FED. SCHOOL OF DENTAL TECH.

AND THERAPY, ENUGU

COURSE CODE: - STB 111 COURSE TITLE: - Morphology & Physiology of Living Things

LECTURE ONE NOTES

Introduction
General Biology:-

Biology as a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. It is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics as contained in Biology are five unifying principles that can be said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:1) 2) 3) 4)

Cells are the basic unit of life. New species and inherited traits are the product of evolution. Genes are the basic unit of heredity. An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition. Living organisms consume and transform energy.

5)

Morphology & Physiology:-

The study of Morphology and Physiology of living things can be traced as far back to early Egyptian civilization (based on their belief that only gods linked with living things/organims i.e. plants & animals) that influences lives. This belief was the epitome of the study of morphology & physiology of living things/organisms; which made a Greek great philosopher (Aristotle) then taught the importance of studying the morphologic & physiologic characteristics of living things/organisms, in an attempt to classify them based on the significant values attached to them Morphology:Morphology stems from the Greek words "morphe" meaning "form" and "logos" meaning "study." And in biological science, it refers to the form and structure of an organism, or one of the organism's parts. In linguistics, morphology looks at the structure and form of words in a language, the derivation of words and
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how compound words are formed. What the two usages have in common is the study of form and structure. Thus, the term "morphology" most generally refers to the study of things in their various forms, including changes in form over time. Morphology as a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features includes aspects of the outward appearance (shape, structure, colour, and pattern) as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs. The biological concept of morphology was developed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1790) and independently by the German anatomist and physiologist Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800). Although generally the field of morphology is divided into two distinct branches, which are: "Anatomy" is the study of the form and structure of internal features of an organism.  "Eidonomy" is the study of the form and structure of the external features of an organism. However, other branches do exist such as: Comparative Morphology Is analysis of the patterns of the locus of structures within the body plan of an organism, and forms the basis of taxonomical catorization.  Functional Morphology is the study of the relationship between the structure and function of morphological features.  Experimental Morphology is study of the effects of external factors upon the morphology of organisms under experimental conditions, such as the effect of genetic mutation Summarily, it can be seen that:The biological study of the form and structure of living things is called Morphology which deals with both the external and internal structures of the organisms; and thus, it may be divided into two distinct branches: the anatomy and the eidonomy. Physiology:This is in contrast to physiology, which deals primarily with function. Physiology refers to all the activities taking place within the living organisms or how the different parts functions. It is chiefly concerned with the study of how living organisms function including such processes as nutrition, movement, and reproduction. Physiology is derived from a Latin word pysiologia meaning science of natural causes and phenomena. Thus, it is often described as the branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms as well as functions of their component parts, that includes all physical and chemical processes. The word "function" is
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important to the definition of physiology because physiology traditionally had to do with the function of living things while anatomy had to do with morphology, the shape and form, of things. Summarily, it can be seen that:The branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the functions of form and structure of organisms as well as functions of their specific structural features is Physiology and is a science of wide scope. For instance: Some physiological studies are concerned with processes that go on within cells. The physiology of cells is called cell physiology.  ther physiological studies deal with how tissues and organs work, how they are controlled and interact with other tissues and organs and how they are integrated within the living organisms.  Yet other physiological studies deal with how living organisms respond to their environment. For example, to extremes of temperature (in arctic conditions versus the desert), to changes in pressure (deep under the ocean versus weightless in space), etc.
Fields of Application:-

Morphology & Physiology as a branch of life science dealing with the study of gross structure of an organism or Taxon and its component parts, as well as how these gross structures and component parts functions (either interdependently or independently) is applied in the following fields of study:a)

Biology: - This involve either Morphology without reference to function (e.g. morphology of a cell, vertebrates, the central nervous system); a key hidden component of organic units, but not synonymous with or dependent upon (though theoretically almost completely dominated by) the (post)-modern 'evolutionary synthesis'. Ecology:- Living Nature (Goethe), morphological population studies, phylogeny and ontogeny, The Nature of Things (David Suzuki) Linguistics:- Morphology with reference to language, grammar, syntax (e.g. inflection and the formation of compounds, semantics, phonology, comparative linguistic systems):1.

b)

c)

'Morphemes' - the smallest units of grammar: roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Linguistic relativity - Noam Chomsky.
3

2.

