Radar and Microwave Engineering-I ALL-3-43-12 Microwave Antenna 3-43.

3 Objective Fill up the Blanks Application 1 Beamwidth of an antenna is decided by size of its________________ Ans. reflector Comprehensive 1 .An antenna on which there are no standing waves due to use of correct termination is called 6497 Ans. Non resonant antenna 2 Directivity of an isotropic antenna in _______________. Ans. unity 3 .The frquency range between half power points is --------------. Ans. 3 DB band width Factual 1 The directive gain of a transmitting antenna is defined as: - GD= ----------------. Ans. max radiation intensity/average radiation intensity 2 Helical antenna is ----------- polarized. Ans. circularly 3 .When quarter wave length ends of a two wire line is bent in opposite directions it is known as 6496 ____________ antenna. Ans. Half wave dipole 4 Zoning of lens is done for __________________. Ans. reducing the weight and absorbtion 5 Aperture blockage in a parabolic reflector ids reduced by using _____________________. Ans. Offset feed MCQ Application 1 Cassegrian feed is used with a parabolic reflector to (a) Increase the gain of the system (b) Increase the bandwidth of the system. Reduce the size of the main reflector. (d) Allow the feed to be placed at convenient point. QuesID 704 6502 6501 696 697 6500 6498 QuesID 6499

Ans. (a) Increase the gain of the system 2 Duplexer connects (i) Either transmitter or receiver to antenna at correct time. (ii) only transmitter to antenna (iii) only receiver to antenna (iv) All the above. Ans. (i) Either transmitter or receiver to antenna at correct time. 705 8540

3 Zoning is used with a dielectric antenna in order to (a) Reduce the bulk of the lens (b) Increase the bandwidth of the lens. Permit pin-point focusing. (d) Correct the curvature of the wave front from a horn that is too short. Ans. (a) Reduce the bulk of the lens

Comprehensive 1 Resonant antennas are those in which (a) No standing wave formation (b) Standing wave formation takes place None of the above

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Ans. (b) Standing wave formation takes place 2 Effective length of an antenna is due to (a)Propagation in free space (b)Reduced velocity of electrical energy in a conductor Reflection from the ground (d)Improper termination Ans. (b)Reduced velocity of electrical energy in a conductor 6508

Factual 1 Directional antenna has two characteristics (i) Directivity and power gain (ii) selectivity and sensitivity (iii) all the above (iv) None of the above Ans. (i) Directivity and power gain True/False Application 1 The large apertures of the antennas required for large detection result in wide pulse widths. Ans. false Comprehensive 1 Ungrounded antenna assumes the presence of (a) resonant antenna (b) Image antenna Reflector antenna (d Dipole antenna Ans. (b) Image antenna

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QuesID 702

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2 A non resonant antenna is terminated with a load which is equal to the characteristic impedance. 6503 Ans. True 3 The beam width between nulls of an antenna is less than its 3db beam width. Ans. false 4 In a phased array radar, the beam is scanned mechanically as well as electronically by varying the 700 amplitudes of current across the apertures. Ans. false 5 A broad side array is the one in which the direction of maximum radiation is horizontal to the line of array. 703 Ans. false Factual 1 The pulse Doppler radar usually operate with ambiguous Doppler measurement but with unambiguous range measurement. Ans. true 2 Directivity of a directive antenna is (a)Less than 1 (b)Greater than 1 Equal to 1 (d)Depends on the termination Ans. (b)Greater than 1 699 6506 701 6504

3 The directive gain of the antenna is directly proportional to the square of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave propagation. Ans. False 4 Discone is a narrowband antenna. Ans. false 5 In a parabolic reflector, the feed is generally placed at the directrix of the reflector. Ans. false Subjective What is a antenna. 6505

