply called micrites. With carbonates containing allochems the question is whether micrite is present or absent as an interstitial material, and if present by how much. If micrite is present during deposition then it fills the spaces between the allochems and the rock will be given a name which describes the allochems in a micrite matrix. For example, a rock with fossil fragments embedded in micrite is called a "biomicrite". Biomicrite is analogous to a siliciclastic wacke, sand imbedded in a lot of matrix. If, on the other hand, the depositional environment has strong currents, only allochems may be deposited. If we could see the sediment during deposition all the allochems would be loose, like a pure sand or gravel. This is analogous to a 100% siliciclastic sand on a beach with no silt or clay. (With carbonates, though, such "clean" sands are not confined to beaches.) Micrite in these cases, being clay sized, has been washed away. The rock formed is then composed only of allochems, held together by clear to translucent calcite crystals with rhombohedral cleavage (called SPAR or SPARITE) acting as a cement. The spar is precipitated from fresh or marine water percolating through the sediment after deposition, but before final cementation. This oosparite shows well the spar cement.

Classification of Carbonates
The classification of carbonates using the allochem/interstitial material system (the Folk System) is very systematic and straight forward. The allochem name is combined with the interstitial name (micrite or spar). The table below shows the major categories of carbonate rocks based on their allochems and interstitial material.

But what happens if there is more than one allochem in the rock, or there is a mixture of micrite and spar? This classification system has great flexibility and creativity. You can easily build your own descriptive rock names. The name is built up by stringing together all the allochem names in order from least to most abundant, and then adding the interstitial material name ("matrix" below for short). For example, a rock like this: Oolites + Fossils + Spar matrix = Oo bio sparite The name is written as one word, Oobiosparite. Another example (again allochems from least to most abundant): Pellets + Oolites + Fossils + Micrite matrix = pel oo bio micrite The name is written as one word, Peloobiomicrite. But what if there is both micrite and spar matrix? The system is the same; just list them from least to most abundant. Fossils + Spar matrix + Micrite matrix = bio spar micrite This system goves through other levels of refinement, such as the table below where the abundance of allochems is dealt with. Other modifiers deal with different sizes of allochems. But all this is beyond our discussion here.

A classification such as this one works well if you want to construct rock names from observations. The system, however, does not lend itself well to constructing keys for classification. A key requires the establishment of arbitrary categories of rocks, and a system like the one above deal with all the myriad combinations that are possible. Nonetheless, we have constructed a key to identify rocks based on their allochems and interstitial material. Just be aware that its main weakness is that there are always rocks that do not fit easily into its simple categories.

Carbonate Identification Key

pdf version - (What is pdf?)

Simplistically the earth's surface is divided into two broad divisions: (1) Sourcelands - areas
which are sources of sediment, usually meaning mountainous regions, but including any place erosion and sediment removal takes place, and (2) Depositional Basins - areas which receive eroded sediment. We are interested in both sourcelands and depositional basins, but depositional basins are our primary interest here. Depositional basins are subdivided a number of ways. One is by the predominant sediment type found in the basin; thus, Siliciclastic Dominated Systems and Carbonate Dominated Systems. Carbonate dominated systems occur in tectonically stable regions where the supply of siliciclastic sediment is minimal or non-existent. Most of the remaining discussion is for siliciclastic dominated systems. A second way of partitioning depositional basins is into terrestrial, transitional (shoreline and nearshore), and marine (epicontinental sea to deep water ocean basins) divisions. A third way of dividing depositional basins is into depositional environments. All these divisions are interrelated, but depositional environments are the primary discussion here.

Depositional Environments
A depositional environment is a portion of the earth's surface characterized by a unique combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes. These processes control how sediment is transported and deposited, what chemical modification it undergoes, and what kind of organisms live in and affect the sediment. The processes result in the characteristic and distinctive sedimentary deposits typical of each environment by which we recognize and identify them.