3.

Distributed Morphology - an architectural theory of grammar proposed in the early 1990s at MIT

d)

Histology:- Morphology as 'universal symbolism' (cf. historical evolutionism); temporal and spatial formulations, motives and directions of human development, of static and dynamic memory reporting, cyclical-cultural generations and re-generations, declines and inclines in human technology Sociology:- Morphology as basic 'change through time,' demonstrates dynamic formal effects of individual, structural, institutional and broader social-psychological changes Mythology:- Greek, Ovid - Metamorphoses, 'Morpheus': God of Dreams, son of Somnus, god of sleep. Other fields:- These includes Topology, Embryology, Systematics, Anthropology, Cognitive and Cultural Studies and studies in Complexity, Anatomy, Cytology, Economics, Filmmaking, Paleontology, Philosophy of Technology, Information and Communication theory.
Uses of Morphology & Physiology:-

e)

f)

g)

Amongst the significant uses of the knowledge and understanding of Morphology and Physiology of living things is it enables us know and understand:1)

Uniform and non-uniform motion, as well as its constancy and indeterminacy. The morphology' (Fanon), i.e. to find the place of language in human nature, culture and behaviour; transformation (morpho-dynamic models), process thought and continuous action. Shape shifting; cyclical or stage theory; knowledge from shape or configuration, as in a known face or facial features, physiognomy; morphological principles of pattern recognition and perception, replication and duplication. Pattern laws (cf. 'patterns that connect' - Bateson) applied to networks of human (and non-human).

2)

3)

4)

5)

Social phenomena (cf. Latour), Aristotelian hylo-morphism. And others.

Summary:-

Morphology as the branch of science that studies the shape and structure of organisms as a whole, with plants, it investigates the structures and common organization of the root, stem, leaves and fruits; and with animals and human beings, compares and analyzes their physical structure. Sub-branches of morphology includes:o

Anatomy, the study of the visible internal and external structures of living organisms, considering the forms of their macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. Histology, the study of the microscopic structure of the tissues that make up organs; Cytology, the study of the microscopic structure of the cells that make up tissues in an attempt to elucidate the physiological properties of cells, including their behaviors, interactions, and environment. This is otherwise called cell biology and the study is done on both the microscopic & molecular levels. Embryology, the study of all the phases between the fertilized egg (zygote) and the emergence of an independent organism. In an attempt to understand the significant role of the science of gene, heredity & variation of living organism (i.e. genetics) as it provides a significant tool in the investigation of the physiologic function of particular genes or the analysis of genetic interactions within a living organism. Developmental Biology, the study of process by which living organisms grows and develops. Though it originates in embryology, yet it is aimed at studying the significant genetic physiologic genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and morphogenesis, that gives rise to tissues, organs and organ systems. Molecular biology, is the study of biology at a molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the
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interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. While, Physiology in the other hand as the branch of science that studies of both mechanical, physical & biochemical process of living organisms as well as the functions of shape and structure of organisms as a whole, with plants; it investigates the functions of structures and common organization of the root, stem, leaves and fruits; and with animals and human beings, compares and analyzes the various functions of their physical structures. Is aimed at understanding the significant sequence of how the structures in living organisms function as a whole. It is important to know that the field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology even to non-human species, because plant physiology borrows techniques from both research fields, which the study is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology & immunology.
Conclusively:-

In Morphology and Physiology of living organisms, the theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. This is because, physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, in which some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. Body Organization of Living Organisms (i.e. Body Building Blocks) The body of a living organism (be it an animal or a plant) is as a whole one organism. However, many parts make up the whole. In various levels of the body, there are a large number of parts contained within other parts. Thus, the body of a living organism is significantly organized in this sequence:Atoms -----Molecules------ Cells ------- Tissues---------Organs------ and Organ systems. y Atoms: Is the smallest possible piece of an element in the body that retains all the properties of that element, e.g. Hydrogen atom reacts the same as a barrel full of Hydrogen. It is a building block in the sense that when you put Two Hydrogen atoms together, you get a Hydrogen molecule, and if you add an atom of Oxygen to the Hydrogen molecule, you will create a molecule of water. Thus a molecule in the morphology of a living organism is a conglomerate of atoms put together. y Molecules: -

The body of a living organism contains many different types of molecules that form the working parts called cells as well as substances produced by these working parts (i.e. cells) such as hormones.