698

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Ans. The basic principles of operation of microwave antennas are similar to those of antennas used at lower frequencies. Antennas are devices used to radiate electromagnetic energy into space. The characteristics of transmitting and receiving antennas are similar, so a good transmitting antenna is often a good receiving antenna. A single antenna performs both functions in many modern applications. Explain the difference between (a)Resonant & Non resonant Antenna (b)Grounded & Ungrounded Antenna 6459

Ans. Resonant antenna A resonant antenna corresponds to resonant transmission line. It can be described as an opened

out transmission line at the far end and resonant length. i.e a multiple half wave lengths. Non resonant antenna A non resonant antenna is similar to a non resonant transmission line and there are no standing waves on it. on resonant antenna are uni- directional and there are only forward traveling waves in non resonant antenna. Ground and ungrounded antennas: In an ungrounded antenna with its image it forms an array; the bottom of the ungrounded antenna is joined to the top of the image. The system acts as an antenna of double size. Discuss horn radiator with diagram 8535

Ans.Horn Radiators 1. Like parabolic reflectors, you can use HORN RADIATORS to obtain directive radiation at microwave frequencies. Because they do not use resonant elements, horns have the advantage of being useful over a wide frequency band. The operation of a horn as an rf radiating device is similar to that of an automobile horn radiating sound waves. The throat of the rf radiating horn is sized to be comparable to the wavelength being used. Horn radiators are used with waveguides because they serve both as an impedance-matching device and as a directional radiator. Horn radiators may be fed by coaxial and other types of lines. Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes. The shape of the horn determines the shape of the field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of its mouth determines the beam angle and directivity. In general, the larger the mouth of the horn, the more directive is the field pattern

4 Explain the following terms (a)Directive gain (b) Power gain

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Ans. Power gain 1, The effectiveness of an antenna depends upon its ability to couple or radiate energy into the air. An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy during the radiation process. The efficiency of an antenna is usually referred to as the POWER GAIN or POWER RATIO as compared to a standard reference antenna. The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the radiated power to that of the reference antenna, which is usually a basic dipole. Both antennas must be fed rf energy in the same manner and must be in the same position when the energy is radiated. The power gain of a single dipole without a reflector is unity (one). An array of several dipoles in the same position as the single dipole, and fed with the same line, has a power gain of more than one. 2. Antenna gain increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance. Since microwave antennas are predominantly unidirectional, the examples you will study in this chapter are all of the unidirectional type. The effectiveness of an entire transmitting/ receiving system depends largely on impedance matching between the elements of the system. Impedance matching is particularly critical at the antenna connection. If a good impedance match is maintained between the system and the antenna throughout the operating frequency band, power transfer to and from the antenna is always maximum. The transmission line or waveguide used to transport energy to and from the antenna should have a characteristic impedance equal to that of the antenna. A proper impedance match allows all available power to be absorbed and radiated by the antenna without reflections back down the line. If you have a transmission line or waveguide with an impedance mismatch at the termination, standing waves are set up by the reflections. Standing waves cause losses in the form of unwanted radiations, heat losses in transmission lines, and arcing in waveguides. The STANDING-WAVE RATIO, abbreviated SWR, is a way to measure the degree of mismatch between the transmission line and its load. The SWR can be expressed as a ratio of the maximum and minimum values of the current or voltage in the standing waves that are set up on the lines as follows: A transmission line or waveguide approaches a perfectly matched condition when the SWR approaches a value of 1. A ratio that is a little higher than 1 is usually acceptable in practical applications. Measurement of SWR is the only practical method of detecting an