Classification of Environments by Depositional Processes

Terrestrial Alluvial Fan Braided River Meandering River (including alluvial plain) Lake Transitional Marine Delta Complex Shelf (storm and tidal dominated) Beach Submarine fan Lagoon Basin Tidal Flat Dunes Carbonate Tidal Flat Lagoon Carbonate Barrier (reef) Shelf Basin

Several dozen depositional environments have been identified. The more common ones are listed in the table above. Most environments you will find familiar, although you have probably not thought of them from a process point of view. Of the many depositional environments known, a smaller number are of special importance because they cover large portions of the earth's surface, or are common in the rock record. It is this smaller number of environments we explore here. OBSERVE: In everyday speech we talk of a beach, for example, as a place we can go visit, and our language encourages us to think of environments as places. You will probably have to remind yourself that in geology depositional environments are defined by processes.

Systematic Changes From Sourceland to Depositional Basin

Depositional environments are not distributed randomly or haphazardly. Each exists in a specific location for specific reasons. A general observation we can make is: sediment changes from the sourceland to the depositional basin such that depositional environments evolve in systematic and predictable sequences from sourceland to depositional basin. In general, depositional environments and thus rock types are predictable from sourceland to depositional basin. For example, large siliciclastic particles dominate near the sourceland in alluvial fans and braided rivers, and fine siliciclastic particles dominate at the end of the sequence in ocean basins far away from the sourceland. An ideal downstream sequence of environments is illustrated on

the Siliciclastic Depositional Systems model at the top of the page.

Long Systems
The complete sequence of depositional environments from mountain to ocean basis is what we call a "long system". The sediments at the beginning of long systems are chemically and mechanically unstable in composition, and are generally poorly sorted, immature gravels. Within the ideal long system the distance or time of final deposition from sourceland to basin is great. Thus, by the end of the long system the sediments are chemically and mechanically stable in composition, and are well sorted into the end member sizes of sand and clay. Sandstones at the end of the long system are mature quartz arenites. Although complete long systems are found, many variations on the model occur, usually because environments are missing from the sequence. There is one inviolate observation, however: OBSERVATION: Individual environments can be missing from the ideal long sequence, but the overall sequence of environments is never rearranged so that a downstream environment comes before an upstream one.

Short Systems
" Short systems" are environmental sequences in which only a few environments from the ideal long sequence are present. Short system environmental sequences are abbreviated because, unlike the long system, the siliciclastic sourceland is proximal to (close to) the basin. Sediments across the entire system are chemically and texturally immature. They are generally poorly sorted and range in size from gravel to coarse sand. Short systems are commonly observed in tectonically active regions. Depending on circumstances, virtually any of the environments from the long system can be missing. For example, in the Basin and Range province of the western United States large alluvial fans form at the base of fault block mountains and everything else downstream from the mountains is missing; a very short system. One type of short system is common enough it has a special name - Fan Delta. Fan deltas form where high mountains stand abruptly out of the sea, such as in rift valleys (see Wilson Cycle Stage B), or next to subduction-created volcanic arcs (see Wilson Cycle Stage E), or next to the thrust belt terrain (see Wilson Cycle Stage F). A typical sequence of depositional environments in a fan delta is alluvial fan and/or braided-river to a gravel beach to a submarine fan to a basin.

Carbonate Systems
Carbonate systems develop where siliciclastic sourcelands are low and/or very distant, the water is shallow, and climates are tropical to subtropical. In the warm, clear, shallow water calcareous algae flourish and generate micrite, while invertebrate animal skeletons accumulate as sedimentary particles (bioclasts). The oolitic, pelletal, and intraclastic allochems are also produced locally, depending on conditions.

It is not unusual for carbonates to be generated distally in long and short siliciclastic systems. Under these conditions, however, the volume of siliciclastic sediment usually overwhelms the carbonates. The major exception is extreme distal shelves of both long and short systems where the siliciclastic sediment does not reach. Carbonate systems are, of course, not going to have terrestrial environments (unless we include supertidal flats). Transitional and marine environments dominate. Carbonate environments are modeled as "belts" running parallel tothe coastline. The full model has 9 environmental belts, but here it is simplified to five: tidal flat, lagoon, reef, shelf, and basin (see carbonate depositional environments).

The " Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks" presents a simple, ideal model

illustrating the origin of the three most abundant kinds of sediment: quartz sand, shale, and limestone. Yet in the real world sedimentary particles and rocks come in much greater variety than just these three, as we can see from just the alphabetical list of sedimentary rocks. Here we develop further models to explain how some of the diverse sedimentary rocks are related to each other. Furthermore, these sediments can be related to tectonics, depositional environments, sedimentary sequence position, sea level changes and the whole collection of processes by which sediments and environments systematically evolve downstream within ideal long and short depositional systems. A diagram for the evolution of sedimentary rocks in both long and short systems is illustrated at this evolutionary diagram. The discussion begins with the long system and then examines a short system. The models are ideal, and makes some assumptions you should be aware of. First Assumption: Sediments, sedimentary structures and sequences, and depositional environments all evolve in unison downstream. In the real world these may not evolve synchronously.

Second Assumption: The sourcelands are simple; they are uniform in composition,
even if of mixed parent rocks, and do not have complex tectonic histories.

Third Assumption: Environments are found in their ideal state without significant
transitions from environment to environment.
You may want to print out " The Evolution of Depositional Environments, Sedimentary Rocks, and Rock Sequences&quot. Refer to it frequently while reading about the model; the model is as much visual as verbal. (Note that the model is in landscape mode and you will have to set your printer accordingly.)

The Long-System Model

Upper Path on evlutionary diagram:

We begin the long-system model in the upper left with a tectonically active faultblock mountain built on a continental sourceland. On a continent the mountains are composed of felsic igneous rocks (e.g. granites, granodiorites, syenites). They undergo primarily mechanical weathering to produce coarse, angular weathering products. These angular fragments are deposited rapidly at the base of the mountain in alluvial fan environments during torrential rains, producing deposits of arkose (feldspathic) breccia. Because the sediments are dumped rapidly they form coarse grained, disorganized, matrix supported deposits called debris flows. Some of the debris flow deposits get buried in the alluvial fan and become part of the geologic record. Most of the sediment continues to move downstream. During transportation the angular breccia fragments are abraded and rounded and the rock evolves into an arkose conglomerate. Arkose conglomerates are common in alluvial fan and braided river environments. Transportation in a braided river is very different from a debris flow. In a braided river gravel and sand particles roll and bounce along the bottom in such a way that two characteristic types of bedding called L-Bars (gravel beds) and T-Bars (large planar cross beds) form. The gravel in the L-Bars is grain supported, meaning the cobbles, pebbles, boulders are touching and support each other. This is in contrast to the debris flow which are typically matrix supported with the gravel not touching and supported by the smaller particles in between. Near the sourceland, in alluvial fan and braided river environments, energy is high and sediment moves by a combination of water pushing the grains and gravity helping the particles slide and role down steep gradients. The farther downstream however, the less the gradient, and the less gravity is able to help move the particles. More and more the primary energy moving the particles is the force of running water. Although this force is great during a flood and easily moves cobbles and boulders, during more normal flow the gravel is sorted out and left behind upstream. By the time the distal braided river is reached most of the gravel is gone (meaning L-Bars no longer form) and T-Bars made of coarse arkose sandstone dominate as the environmental energy falls. By the distal braided river chemical weathering is replacing mechanical weathering as the major process. The feldspars so common in the arkose sediments upstream are decomposing to clays, and minerals in solution. The result is the sediments are evolving from feldspar rich arkose sandstones to more clay rich subarkose wackes. That is, as the feldspars weather they turn into clay, and as the amount of feldspar sand declines the relative amount of quartz sand increases. Subarkose wackes in particular are common in the meandering river environment because meandering rivers form best from sediments with abundant silt and clay. Look at the point bar sequence typical of meandering rivers. Notice all the silts and clays at the top of the sequence which are deposited in the flood plain. Chemical weathering continues in the meandering river so that eventually all the felspar is gone and the sediments consists of only quartz and clay, a quartz wacke. Thus, by the time the meandering