Cells: Are morphologically derived from a combination of molecules and can perform many important functions in the body of a living organism without which a living organism would not be able to survive and thrive. Each cell in the body of a living organism is capable of converting energy, digesting food, excreting waste, reproducing its own self as well as uptake of Oxygen. Note: - That no smaller component than the cell (be it in animals or plants) could perform all those functions. That is why the cell is regarded basically as the fundamental unit of life. y Tissues:This is another level of body organization in living organisms due to aggregation and combination of several different types of cells, e.g. blood cells, nerve cells and muscle cells. Generally the body of a living organism is made of four basic classes of tissues namely, connective epithelial, muscle/fiber and nerve tissues respectively. y Organs: As atoms make molecules, while molecules make up cells, cells make up a tissue. Also the aggregate of two or more kind of tissues working together makes up an organ. Thus an organ is a part of the body of a living organism that performs a specialized physiologic function. y Organ System:An organ system in a living organism is a group of specialized organs working together to achieve a major or significant physiologic need in the body of a living organism.
y

The Living Cell

Living cells are the basic building blocks of all life on Earth. All animals and plants consists of many billions of cells, which contain many organelles with specific cellular functions either commonly shared and some different. In all living organisms; cells are what build tissues, tissues build organs and organs build organ systems. In both plants and animals, the organ systems do functions together to support life in the living organism. Cell Definition:-

A cell is defined as the smallest structural (i.e. morphologic & physiologic unit) of living organisms that can exist independently on its own (Jenny et al 2006). It is the significant microscopic factory of all living organisms, where thousands of chemical reactions happen in a carefully & sequentially controlled way (i.e. physiologic activitiesthat enables the cells perform all tasks involved in being alive). Although, all living organisms are made up of cells, however, animal & plant cells have significant characteristic differences in so many ways. These differences are brought about due to the presence of dissimilar inclusions (i.e. internal componentswhich determines physiologic activities in an organism), & consequently influence the characteristics physical, structural /morphological presentation of an organism (i.e. external components dimension). Thus:1) Bacteria: A bacterium is a simple, single celled organism. All the bacteria found on the surface of this planet weigh more than any other species. They are very successful. 2) Insects: A typical insect like a fly or a bee contains many hundreds of thousands of cells. Insects have very basic organ systems that support life and allow insects to reproduce. 3) Small mammals:A small mammal, for example a rat contains many millions of cells organised into nine distinct organ systems similar to our own. 4) Humans: A human contains many billions of cells. Each hour of every day of our lives, we replace over one billion cells in our body. During puberty we produce even more cells. 5) Plants:Just like in the animals, plants do as well contain many millions of cells organised into different smaller organs which an aggregate of these smaller organs culminated into the plant organ system.
The Cell Theory Cell theory: - states that the cell is the fundamental unit of life, and that all

living things are composed of one or more cells or the secreted products of those cells (e.g. shells). All cells arise from other cells through cell division. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body derives ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. The cell is also considered to be the basic unit
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in many pathological processes. Additionally, the phenomenon of energy flow occurs in cells in processes that are part of the function known as metabolism. Finally, cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. The cell theory is a basic tenet of modern biology, first stated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838-39, that cells are the basic units of structure and function in living organisms. Summarily the theory states that:1. 2. 3.

All known living things are made up of cells. The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division, (i.e. generation does not occur). Cells contain hereditary information from cell to cell during cell division. which is passed

4.

5. 6.

All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. All energy Flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

FED. SCHOOL OF DENTAL TECH. AND THERAPY, ENUGU

COURSE CODE: - STB 111 COURSE TITLE: - Morphology & Physiology of Living Things

LECTURE TWO NOTES

THE LIVING CELLS Living cells are the basic building blocks of all life on Earth. All animals and plants consists of many billions of cells, which contain many organelles with specific cellular functions either commonly shared and some different. A living organism (be it plant or animal):y y y y

Is made of cells as its basic building blocks. Consists of many billions of cells. Some of these cells are specialised cells with specified functions. Have in its cells many organelles with specific cellular functions, of which some are shared and some are different. It is the cells that build tissues, tissues build organs and organs finally build the organ systems. Has different organ systems (made of various types of cells) that function together to support its life.