impedance mismatch between a transmitting/receiving system and its antenna. As such, the system SWR is an important indication of the overall efficiency of the system during operation. The line impedance can usually be matched to the antenna at only one frequency. However, the SWR will not become too high if the antenna is used over a small range of frequencies and the line is matched to the center frequency. Antenna Directivity 3.You can divide antennas into two general classes based on directivity, omni directional and directional. OMNIDIRECTIONAL antennas radiate and receive energy from all directions at once (SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT). They are seldom used in modern radar systems as the primary antenna, but are commonly used in radio equipment and iff (identification friend or foe) receivers. DIRECTIONAL antennas radiate energy in LOBES (or BEAMS) that extend outward from the antenna in either one or two directions. The radiation pattern contains small minor lobes, but these lobes are weak and normally have little effect on the main radiation pattern. Directional antennas also receive energy efficiently from only one or two directions, depending upon whether it is unidirectional or bidirectional. Directional antennas have two characteristics that are important to you in radar and communications systems. One is DIRECTIVITY and the other is POWER GAIN. The directivity of an antenna refers to the narrowness of the radiated beam. If the beam is narrow in either the horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna has a high degree of directivity in that plane. An antenna may be designed for high directivity in one plane only or in both planes, depending on the application. The power gain of an antenna increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance.

Explain the characteristic of any two wide band antenna. Ans. Horn Radiators Lens Antennas Helical Antenna

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Write short notes on micro strip antenna. Ans. Microstrip Antenna

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1.In high performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite and missile applications, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamic profile are the constraints low profile antennas may be required to meet these requirements micro strip antennas may be used. 2. These antennas are low profile, conformable to planar and nonplanar surfaces, simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed circuit technology, mechanically robust when mounted on the rigid surfaces; compatible with the MMIC designs and when the particular patch and shape are selected they are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern, and impedance. In addition by adding loads between the patch and the ground plane such as pins and the varactor diode adaptive elements with variable resonant frequency, impedance, polarization and pattern can be designed. 3.Major operational disadvantages of the micro strip antennas are their low efficiency , low power ,high Q , poor polarization purity , poor scan performance, spurious feed radiation and very narrow bandwidth which is typically only a fraction of percent or utmost a few percent. In some applications such as government security narrow bandwidth is desirable. However as the height increases surface waves are introduced which usually are not desirable because they extract power from the total available for direct radiation. The surface wave travel within the substrate and they are scattered at bends and surface discontinuities such as truncation of dielectric and ground plane and degrade the antenna pattern and polarization characteristics. Basic Characteristics

4. Micro strip antennas, consist of a very thin (t << where is the free space wavelength) metallic strip (patch) placed a small fraction of wavelength above the ground .The micro strip patch is designed so its maximum pattern is normal to the patch (broadside radiator).End fire radiation can also be accomplished by judicious mode selection .The strip and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric sheet 5.There are numerous substrates that can be used as for the design of the micro strip antenna and their dielectric constants are between 2.2 and 12. Often the micro strip antennas are referred to as patch antenna. The radiating element and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The radiating patch may be square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical, triangular or any other configuration. 3 Discuss radiation pattern of parabolic reflector? 692

Ans. 1. A spherical wave front (one in which the energy spreads out in all directions) spreads out as it travels away from the antenna and produces a pattern that is not very directional. A wave front that exists in only one plane does not spread because all of the wave front moves forward in the same direction. For an antenna to be highly directive, it must change the normally spherical wave front into a plane wave front. Many highly directive microwave antennas produce a plane wave front by using a reflector to focus the radiated energy. The PARABOLIC REFLECTOR is most often used for high directivity. Microwaves travel in straight lines as do light rays. They can also be focused and reflected just as light rays can, as illustrated by the antenna shown in figure A microwave source is placed at focal point F. The field leaves this antenna as a spherical wave front. As each part of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface, it is phase-shifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an angle that results in all parts of the field traveling in parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, when the parts of the field are reflected from the parabolic surface, they travel to line XY in the same amount of time. Parabolic reflector radiation. Fig 3.2 2.If a dipole is used as the source of transmission, energy will be radiated from the antenna into space as well as toward the reflector. Energy which is not directed toward the paraboloid has a widebeam characteristic which will destroy the narrow pattern of the parabolic reflector. However, a HEMISPHERICAL SHIELD (not shown) may be used to direct most of the radiation toward the parabolic surface and thus prevent the destruction of the narrow pattern. Direct radiation into space is eliminated, the beam is made sharper, and more power is concentrated in the beam. Without the shield, some of the radiated field would leave the radiator directly. Since this part of the field that would leave the radiator would not be reflected, it would not become a part of the main beam and could serve no useful purpose. In figure the radiation pattern of a paraboloid reflector contains a major lobe and several minor lobes. The major lobe is directed along the axis of revolution. Very narrow beams are possible with this type of reflector Fig 3.3 Short Answers Application 1 Write short notes on lens antenna. Ans. Lens Antennas 1. With a LENS ANTENNA you can convert spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane wave (in a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a COLLIMATING LENS. A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wave front into parallel paths. The point source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave energy toward the lens. The point source is often a horn radiator or a simple diapole antenna. QuesID 8539