river reaches the shoreline transitional environments we are dealing with just two undissolved products, quartz and clay. At the beach, or wave-washed mouth of a delta then the high energy of the waves continuously and efficiently sorts the sediment leaving the sand behind on or near the shore while the clay drifts offshore. (Note that silt is also a common component here, it consisting largely of QFL grains smaller than sand.) And since by this time weathering is complete the beach sands are quartz arenites, although some may still contain minor percentages of feldspar. In this long system model, once we reach the beach we have also reached an epicontinental sea on a tectonically stable craton. Under these conditions the simple, ideal model for the evolution of sedimentary rocks is in force and the result is a quartz sandstone >> shale >> limestone sequence deposited on the beach, shelf, and far shelf environments. If the shelf is frequented by storms then the sediments are deposited in hummocky sequences. The limestone deposited in the far shelf comes from CaCO3 dissolved in the river waters during the weathering of feldspars. Limestones (carbonates) typically do not form in the presence of clastics, such as sandstone and shale, and so are not deposited until the far shelf environment, beyond the reaches of shale deposition. Much or most of the carbonate is generated when organisms extract it from sea water to form their skeletons, although some, mainly micrites, may be biochemically precipitated.

Lower Path:
We now switch to the lower left of the evolutionary model and begin the sediment evolution process with a complex sourceland of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, such as are produced by a mountain building process. This sourceland would most likely contain feldspars, but the weathering of all the complexity of rocks here would produce mostly abundant lithic fragments so the model begins with a mechanically weathered, coarse grained lithic breccia. But just as with the arkose breccia above, this sediment begins its transportation down a long system, undergoing all the transformations of sorting and chemical weathering that happen along the way. So the lithic breccia will evolve by rounding into a lithic conglomerate, and by sorting into a lithic sandstone, and by chemical weathering into a sublithic wacke, and finally to a quartz wacke deposited in a meandering river. But again, as in the arkosic long system above, these final weathering products get dumped on the beach at the edge of an epicontinental sea on a tectonically stable craton. The final sorting and precipitating processes result in the quartz sandstone >> shale >> limestone sequence of the simple ideal model. The point here is that it does not matter what kind of sourceland you start with, if all processes of weathering and sorting are allowed to go to completion the end products are always the same. In this sense the quartz sandstone, shale, and limestone of the simple ideal model are like attractors, and all sediments regardless of their starting composition are irresistibly " attracted" to these end products because they are the most stable outcomes of the sedimentary processes.

The Short-system Model

Short-systems form in tectonically active regions where high mountains are built very near the depositional basin (evolutionary model - lower left). Under these conditions, both the distance and the time to final deposition are short and systematic changes in texture, sorting, and particle maturity to end member compositions are not possible. Short systems form under many circumstances, both continental and oceanic. A continental fault block mountain, like the one in the long-system model above, could be a short system if a sea existed at the base of the mountain. In the Cordilleran Orogeny both a short system and a long system are present. In a short system the number of environments and distance from sourceland to basin is reduced And because these systems rapidly go from high mountains to deep basins the environments that do remain are often shorter than normal. As a result the mechanical energy in each environment is dissipated over a shorter distance making it more difficult for sorting processes to work efficiently. The result is coarser, more poorly sorted sediments. Also, chemical weathering does not have as much opportunity to work and so less clay is generated and quartz does not have an opportunity to increase much at the expense of feldspar and lithics. The end result is less mature sediments at each stage in the sequence. Still, as in the long-system, the first depositional environment is the alluvial fan at the base of the mountain. The sediment will be coarse-grained, unsorted, unstratified, matrix supported debris flows of lithic (or arkosic) breccias. As the lithic breccia moves downstream the angular particles become rounded to form lithic (or arkosic) conglomerates. They are deposited mostly in grain supported gravel L-Bars of a braided river. So far the short-system is similar to the long-system. Below the braided river, however, the short-system differs dramatically. There is no long, meandering river, or delta, or shelf environment, and all of the processes of sorting and weathering which takes place in these environments do not happen. Instead, the lithic (arkosic) conglomerates and lithic (arkosic) sandstones of the braided river are dumped directly onto the beach. This is no beach of white quartz sand; it is a gravel and coarse sand beach of dark lithic (feldspathic) particles. Imagine being able to study samples of the braided river sands/conglomerates and beach sands/ conglomerates; how could you tell them apart? They may be deposited only a few dozen yards apart and will look virtually identical. Offshore, perhaps only a few hundred yards or so from the beach, the floor of the sea drops away suddenly and steeply to a long underwater slope which descends perhaps thousands of feet to the basin floor below. Because the sourceland is close, large volumes of lithic (arkosic) sediment continue to pour onto the narrow beach, which cannot hold it all. Much of the sediment bypasses the beach to pour down the slope as turbidity currents forming a submarine fan environment. The sediments in the submarine fan may be lithic conglomerates or sandy lithic conglomerates in the proximal fan, but distally they become (sub)lithic wackes. Finally on the ocean floor, beyond the outer edges of the fan, silts and shales, black in color from the low oxygen conditions, are deposited in the basin floor environment.