Basic Categories of Living Cells There are two basic categories of living cells, and these are Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic Cells: - Derived from the Latin word pro- meaning before and karyonmeaning nucleus. These are evolutionarily ancient type of cell, simpler without a nucleus-bound membrane (the only form of life), first discovered billion years ago even before the evolution of a more complex Eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic cells are most always single-celled, except when they exist in colonies. They represent the initial or primitive cell types on earth. It is important to note that only bacteria have a Prokaryotic cell types.

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Eukaryotic Cells: - Derived from the Latin words Eumeaning true and karyon meaning nucleus. These are cells in living organisms that contains structural and biochemical complex structures enclosed within membranes. They represent a tiny minority of all living things with a distinct nucleus. They are a very diverse group of cells, with n equally a diverse structural and functional make up. The Eukaryotic cells are more complex than the Prokaryotic ones and they evolve from aggregates of Prokaryotic-like predecessors that become independent upon one another which eventually fused or merged into a single larger cell. It is important to note however that animals, plants, fungi, protozoans and algae all posses Eukaryotic cell types. Basic Differences between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells Contained in the table below are the basic existing significant differences between the Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
S/n
01

Characteristics

Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell

Age

02

Size of Cell

Are primitive cells that evolved about 3.5billion years before the evolution of the Eukaryotic cells. About 0.22.0 u m in diameter.

03 04

Organization Nucleus

05

Membrane Enclosed Organelles

Lesser degree of organization. Lack a nuclear body (nucleus) bounded by a nuclear membrane as well as pores that connect it with endoplasmic reticulum and or nucleoli (i.e. nucleoid). Absent of.

Are hominids that evolved from group of Prokaryotic cells that become independent on each other. About 10-100 u m in diameter (i.e. Eukaryotic cells are 10 times larger than the Prokaryotic cells). Presence of a higher degree of organization. Present as a true nuclear body, consisting of nuclear membrane having pores connecting it with endoplasmic reticulum & nucleoli. Presence of e.g. Lysosomes, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria etc.

11

S/n
06

Characteristics

Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell

Flagella or Made of 2 protein building cilia blocks, each composed of a (Iocomotor single, rotating fibril and Organelles) usually not surrounded by a membrane and without a cilia. Glycocalyx Cell Wall Present in form of capsule or slime layer. Present as a chemically complex carbohydrate or a unique molecules resembling but not exactly similar to the peptidoglycan.

07 08

09

Plasma Membrane

Is a fluid phospholipids bilayered that lacks carbohydrates and steroids, incapable of endocytosis and exocytosis.

10

Cytoplasm

Absence of cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic streaming.

11

Ribosomes

Present but in smaller size.

Made of complex (i.e. multiple microtubules) as building blocks, with a distinct sliding arrangement as surrounded by the cell membrane that involves in locomotion. Present only in some cells that lacks a cell wall. Absent in animal cells & protozoans, but when present in plant cells, algae, and fungi. It is in a chemically simple form of cellulose or chitin, but not made of peptidoglycan. Is a fluid phospholipids bilayered containing carbohydrates and steroids as cell receptors, capable of endocytosis (i.e. phagocytois & pinocytosis) and exocytosis. Presence of cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic streaming, that comes together during protein synthesis to form ribosomes. Present in larger size within the cytoplasm and in smaller sizes within the cellular organelles.

12

S/n
12

Characteristics

Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell

Chromosomes Have single circular (DNA) chromosomes without Arrangement histones that float freely around in an unorganized manner.

13

Cell Division

14

15

Reproduces only by means of binary fission, duplicating their genetic material and then splitting to form two daughter cells identical to the present as they lacks mitosis, as cells divides through binary fission resulting in haploid cells. Sexual Lacks meiosis, but have Involves one of several Reproduction DNA fragments transfer ways that include meiosis only in conjugation. (sexual reproduction) and mitosis (cell division producing identical daughter cells. Representative The domain Prokarya is The domain Eukarya is Organisms only bacteria. mainly animals, plants, algae, protozoans, and fungi.