Explain why a 2 wire transmission line cannot function as an antenna at low freq & how it can be made to function as an antenna at higher frequency. Ans. Two wire radiators can be considered as large number of doublets connected end to end at higher frequencies and their properties are similar to doublets.Due to large wave length these do not display similar properties at lower frequencies. Write short notes on cylindrical paraboloid. Ans. Cylindrical Paraboloid 1.When a beam of radiated energy that is noticeably wider in one cross-sectional dimension than in another is desired, a cylindrical paraboloidal section which approximates a rectangle can be used. . A PARABOLIC CYLINDER has a parabolic cross section in just one dimension which causes the reflector to be directive in one plane only. The cylindrical paraboloid reflector is fed either by a linear array of dipoles, a slit in the side of a waveguide, or by a thin waveguide radiator. It also has a series of focal points forming a straight line rather than a single focal point. Placing the radiator, or radiators, along this focal line produces a directed beam of energy. As the width of the parabolic section is changed, different beam shapes are obtained. You may see this type of antenna system used in search radar systems and in ground control approach (GCA) Explain the following (a)band width (b)Beam width and polarization 6463

Ans. Band width is the range of frequency over which the operation is satisfactory and generally taken between half power points. Beamwidth is the angular seperation between half power points on the power density radiation pattern. Polarisation refers to direction in space of the electric vector of an electro magnetic wave transmitted by an antenna and is parallel to the antenna itself . List out the antenna characteristics. What is antenna efficiency? Ans. 1.Antenna Characteristics are (a)Antenna gain (b).Directivity (c). Polarisation Antenna Efficiency 2. The effectiveness of an antenna depends upon its ability to couple or radiate energy into the air. An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy during the radiation process. The efficiency of an antenna is usually referred to as the POWER GAIN or POWER RATIO as compared to a standard reference antenna. The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the radiated power to that of the reference antenna, which is usually a basic dipole. Both antennas must be fed rf energy in the same manner and must be in the same position when the energy is radiated Write a short notes on Phased array radar. 6493 8536

Ans. An array type of antenna is just what the name impliesan array or regular grouping of individual radiating elements. These elements may be dipoles, waveguide slots, or horns. The most common form of array is the planar array, which consists of elements linearly aligned in two dimensionshorizontal and verticalto form a plane . Unlike the lens or parabolic reflector, the array applies the proper phase relationship to make the wavefront flat before it is radiated by the source feed. The relative phase between elements determines the position of the beam; hence the often used term, phased array. This phase relationship is what allows the beam to be rotated or steered without moving the antenna. This characteristic of array antennas makes it ideal for electronic scanning or

2 Write short notes on Application of antenna in radar

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Ans. The basic principles of operation of microwave antennas are similar to those of antennas used at lower frequencies. Antennas are devices used to radiate electromagnetic energy into space. The characteristics of transmitting and receiving antennas are similar, so a good transmitting antenna is often a good receiving antenna. A single antenna performs both functions in many modern applications. 3 What is the application of helical antenna? 693