The most important message of the short-system is that all the processes of
sediment evolution are cut short. As a result immature sediments are deposited in depositional environments which may be atypical in their characteristics (larger sizes, less maturity, etc.). By extension the longer the system the more it will begin to resemble the ideal long-system. Eventually even a sourceland supplying dominantly lithic sediments to a long system will, by the end of the long system, produce the classic quartz sandstone >> shale >> limestone sequence of the simple ideal model. There is only two rocks remaining on the evolutionary chart we have not discussed. These are the wacke quartz conglomerates and quartz conglomerate near the top center of the chart. Quartz for all intents and purposes does not weather. Grains of quartz which are sand size eventually become sandstones, but what about large chunks of quartz, such as might be formed in a pegmatite (very coarse felsic igneous rock) or vein quartz precipitated by hydrothermal fluids. These will form quartz gravel. This quartz gravel is not going to go away, and in a complete long-model it is not likely to make it all the way to the beach. Yet quartz conglomerates are not that uncommon in the geologic record. What happens is, the quartz conglomerates just sits around, forever, waiting until the mountain is completely eroded to sea level (a peneplain). When all the terrestrial environments have disappeared the quartz gravel remains as a lag deposit (because it lags behind until everything else is gone). Initially it might be quartz mixed with clay, but as time goes by the clay is sorted out leaving behind pure quartz (sandy) conglomerates.

Conclusions
The information in this model is summarized with two deductive arguments: First Deductive Argument FIRST PREMISE: The composition (the size, shape, sorting, and content) of a sedimentary rock is largely dependent on the tectonic regimes in which the sediment forms and the depositional environments in which it was deposited. SECOND PREMISE: Environments evolve in systematic and predictable ways from sourceland to basin floor in each tectonic regime. CONCLUSION: Therefore, the compositional and textural characteristics of a sediment change in corresponding systematic and predictable ways from the sourceland. Sediment texture and composition are rock properties which help determination the geologic history of a basin. Sediment textures, sedimentary structures, and structural sequences shed light on the nature of the transporting and sorting agents, and provide clues to the final environment of deposition. Second Deductive Argument FIRST PREMISE: Sedimentary structures and sequences of sedimentary structures found in a sedimentary rock are determined by the processes characteristic of each

particular depositional environment. SECOND PREMISE: Depositional environments evolve in systematic and predictable ways downstream. CONCLUSION: Therefore, sedimentary structures and rock sequences of structures change in corresponding systematic and predictable ways from the sourceland to the basin.

Geologists have worked long and hard to discover just what kinds of information siliciclastic rock composition can give, and how accurate it is. This subject takes a semester course just to introduce, but two kinds of information can be used for interpretations. The first is the actual mineral and rock fragment content of the rock. Because many minerals form only under specific conditions it is possible to identify sourceland composition with some confidence. Specific rock fragments, of course, tell directly what the sourceland is made of. The second kind of information is empirical (actually observed) evidence of the QFL composition of sandstones derived from specifically known tectonic regimes. Sandstone samples collected from many examples of each of four tectonic regimes have been plotted on a QFL ternary diagram (see illustration below). The shaded fields on the ternary diagram represent the sediment compositions associated with each tectonic regime: stable craton, block faulted continent (including continental rifts), volcanic arcs, and recycled orogens (arc-continent and continent-continent collision mountains). As the ternary diagram shows these fields tend to be distinct, indicating that sandstone composition can be used, judiciously, to make tectonic interpretations.

What are the 4 states of matter?