Have multiple chromosomes composed of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) associated with histone proteins in an organized manner and held within the confinement of the cell nucleus. Through mitosis, in which a haploid (1N) sex cells in diploid divides into 2N organisms through meiosis.

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Basic Similarities between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells Presented in the table below are the basic existing significant similarities between the Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
S/n
01

Characteristics

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Cell Membrane

02

DNA

03

Basic Chemicals

04 05 06 07

Self Regulation Reproduction Energy Supply Elaborate Sensing System

All poses cell membrane that separates the chaos outside a cell from the high degree of organization within the cell. (A cell without a cell membrane is not a cell). All cellular life contains DNA as its genetic material (i.e. all cells contain several varieties of RNA molecules and PROTEINS). Most of the proteins are however in form of enzymes. All cells are composed of the same basic chemicals as Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic acids, Minerals, Fats and Vitamins. All cells regulate the flow of nutrients and wastes that enter and leave the cell. All cells reproduce and are the result of reproduction. All cells require energy supply to thrive, functions or survive. All cells have a highly regulated and elaborate sensing system (i.e. chemical noses) that permits them be aware of every reaction occurring within them and also many environmental conditions around them in order to enable them make a metabolic decision.

Basic Types of Living Cells Although there are many different types of Eukaryotic cells, however animal and plant cells are the most familiar Eukaryotes.

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The Animal Cell This is a form of Eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in animals. It is very distinct Eukaryotes from those mostly noticed in plant cells, as they lack cell walls and chloroplast, while they possess similar vacuoles. Due to the lack of a rigid cell wall, animal cells can perform or adapt to a variety of shapes and a phagocytic functions as it is capable of engulfing other structures unlike in the plant cells. Presented below is a diagrammatic representation of structures contained in a typical animal cell.
Diagrammatic representations of a typical animal cell

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The Plant Cell Plant cells are quite different from the cells of the other Eukaryotic organisms as they possess cell walls and chloroplast, and vacuoles. The plant cell is the smallest component of the plant. Also, it is similar cells of the plant that come together in groups to form tissues, the tissues do as well come together to form organs of the plants while similarly these organs forms the root and shoot systems of the plant. Presented below is a diagrammatic representation of structures contained in a typical plant cell.
Diagrammatic representations of a typical plant cell

The Essential Inclusions & Organelles in Living Cells The living cells (in plant and animals) have cellular parts (organelles) that perform specific physiologic functions within the cell. And amongst these parts (organelles) are the Cell wall, Cell membrane, Cell vacuoles, Chloroplasts, Mitochondrion, Nucleus, Cytoplasm or chloroplast ,Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Perixozomes/microbodies, Centrisomes/centrioles, Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton and host of others). Presented in the table below are the various physiologic functions performed by these component parts (organelles) of a plant cell.
S/n
01

Organelles

Physiologic Functions

The cell wall

This is the outer membrane that encloses the plant cell. It is made up of a layer of very strong material called cellulose which protects and supports the cell.

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S/n
02

Organelles

Physiologic Functions

The cell membrane

03 04

The tonoplast The vacuole

This membrane is located just inside the cell wall of the plant cell. It controls what comes into and moves out of the cell through passive diffusion or active uptake. It is the membrane that encloses the vacuole.

05

06

07

08

09

It is a sac filled with cell sap which is water, food, waste and other materials needed to be stored by the cell. The chloroplast It I found only in plant cells, containing chlorophyll, the substance or pigment that gives leaves their green colour. The mitochondrion This structure is considered as the powerhouse of the cell. It is here that energy is released from food, a process called cellular respiration. It is found in both plant and animal cells. The nucleus This oval shaped structure found in all cells that contains necessary genetic information or genes to produce new cells, new enzymes and new proteins. It operates like the brain of the cell. It controls all the activities taking place in the cell. The cytoplasm It is a gel-like substance and structures such as the vacuole, mitochondrion, nucleus, chloroplast and many others can be found floating in it. Rough Endoplasmic These are vesicular/tubular in nature, that help Reticulum synthesizes protein as well as degrade worn out tissues.