Ans. The Helical antenna is used either singly or in an array for transmission and reception of VHF signals through the ionosphere . It is thus frequently used for the satellite and probe communications particularly for radio telemetry. When the Helix circumference is very small compared to a wavelength , the radiation is combination of that of a small dipole located along the helix axis and that a small loop placed at the helix turns . Both such antennas have identical radiation pattern and they are at right angles so that the normal radiation will be 4 Write short notes on micro strip antenna. Ans. Microstrip Antenna 1. In high performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite and missile applications, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamic profile are the constraints low profile antennas may be required to meet these requirements micro strip antennas may be used. 2. These antennas are low profile, conformable to planar and nonplanar surfaces, simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed circuit technology, mechanically robust when mounted on the rigid surfaces; compatible with the MMIC designs and when the particular patch and shape are selected they are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern, and impedance. In addition by adding loads between the patch and the ground plane such as pins and the varactor diode adaptive elements with variable resonant frequency, impedance, polarization and pattern can be designed. 3.Major operational disadvantages of the micro strip antennas are their low efficiency , low power ,high Q ,poor polarization purity , poor scan performance, spurious feed radiation and very narrow bandwidth which is typically only a fraction of percent or utmost a few percent. In some applications such as government security narrow bandwidth is desirable. However as the height increases surface waves are introduced which usually are not desirable because they extract power from the total available for direct radiation. The surface wave travel within the substrate and they are scattered at bends and surface discontinuities such as truncation of dielectric and ground plane and degrade the antenna pattern and polarization characteristics. 5 Write short notes on radomes. Ans. 1The term radome is a combination of the words radar and dome. Radomes are used to cover and protect radar antennas from environmental effects such as wind, rain, hail, snow, ice, sand, salt spray, lightening, heat, and erosion. The ideal radome is transparent to the RF radiation from the antenna and its return pulses and protects the antenna from the environment. A radomes design is based on the expected environmental factors and the mechanical and electronic requirements of the RF antenna. 2. Although, in theory, a radome may be invisible to RF energy, in real life the radome affects antennas performance in four ways. These are; beam deflection, transmission loss, reflected power, and secondary effects. Beam deflection is the shift of the RF beams axis. This is a major consideration with tracking (i.e. FC) radar. Transmission loss is the loss of energy associated with reflection and absorption within the radome. Reflected power can cause antenna mismatch in small radomes and sidelobes in large radomes. Depolarization and increased antenna noise are a result of secondary effects. 6495 6494

6 Write short notes on Orange-peel paraboloid. Ans. Orange-peel paraboloid

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1.When a beam of radiated energy that is noticeably wider in one cross-sectional dimension than in another is desired, a cylindrical paraboloidal section which approximates a rectangle can be used. . A PARABOLIC CYLINDER has a parabolic cross section in just one dimension which causes the reflector to be directive in one plane only. The cylindrical paraboloid reflector is fed either by a linear array of dipoles, a slit in the side of a waveguide, or by a thin waveguide radiator. It also has a series of focal points forming a straight line rather than a single focal point. Placing the radiator, or radiators, along this focal line produces a directed beam of energy. As the width of the parabolic section is changed, different beam shapes are obtained. You may see this type of antenna system used in search radar systems and in ground control approach (GCA) 7 Write short notes on radiation pattern of parabolic reflector Ans. 1. A spherical wave front (one in which the energy spreads out in all directions) spreads out as it travels away from the antenna and produces a pattern that is not very directional. A wave front that exists in only one plane does not spread because all of the wave front moves forward in the same direction. For an antenna to be highly directive, it must change the normally spherical wave front into a plane wave front. Many highly directive microwave antennas produce a plane wave front by using a reflector to focus the radiated energy. The PARABOLIC REFLECTOR is most often used for high directivity. Microwaves travel in straight lines as do light rays. They can also be focused and reflected just as light rays can, as illustrated by the antenna shown in figure A microwave source is placed at focal point F. The field leaves this antenna as a spherical wave front. As each part of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface, it is phase-shifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an angle that results in all parts of the field traveling in parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, when the parts of the field are reflected from the parabolic surface, they travel to line XY in the same amount of time. Parabolic reflector radiation. Fig 3.2 2.If a dipole is used as the source of transmission, energy will be radiated from the antenna into space as well as toward the reflector. Energy which is not directed toward the paraboloid has a widebeam characteristic which will destroy the narrow pattern of the parabolic reflector. However, a HEMISPHERICAL SHIELD (not shown) may be used to direct most of the radiation toward the parabolic surface and thus prevent the destruction of the narrow pattern. Direct radiation into space is eliminated, the beam is made sharper, and more power is concentrated in the beam. Without the shield, some of the radiated field would leave the radiator directly. Since this part of the field that would leave the radiator would not be reflected, it would not become a part of the main beam and could serve no useful purpose. In figure the radiation pattern of a paraboloid reflector contains a major lobe and several minor lobes. The major lobe is directed along the axis of revolution. Very narrow beams are possible with this type of reflector Fig 3.3 Very Short Answers Application 1 How can a 2 wire transmission line made to act as an antenna 6466 694