Any and all substances can exist in one of 4 forms (also called "states" or "phases") Which state the material is in basically depends upon its temperature. The easiest example is water (a liquid). Take away heat and it becomes a solid (we call it ice). Add heat and it turns into a gas we call water vapor. Add more heat and it turns into a high energy form called plasma. In our study of the earth we are most concerned with the first three - plasma becomes more important in astronomy and high energy physics. One of the marvels of water is that it can exist in all 3 states on the surface of the earth - even at the same place and time. Imagine enjoying a glass of ice water on a humid day and tell me you don't believe in magic. One way to understand how the 3 phases differ is to discuss how they relate to being put into something. A solid is rigid with a fixed shape which stays the same no matter what you put it in. Put a rock on the table, into a box, into a backpack - it's still the same rock. A liquid is fluid, and affected by gravity. Therefore, liquids will conform to the shape of whatever they are put into, on earth filling the container from the bottom up. Try pouring a glass of water into a different shaped container and you'll see what I mean. The higher energy of gas pushes gas molecules away from each other, causing a gas to attempt to fill up whatever space is available. That's why a balloon is full, with equal pressure at all locations. By the way, wouldn't balloons be weird if all the gas was at the bottom?

How do composition and texture relate to igneous rocks?

Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which cool from magma: the liquid phase of solid rock. Magmas occur at depth in the crust, and are said to exist in "magma chambers," a rather loose term indicating an area where the temperature is great enough to melt the rock, and the pressure is low enough to allow the material to expand and exist in the liquid state. Many different types of igneous rocks can be produced. The key factors to use in determining which rock you have are the rock's texture and composition. Texture Texture relates to how large the individual mineral grains are in the final, solid rock. In most cases, the resulting grain size depends on how quickly the magma cooled. In general, the slower the cooling, the larger the crystals in the final rock. Because of this, we assume that coarse grained igneous rocks are "intrusive," in that they cooled at depth in the crust where they were insulated by layers of rock and sediment. Fine grained rocks are called "extrusive" and are generally produced through volcanic eruptions. Grain size can vary greatly, from extremely coarse grained rocks with crystals the size of your fist, down to glassy material which cooled so quickly that there are no mineral grains at all. Coarse grain varieties (with mineral grains large enough to see without a magnifying glass) are called phaneritic. Granite and gabbro are examples of phaneritic igneous rocks. Fine grained rocks, where the individual grains are too small to see, are called aphanitic. Basalt is an example. The most common glassy rock is obsidian. Obviously, there are innumerable intermediate stages to confuse the issue. Composition The other factor is composition: the elements in the magma directly affect which minerals are formed when the magma cools. Again, we will describe the extremes, but there are countless intermediate compositions. (Composition relates to the mafic and felsic terms discussed in another question. If these terms are confusing, please refer to that discussion before continuing.) The composition of igneous magmas is directly related to where the magma is formed. Magmas associated with crustal spreading are generally mafic, and produce basalt if the magma erupts at the surface, or gabbro if the magma never makes it out of the magma chamber. It is important to remember that basalt and gabbro are two different rocks based purely on textural differences - they are compositionally the same. Intermediate and felsic magmas are associated with crustal compression and subduction. In these areas, rock and sediment from the surface is subducted back into the crust, where it re-melts. This allows the differentiation process to continue, and the resulting magma is enriched in the lighter elements. Intermediate magmas produce diorite (intrusive) and andesite (extrusive).

Felsic magmas, the final purified result of the differentiation process, lead to the formation of granite (intrusive) or rhyolite (extrusive).

Igneous Rock Classification

Texture vs. composition

Felsic Aphanitic
fine grain

Intermediate

Mafic

Ultramafic
Conditions needed to produce ultramafic flows do not exist in nature at this time.

Rhyolite

Andesite Dacite

Basalt Diabase Gabbro

Intermediate Phaneritic
coarse grain

Granite Obsidian Pumice

Diorite

Peridotite

Glassy Frothy

Scoria

It is important to note that there are many, many intermediate steps between these main divisions. Geology is a science full of "shades of gray," and the naming of igneous rocks is certainly no exception.

lements & minerals common to various magmas

Ultramafic magmas
Olivine - Mg2SiO4 to Fe2SiO4 Pyroxene - Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6

Mafic (basaltic) magmas

Olivine - Mg2SiO4 to Fe2SiO4 Pyroxene - Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6 Plagioclase - CaAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8

Intermediate magmas
Plagioclase - CaAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8 Amphibole - NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2 Muscovite/Biotite - KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 Quartz - SiO2

Felsic (granitic) magmas

Potash Feldspar - KAlSi3O8 Quartz - SiO2 Muscovite/Biotite - KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 Amphibole - NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2

What are the most important types of rock in the crust?