17

S/n
10

Organelles

Physiologic Functions

11

12

13

14

15

16

Endoplasmic Are smooth unvesicular/atubular in nature (called agranular/atubular reticulum) that help synthesizes lipids, steroids, store & metabolizes Calcium as well as degrade toxic substances. Golgi apparatus Are made of membranous sacs (flattened cistarnae) near the cell membrane, responsible for processing, packaging, labeling & delivery of lipids & proteins. Lysosomes Are pinched off small vesicles (as thickest covering membrane) formed by the golgi apparatus responsible for degradation of macromolecules, worn out organelles & secretion of inflammatory mediators (such as T-lymphocytes, natural killer-NK cells etc). Perixozomes/microbodies They are inclusions found in the cells of living things/organisms containing such enzymes as (catalase, urate, oxidase & D-amino acid oxidase) responsible for the physiologic breaking down of excess fatty acid, as well as acceleration of gluconogenesis from fat, degradation of purin to uric acid & myelin/bile acid formation. Centrisomes/centrioles They are morphologic cylindrical shaped organelles near the center of the cells, close to nucleus, responsible for chromosomes movement/transportation in animal cell. Ribosomes Are granular & small dot structures found attached to RER or free in the cells cytoplasm responsible for protein synthesis. Cytoskeleton It is a complex morphologic network of various sizes present throughout the cell cytoplasm of plant cells, structurally made up of microtubules & micro- filaments responsible for cell shape determination, stabilization & control of movement. Smooth Reticulum

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Specialized Cells in Animals The specialized cells in animals include the following red blood cells, nerve cells, sperm cells and muscle cells.
1) Red Blood Cells:-

They have a biconcave shape without nucleus, containing haemoglobin. Their chief physiologic function is carrying Oxygen from the lungs surface to the rest of the body.
2) Nerve Cells:-

They form connections with other nerve cells and are able to carry impulses along a huge neural network that connect and coordinate actions and thoughts in animals.
3) Sperm Cells:-

They have a streamlined head and can propel to locate a female egg cell prior to fertilization. They also carry paternal DNA.
4) Muscle Cells:-

They contract to provide movement in animal. They are rich in the mitochondria and can respire glucose in the presence of Oxygen to produce energy. Specialized Cells in Plants The specialized cells in animals include the following root hair cells, xylem cells, pollen cells and stomata cells.
1) Root Hair Cells:-

Are found covering a huge surface area of the roots of a plant. It serves to take in mineral rich water from the soil for photosynthesis and healthy growth in plants.
2) Xylem Cells:-

They are long tubes reaching from the roots to the leaf tissue in which water moves up the stem of a plant through the xylem vessels by a capillary action.
3)

Pollen Cells:They serve the physiologic function of carrying genetic information to create a new plant, in which the male gametes in plants are normally transferred to the female carpel by insects.
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4) Stomata Cells:-

Are found on the underside of green leaves and they allows the physiologic exchange of water, Carbon IV Oxide and Oxygen through the leaf of plants during photosynthesis. Plants Cell Types The different types of cells are directly related to their functions within the plant. Below is a table of plant cell types and their characteristics.
S/n
01

Plant Cell Types

Characteristics

Meristematic Cells

Are undifferentiated (undeveloped cells without a particular form or function) which later become other types of cells. These cells are usually found at the tips, of the roots, shoots and the nodes at the stem. Single layer of closely packed cells that covers and protects the plants (just like the skin in animals). Are of 2 types viz-a-viz :y

02

Epidermal Cells Parenchymal Cells

03

Photosynthetic Parenchymal cells --- That is usually found between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf. Storage Parenchymal cells---- Are specialized cell to store water in certain plants.

04 05

Collenchymal Cells

Functions in support especially in younger plants.

Sceleranchymal Cells Functions as support except it has a hardening agent that makes it more rigid than collenchyma. Water Cells Conducting Consist of tracheid and vessels elements that allow water to flow to different parts of the plant.

06

20

S/n
07

Plant Cell Types

Characteristics

Sieve Tube Member

These cells move nutrients formed in the leaves by photosynthesis to where it is needed throughout the plant.