Ans. Two wire radiators can be considered as large number of doublets connected end to end at higher frequencies and their properties are similar to doublets.Due to large wave length these do not display similar properties at lower frequencies. 2 What is truncated parabola? 6479

Ans. Since the reflector is parabolic in the horizontal plane, the energy is focused into a narrow beam. With the reflector TRUNCATED (cut) so that it is shortened vertically, the beam spreads out vertically instead of being focused. 3 What is slot antenna? Explain its complementary dipole. 6477

Ans. Basic Slot Antenna and Its Complementary Dipole 1.The slot antenna consists of a radiator formed by cutting a narrow slot in a large metal surface. Such an antenna is shown in figure 3.6. The slot length is a half wavelength at the desired frequency and the width is a small fraction of a wavelength. The antenna is frequently compared to a conventional halfwave dipole consisting of two flat metal strips. The physical dimensions of the metal strips are such that they would just fit into the slot cut out of the large metal sheet. This type of antenna is called the COMPLEMENTARY DIPOLE. The slot antenna is compared to its complementary dipole to illustrate that the radiation patterns produced by a slot antenna cut into an infinitely large metal sheet and that of the complementary dipole antenna are the same. Several important differences exist between the slot antenna and its complementary antenna. First, the electric and magnetic fields are interchanged. In the case of the dipole antenna shown in figure, the electric lines are horizontal while the magnetic lines form loops in the vertical plane. With the slot antenna, the magnetic lines are horizontal and the electric lines are vertical. The electric lines are built up across the narrow dimensions of the slot. As a result, the polarization of the radiation produced by a horizontal slot is vertical. If a vertical slot is used, the polarization is horizontal. A second difference between the slot antenna and its complementary dipole is that the direction of the lines of electric and magnetic force abruptly reverse from one side of the metal sheet to the other. In the case of the dipole, the electric lines have the same general direction while the magnetic lines form continuous closed loops. When energy is applied to the slot antenna, currents flow in the metal sheet. These currents are not confined to the edges of the slot but rather spread out over the sheet. Radiation then takes place from both sides of the sheet. In the case of the complementary dipole, however, the currents are more confined; so a much greater magnitude of current is required to produce a given power output using the dipole antenna. 4 How does directivity affect antenn gain? 6488

Ans. Antenna gain increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance. Since microwave antennas are predominantly unidirectional, the examples you will study in this chapter are all of the unidirectional type. 5 What are the components of antenn resistance? 6487 Ans. Antenna resistance has two components, namely;radiation resistance and actual loss in antenna. 6 What is corner reflector antenna? 6478