Excluding the rocks between my ears, I'd have to say that basalt and granite have the honor of being the most important rocks in the crust. Basalt and granite actually have quite a bit in common. Both are igneous rocks, which means that they cooled from a magma (the earth gets very hot just below the surface, and there is lots of liquid rock available). Both are made up of minerals from the silicate group, so both have large amounts of silica and oxygen. Both will hurt if you drop a big piece on your toe. But there are several important differences, too. These differences help define and explain how the earth works. Granite is great stuff! Not only is it my personal favorite, it is without a doubt the most common rock type on the continental land masses. Yosemite Valley in the Sierra Nevada

and Mt. Rushmore are two notable examples of granitic rocks. But granitic "basement rock" can be found just about everywhere east of the Rockies if you're willing to dig through the dirt and sedimentary rocks at the surface. Granite is intrusive, which means that the magma was trapped deep in the crust, and probably took a very long time to cool down enough to crystallize into solid rock. This allows the minerals which form plenty of time to grow, and results in a coarse-textured rock in which individual mineral grains are easily visible. Granite is the ultimate silicate rock. As discussed elsewhere in greater detail, on average oxygen and silica account for 75% of the earth's crust. The remaining 25% is split among several other elements, with aluminum and potassium contributing the most to the formation of the continental granitic rocks. Relatively small amounts of iron and magnesium occur, but since they have generally higher densities it's not surprising that there isn't very much in the granite. Due to the process of differentiation, most of the heavier elements are moving towards the core of the earth, allowing the silica and oxygen to accumulate on the surface. And accumulate it has. Enough granitic "scum" has differentiated to the surface to cover 25% to 30% of the earth with the good stuff. We call this purified material felsic because of the relatively high percentage of silica and oxygen. Basalt is extrusive. The magma from which it cools breaks through the crust of the earth and erupts on the surface. We call these types of events volcanic eruptions, and there are several main types. The volcanoes that make basalt are very common, and tend to form long and persistent zones of rifting in nearly all of the ocean basins. We now believe that these undersea volcanic areas represent huge spreading ridges where the earth's crust is separating. It's a lot like a cut on your arm, which will bleed until a scab forms. Basaltic magma is like the blood of the earth - it's what comes out when the earth's skin is cut the whole way through. As an eruption ends, the basalt "scab" heals the wound in the crust, and the earth adds some new seafloor crust. Because the magma comes out of the earth (and often into water) it cools very quickly, and the minerals have very little opportunity to grow. Basalt is commonly very fine grained, and it is nearly impossible to see individual minerals without magnification. Basalt is considered a mafic silicate rock. Among other characteristics, mafic minerals and rocks are generally dark in color and high in specific gravity. This is in large part due to the amount of iron, magnesium, and several other relatively heavy elements which "contaminate" the silica and oxygen. But this heavy stuff really isn't happy near the surface, and will take any opportunity it can to head for deeper levels. The trick is to heat the basalt back up again so it can melt and give the iron another shot at the core. It wants to be there, and heat is the key which unlocks the door. As it turns out, most of the ocean floor is basalt, and most of the continents are granite. Basaltic crust is dark and thin and heavy, while granite is light and accumulates into continent-sized rafts which bob about like corks in this "sea of basalt." When a continent runs into a piece of seafloor, it's much like a Mac truck running into a Volkswagon. Not very pretty, but at least there's a clear winner. And the seafloor basalt ends up in pretty much the same position as does the VW - under the truck (or continent, as the case may

be). This may seem like a drag for the basalt, but remember that it isn't all that happy on the surface anyway, and this gives it the heat it needs to re-melt and try to complete the differentiation process which was so rudely interrupted at the spreading ridge. If successful and allowed to continue, what's left behind is a "purified" magma with most of the iron, magnesium, and other heavy elements removed. When it cools, guess what forms? And the continental land mass just got a wee bit larger.