Plants Tissue Types Tissues are similar cells that are grouped together. Soon well be in session three, the external and internal structure of roots and well see how the cells of the root come together to form the tissues which form the roots, an important organ of the plant. Plant Tissues:There are basically four groups of tissues in plants. These are the meristematic tissue, dermal tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissues. These tissues are formed by groups of cells that we have mentioned before with their particular functions. The table below shows the tissue types, the cells that they are comprised of and their functions.
S/n
01

Plant Tissue Types

Plant Cells Making up the Tissue

Physiologic Function

Meristematic Tissue Dermal Tissue Ground Tissue

Meristematic Cells

Division of new cells for new growth or repair. Protection and some nutrients absorption.

02

Epidermal Cells.

03

Parenchymal, Sceleranchymal Forms bulk of plant and Collenchymal Cells. tissue, Physical support, storage and makes food.

21

S/n
04

Plant Tissue Types

Plant Cells Making up the Tissue

Physiologic Function

Vascular Tissue

Xylem and Phloem Cells.

Allows movement of fluids/food and gives some physical support.

Physiologic Processes in Plants Cells The basic structural components responsible for physiologic processes that occur in plant cells are the parenchyma cells located in the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf in a plant (where photosynthesis takes place); and the mitochondrion located in the cell (where respiration takes place) to produce energy via cellular respiration. Thus the basic physiologic processes that occur in plant cells are photosynthesis and respiration. 1. Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the most important process to all living organisms on earth. That includes even animals. Animals eat plants, (and those of us who dont eat plants, eat animals that have eaten plants) we indirectly utilise the suns energy. The energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy in plant cells containing the green pigment, chlorophyll and is converted to the food which we eat. This process requires the presence of carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis is translated from original Greek word photomeaning light; and synthesis --- meaning putting together. During photosynthesis, Carbon IV Oxide and water is converted to sugar and Oxygen using sunlight energy.
Carbon IV Oxide (CO2) +Water (H2O) using light energy from the sun is converted to sugar (glucose:C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)

22

Here is a simple equation which states the same thing:

6CO2 + 12H2O +energy________C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

The carbon dioxide (CO ) comes from the atmosphere and enters the plant through the stomata of the leaves. The water (H O) enters the plant through the roots. The conversion of light energy to chemical energy takes place in the green pigment chlorophyll. This we already know. But what happens to what is formed from this process, the products of photosynthesis?
2 2

The glucose (C H O ) is firstly used by the plant itself to give the plant energy to grow and reproduce. The excess glucose is converted to more complex foods such as starch, fats and protein. These can be stored in the seeds, leaves, stems, roots, fruits and even the flowers.
6 12 6

The next product, Oxygen (O ), is released into the atmosphere through the leaves. Photosynthesis not only provides us with energy from food but also provides the oxygen we need to breathe. Can you see why it is the most important process to organisms living on the earth, especially to man? Think about it? Could we survive without photosynthesis occurring in plants? Why not?
2

The final product of photosynthesis is water (H O). Excess water is released from the plant during the process of transpiration.
2

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2. Respiration in Plants Cellular respiration occurs in all living cells. Simply defined, it is the breakdown of food to produce energy. Plants and animals need energy from food. Plants need energy to grow, reproduce and also to transport food via the phloem vessels all around the plant. The energy needed is produced by respiration. Oxygen is needed for this process to take place and is taken in through the stomata of the leaves. The respiration equation
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + energy

In the process of cellular respiration, energy is produced releasing Carbon IV Oxide and water from the breakdown of glucose in the presence of Oxygen. The energy produced by this process is used for growth and reproduction by the plant.

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The glucose used in this process is provided by the process of photosynthesis. The Carbon IV Oxide produced is released into the air via the leaves. This Carbon IV Oxide is in turn used by the plant for photosynthesis. These two processes of photosynthesis and respiration are vital to maintaining the balance of Oxygen and Carbon IV Oxide in the atmosphere.

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FED. SCHOOL OF DENTAL TECH. AND THERAPY, ENUGU

COURSE CODE: - STB 111 COURSE TITLE: - Morphology & Physiology of Living Things

LECTURE TWO NOTES

CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS & LIVING CELLS Living cells are the basic building blocks of all life on Earth. All animals and plants consists of many billions of cells, which contain many organelles with specific cellular functions either commonly shared and some different. A living organism (be it plant or animal):-

Effects of solutions on cells.

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