Ans. The CORNER-REFLECTOR ANTENNA consists of two flat conducting sheets that meet at an angle to form a corner, as shown in figure. The corner reflector is normally driven by a HALF-WAVE RADIATOR located on a line which bisects the angle formed by the sheet reflectors. 7 What is a horn antenna? 6476 Ans. Horn Radiators Like parabolic reflectors, you can use HORN RADIATORS to obtain directive radiation at microwave frequencies. Because they do not use resonant elements, horns have the advantage of being useful over a wide frequency band. The operation of a horn as an rf radiating device is similar to that of an automobile horn radiating sound waves. However, the throat of an automobile horn usually is sized much smaller than the sound wavelengths for which it is used. The throat of the rf radiating horn is sized to be comparable to the wavelength being used. Horn radiators are used with waveguides because they serve both as an impedance-matching device and as a directional radiator. Horn radiators may be fed by coaxial and other types of lines. Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes, as illustrated in figure 3-9. The shape of the horn determines the shape of the field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of its mouth determines the beam angle and directivity. In general, the larger the mouth of the

horn, the more directive is the field pattern Comprehensive 1 Why is top loading is done in antenna. 6483

Ans. An antenna height should be at lewast quarter wave length. When ever this is not possible the effective height should be equal to quarter wave length.Any antenna shoter thanthis suffers from the poor inputy impedence with low resistance and high capacitive reactance. A good method to overcome is to have a horizontal portion at the top of antenna.this is known as top loading. 2 Differentiate the axial and normal mode of operation of a helical antenna. 6492

Ans. There are two modes of radiation: normal and axial. In the first the radiation is in the direction at right angles to the axis of the helix. The second mode is more interesting because it produces a broadband fairly directional radiation in the axial direction 3 State the characteristic of a parabolic reflector which makes it a common antenna for radar application. 6474

Ans. 1. A spherical wave front (one in which the energy spreads out in all directions) spreads out as it travels away from the antenna and produces a pattern that is not very directional. A wave front that exists in only one plane does not spread because all of the wave front moves forward in the same direction. For an antenna to be highly directive, it must change the normally spherical wave front into a plane wave front. Many highly directive microwave antennas produce a plane wave front by using a reflector to focus the radiated energy. The PARABOLIC REFLECTOR is most often used for high directivity. Microwaves travel in straight lines as do light rays. They can also be focused and reflected just as light rays can. A microwave source is placed at focal point F. The field leaves this antenna as a spherical wave front. As each part of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface, it is phase-shifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an angle that results in all parts of the field traveling in parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, when the parts of the field are reflected from the parabolic surface, they travel to line XY in the same amount of time. 4 How can a beam be directed at a particular angle using an array. 6486

Ans. Using phased array radar beam can be directed in any direction as desired. By varying the phase shift and amplitude of current at different elements beam can be steered in any required direction. Factual 1 Explain the principle of working of a lens antenna. Ans. Lens Antennas 1. With a LENS ANTENNA you can convert spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane wave (in a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a COLLIMATING LENS. A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wave front into parallel paths. The point source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave energy toward the lens. The point source is often a horn radiator or a simple diapole antenna. 2 What are the types of horn antennae?. Ans. Following are several types of horn antennae. 1. Sectoral horn 2. Pyramidal horn 3. Conical horn. 3 What is horn antenna. 6489 6490 6491

Ans. Horn Radiators 1.We can use HORN RADIATORS to obtain directive radiation at microwave frequencies. Because they do not use resonant elements, horns have the advantage of being useful over a wide frequency band. The operation of a horn as an rf radiating device is similar to that of an automobile horn radiating sound waves. However, the throat of an automobile horn usually is sized much smaller than the sound wavelengths for which it is used. The throat of the rf radiating horn is sized to be comparable to the wavelength being used. Horn radiators are used with waveguides because they serve both as an impedance-matching device and as a directional radiator. Horn radiators may be fed by coaxial and other types of lines. Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes, as illustrated in figure 3-9. The shape of the horn determines the shape of the field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of its mouth determines the beam angle and directivity. In general, the larger the mouth of the horn, the more directive is the field pattern 4 Define power gain of an antenna. 6468

Ans. The effectiveness of an antenna depends upon its ability to couple or radiate energy into the air. An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy during the radiation process. The efficiency of an antenna is usually referred to as the POWER GAIN or POWER RATIO as compared to a standard reference antenna. The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the radiated power to that of the reference antenna, which is usually a basic dipole. 5 Define directivity of an antenna. 6467

Ans. . The directivity of an antenna refers to the narrowness of the radiated beam. If the beam is narrow in either the horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna has a high degree of directivity in that plane. An antenna may be designed for high directivity in one plane only or in both planes, depending on the application. The power gain of an antenna increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance. 6 What do you understand by the term end fire array. 6485

Ans. End fire array is the simplest array consisting of number of dipoles of equal size and spaced equally along a line and fed with progressive phase lead/ lag.Normally feed point is at one end of the array, Beam will be formed at the plane of the array. 7 What is beam width of an antenna?. 6481 Ans. Beamwidth is the angular seperation between half power points on the power density radiation pattern. 8 What is aperture coupling in microstrip antennas? Ans. Aperture coupling 1.It is the most difficult of the feed line to fabricate and it also has narrow bandwidth . However it is somewhat easier to model and has moderate spurious radiation. The aperture coupling consists of two substrates separated by the ground plane . On the bottom side of the lower substrate there is a micro strip feed line whose energy is coupled to the patch though the slot on the ground plane separating the two substrate. Typically a high dielectric material is used for the bottom substrate and thick low dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate. The ground plane between the substrate also isolates the feed from the radiating element and minimizes the interference from the spurious radiation for pattern 10 Write short notes on resonant antenna. 6480 6482

Ans. Resonant antenna A resonant antenna corresponds to resonant transmission line. It can be discribed as an opened out transmission line at the far end and resonant length. i.e a multiple half wave lengths. Where as a non resonant antenna is similar to anon resonant transmission line and there are no standing waves on it.Non resonant antenna are uni directional and there are only forward traveling waves in non resonant

antenna. 11 Explain the 3db band width of an antenna. 6470

Ans. Band width is the range of frequency over which the operation is satisfactory and 3db bandwidth isy taken between half power points. 12 What is the relationship between power gain and directivity. 6469

Ans. Directional antennas have two characteristics that are important to you in radar and communications systems. One is DIRECTIVITY and the other is POWER GAIN. The directivity of an antenna refers to the narrowness of the radiated beam. If the beam is narrow in either the horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna has a high degree of directivity in that plane. An antenna may be designed for high directivity in one plane only or in both planes, depending on the application. The power gain of an antenna increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into a narrow beam and less power is required to 13 Explain why a 2 wire carrying electricity does not radiate . 6465 Ans. Two wire radiators can be considered as large number of doublets connected end to end at higher frequencies and their properties are similar to doublets.Due to large wave length these do not display similar properties at lower frequencies. 14 State the advantage of a Cass grain antenna over a parabolic reflector antenna. 6475 Ans. Use of Cassegrain antenna permits reduction in axial dimention of antenna.It also eliminates need of long transmission lines and allows greater flexibility in what can be placed at the focus of the antenna. 15Explain the concept of effective length of an antenna. 6473 Ans. Antennas act as though taller to physical height. This is due to the effect of top loading and end effects due to their finite thickness. In consequence the velocity of wave within the antenna is less than free space. 16 Explain how an ungrounded antenna acts like a grounded antenna half its length. 6472 Ans. Grounde and ungrounded antennas In an ungrounded antenna with its image it forms an array, the bottom of the un grounded antenna is joined to the top of the image.The system acts as an antenna of double size.A grounded antenna needs to be only half high to produce a radiation pattern compared to an ungrounded antenna. 17 Explain radiation resistance. 6471

Ans. radiation resistance is defined as the ratio of power radiated by the antenna to the square of current at the feed point.It is not a dc resistance rather ac one like equivalent resistance of a tuned circuit. 18 Explain broad side array 6484

Ans. Broad side array is the simplest array consisting of number of dipoles of equal size and spaced equally along a line and fed in phase. Beam will at right angles to plane of the array.